Academic literature on the topic 'Luciferin-luciferase bioluminescence'

Bioluminescence imaging is an effective tool for in vivo investigation of molecular processes. We have demonstrated the applicability of bioluminescence imaging to spatiotemporally monitor gene expression in cardioregulatory brain nuclei during the development of cardiovascular disease, via incorporation of firefly luciferase into living animals, combined with exogenous d-luciferin substrate administration. Nevertheless, d-luciferin uptake into the brain tissue is low, which decreases the sensitivity of bioluminescence detection, particularly when considering small changes in gene expression in tiny central areas. Here, we tested the hypothesis that a synthetic luciferin, cyclic alkylaminoluciferin (CycLuc1), would be superior to d-luciferin for in vivo bioluminescence imaging in cardiovascular brain regions. Male C57B1/6 mice underwent targeted delivery of an adenovirus encoding the luciferase gene downstream of the CMV promoter to the subfornical organ (SFO) or paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus (PVN), two crucial cardioregulatory neural regions. While bioluminescent signals could be obtained following d-luciferin injection (150 mg/kg), CycLuc1 administration resulted in a three- to fourfold greater bioluminescent emission from the SFO and PVN, at 10- to 20-fold lower substrate concentrations (7.5–15 mg/kg). This CycLuc1-mediated enhancement in bioluminescent emission was evident early following substrate administration (i.e., 6–10 min) and persisted for up to 1 h. When the exposure time was reduced from 60 s to 1,500 ms, minimal signal in the PVN was detectable with d-luciferin, whereas bioluminescent images could be reliably captured with CycLuc1. These findings demonstrate that bioluminescent imaging with the synthetic luciferin CycLuc1 provides an improved physiological genomics tool to investigate molecular events in discrete cardioregulatory brain nuclei.

Marine polychaetes Odontosyllis undecimdonta, commonly known as fireworms, emit bright blue-green bioluminescence. Until the recent identification of the Odontosyllis luciferase enzyme, little progress had been made toward characterizing the key components of this bioluminescence system. Here we present the biomolecular mechanisms of enzymatic (leading to light emission) and nonenzymatic (dark) oxidation pathways of newly described O. undecimdonta luciferin. Spectral studies, including 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, and X-ray diffraction, of isolated substances allowed us to characterize the luciferin as an unusual tricyclic sulfur-containing heterocycle. Odontosyllis luciferin does not share structural similarity with any other known luciferins. The structures of the Odontosyllis bioluminescent system’s low molecular weight components have enabled us to propose chemical transformation pathways for the enzymatic and nonspecific oxidation of luciferin.

Bioluminescence reactions are widely applied in optical in vivo imaging in the life science and medical fields. Such reactions produce light upon the oxidation of a luciferin (substrate) catalyzed by a luciferase (enzyme), and this bioluminescence enables the quantification of tumor cells and gene expression in animal models. Many researchers have developed single-color or multicolor bioluminescence systems based on artificial luciferin analogues and/or luciferase mutants, for application in vivo bioluminescence imaging (BLI). In the current review, we focus on the characteristics of firefly BLI technology and discuss the development of luciferin analogues for high-resolution in vivo BLI. In addition, we discuss the novel luciferin analogues TokeOni and seMpai, which show potential as high-sensitivity in vivo BLI reagents.

We investigated the effects of Gram-negative bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on luciferase expression in transgenic reporter mice in which luciferase expression is driven by the nuclear factor κB (NF-κB)-dependent portion of the human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) long terminal repeat (HIV-1 LTR). Using these mice, we dissected the sources of luciferase activity at the organ level by (a) assessing luciferase activity in organ homogenates, (b) bioluminescence imaging in vivo, and (c) bioluminescence imaging of individual organs ex vivo. Luciferin dosage was a critical determinant of the magnitude of photon emission from these reporter mice. Photon emission increased at doses from 0.5–6 mg of luciferin given by intraperitoneal (IP) injection. The differential between basal and LPS-induced bioluminescence was maximal at 3–6 mg of luciferin. Luciferase expression was highly inducible in lungs, liver, spleen, and kidneys after a single IP injection of LPS, as assessed by luciferase activity measurements in organ homogenates. Luciferase activity was also induced in the forebrain by treatment with IP LPS. In contrast, aerosolized LPS produced a response localized to the lungs as assessed by both bioluminescence and ex vivo luciferase assay measurements. These studies demonstrate the utility of luciferase reporter mice for determining organ-specific gene expression in response to local and systemic stimuli.

Scintillons, the bioluminescence organelles of Gonyaulax polyedra, were purified by isopycnic density gradient centrifugation until only low levels of contaminating chloroplasts and mitochondria were detected by fluorescence and electron microscopy. Purified scintillons catalyzed the luminescent reaction with kinetics identical to those observed during the bioluminescence flash in vivo. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulfate indicated that the organelles appeared to contain only two proteins. These proteins were identified as luciferase (135 kilodaltons) and luciferin-binding protein (75 kilodaltons) based on their size and their known functions in the bioluminescence reaction in vitro. The staining of luciferin-binding protein by Coomassie blue was 2.4 ± 0.3 (n = 19) times greater than the luciferase, suggesting that there are four binding protein monomers for every luciferase monomer. A model is proposed for the close packing of the two proteins inside the scintillons.Key words: luciferase, luciferin-binding protein, density gradient centrifugation, dinoflagellate.

Beetle luciferases produce bioluminescence (BL) colors ranging from green to red, having been extensively used for many bioanalytical purposes, including bioimaging of pathogen infections and metastasis proliferation in living animal models and cell culture. For bioimaging purposes in mammalian tissues, red bioluminescence is preferred, due to the lower self-absorption of light at longer wavelengths by hemoglobin, myoglobin and melanin. Red bioluminescence is naturally produced only by Phrixothrix hirtus railroad worm luciferase (PxRE), and by some engineered beetle luciferases. However, Far-Red (FR) and Near-Infrared (NIR) bioluminescence is best suited for bioimaging in mammalian tissues due to its higher penetrability. Although some FR and NIR emitting luciferin analogs have been already developed, they usually emit much lower bioluminescence activity when compared to the original luciferin-luciferases. Using site-directed mutagenesis of PxRE luciferase in combination with 6′-modified amino-luciferin analogs, we finally selected novel FR combinations displaying BL ranging from 636–655 nm. Among them, the combination of PxRE-R215K mutant with 6′-(1-pyrrolidinyl)luciferin proved to be the best combination, displaying the highest BL activity with a catalytic efficiency ~2.5 times higher than the combination with native firefly luciferin, producing the second most FR-shifted bioluminescence (650 nm), being several orders of magnitude brighter than commercial AkaLumine with firefly luciferase. Such combination also showed higher thermostability, slower BL decay time and better penetrability across bacterial cell membranes, resulting in ~3 times higher in vivo BL activity in bacterial cells than with firefly luciferin. Overall, this is the brightest FR emitting combination ever reported, and is very promising for bioimaging purposes in mammalian tissues.

In vivo bioluminescence imaging (BLI), which is based on luminescence emitted by the luciferase–luciferin reaction, has enabled continuous monitoring of various biochemical processes in living animals. Bright luminescence with a high signal-to-background ratio, ideally red or near-infrared light as the emission maximum, is necessary for in vivo animal experiments. Various attempts have been undertaken to achieve this goal, including genetic engineering of luciferase, chemical modulation of luciferin, and utilization of bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET). In this review, we overview a recent advance in the development of a bioluminescence system for in vivo BLI. We also specifically examine the improvement in bioluminescence intensity by mutagenic or chemical modulation on several beetle and marine luciferase bioluminescence systems. We further describe that intramolecular BRET enhances luminescence emission, with recent attempts for the development of red-shifted bioluminescence system, showing great potency in in vivo BLI. Perspectives for future improvement of bioluminescence systems are discussed.

Bioluminescence is chemical oxidation of a small luciferin molecule by air catalyzed by luciferase and accompanied by the emission of photons in the visible spectrum. This reaction is used in bioluminescent bioimaging, the method for the visualization of organism’s interior. Bioimaging is a popular tool used in medical research. However, it has an unfortunate drawback: it requires introduction of external luciferin to the system before every experiment. In this work we discuss a possibility of developing an autonomous luminescent system in eukaryotes based on the bioluminescent system of higher fungi.

Firefly luciferase-based ATP detection assays are frequently used as a sensitive, cost-efficient method for monitoring hygiene in many industrial settings. Solutions of detection reagent, containing a mixture of a substrate and luciferase enzyme that produces photons in the presence of ATP, are relatively unstable and maintain only a limited shelf life even under refrigerated conditions. It is therefore common for the individual performing a hygiene test to manually prepare fresh reagent at the time of monitoring. To simplify sample processing, a liquid detection reagent with improved thermal stability is needed. The engineered firefly luciferase, Ultra-Glo™, fulfills one aspect of this need and has been valuable for hygiene monitoring because of its high resistance to chemical and thermal inactivation. However, solutions containing both Ultra-Glo™ luciferase and its substrate luciferin gradually lose the ability to effectively detect ATP over time. We demonstrate here that dehydroluciferin, a prevalent oxidative breakdown product of luciferin, is a potent inhibitor of Ultra-Glo™ luciferase and that its formation in the detection reagent is responsible for the decreased ability to detect ATP. We subsequently found that dialkylation at the 5-position of luciferin (e.g., 5,5-dimethylluciferin) prevents degradation to dehydroluciferin and improves substrate thermostability in solution. However, since 5,5-dialkylluciferins are poorly utilized by Ultra-Glo™ luciferase as substrates, we used structural optimization of the luciferin dialkyl modification and protein engineering of Ultra-Glo™ to develop a luciferase/luciferin pair that shows improved total reagent stability in solution at ambient temperature. The results of our studies outline a novel luciferase/luciferin system that could serve as foundations for the next generation of bioluminescence ATP detection assays with desirable reagent stability.

Esta tese descreve como é possível obter emissão de luz in vitro enzimaticamente, a partir de extratos quente e frio de diferentes espécies de fungos bioluminescentes, o que indica também um mecanismo comum de bioluminescência em todos esses organismos. Dados cinéticos sugerem um mecanismo enzimático em duas etapas e corroboram a hipótese enzimática de Airth e Foerster, da década de 1960. Finalmente, utilizando-se extratos quente e frio foi possível também isolar a luciferina fúngica e obter sua massa molecular (298,1837 m/z). Essa substância isolada emite luz enzimaticamente in vitro, sendo que a sobreposição do espectro de emissão e do espectro de bioluminescência do fungo confirma que essa substância é a luciferina fúngica.
This thesis describes how in vitro light emission can be enzymatically obtained from the hot and cold extracts assay using different species of fungi, which also indicates a common mechanism of light emission for all these organisms. Kinetic data suggest a consecutive two-step mechanism and corroborate the 1960\'s enzymatic proposal of Airth and Foerster. Finally, using hot and cold extracts assay we were also able to purify and to determine the molecular weight of the fungal luciferin (298.1837 m/z). The isolated substance emits light enzymatically in vitro, whose light emission spectrum matches with the fungal bioluminescence one thus confirming that the substance is the fungal luciferin

Esta tese descreve estudos realizados na tentativa de purificar e caracterizar enzimas envolvidas na BL de fungos, além de trabalhos conduzidos a fim de investigar o mecanismo da bioluminescência de fungos. Inicialmente, tentou-se isolar as duas enzimas supostamente responsáveis pala reação bioluminescente em fungos. Parâmetros de atividade ótima (pH e temperatura) e comportamento cinético foram investigados. Todavia, com a descoberta de que a luciferina fúngica é o derivado hidroxilado da hispidina (3-hidróxihispidina), novas estratégias foram abordadas. Os esforços se concentraram na purificação da luciferase, visto que a hidroxilase não faz parte do sistema bioluminescente de fungos. Avaliação da interação da luciferase fúngica com a luciferina ou derivados dela sugeriram comportamento relativamente promíscuo da enzima. Os resultados indicaram que a reação luciferina-luciferase é favorecida em meio básico (pH ~8), a ~20 °C. Ensaios com 18O2 revelaram que a inserção de oxigênio na molécula de luciferina produz um intermediário cuja descarboxilação gera a oxiluciferina. Paralelamente, a síntese da hispidina in vitro a partir de ácido cafeico na presença de malonil-CoA e de extrato de micélios bioluminescentes resultou na emissão de luz, confirmando que a luciferina é reciclada no processo.
This work describes studies performed to purify and characterize enzymes responsible for the fungal bioluminescence. Also, it shows important data that contributes to understand the mechanism for bioluminescence reaction in fungi. First, we tried to isolate two enzymes suspected of being involved on fungal bioluminescence. Optimum activity parameters (pH and temperature) and kinetic behavior were investigated. However, the discovery that fungal luciferin is the hispidin derivative 3-hydroxyhispidin demanded adaptations in the project. First of all, concentrates efforts to luciferase purification was priority, since hydroxylase is not part of the bioluminescent system of fungi. Studies on the luciferase interaction with different substrates showed some promiscuity for the enzyme. The results indicated higher intensity of light from luciferin-luciferase reaction in alkaline solutions (pH ~ 8) at ~ 20 °C. The reaction in medium with 18O2 revealed that insertion of oxygen into the luciferin structure produces an intermediate whose decarboxylation generates oxyluciferin. In parallel, the in vitro synthesis of hispidin using caffeic acid and malonyl-CoA with the mycelium extract resulted in the emission of light, confirming that luciferin is recycled in the process.

Bioluminescence is the chemical production of light that results when a luciferase enzyme catalyzes the luminogenic oxidation of a small-molecule luciferin substrate. The numerous luciferases and luciferins nature has evolved can be used to illuminate biological processes, from in vitro assays to imaging processes in live animals. However, we can improve the utility of bioluminescence through modification of these enzymes and substrates. My thesis work focuses on developing reporters that expand the bioluminescent toolkit and improving our understanding of how bioluminescence works on a molecular level. The first part of my thesis focuses on characterizing luciferases and luciferins that improve bioluminescence imaging in vivo. Some of our luciferins can outperform the natural D-luciferin substrate in live mouse imaging, while others are selectively utilized by mutant luciferases in live mouse brain. We also engineered luciferins that can selectively report on endogenous enzymatic activity in live mice. The second part of my thesis focuses on determining the molecular details of how enzymes related to firefly luciferase, long-chain fatty acyl-CoA synthetases (ACSLs), can function as latent luciferases. I have determined the structure for one of these enzymes and improved its bioluminescent activity with synthetic luciferins enough to image in live mouse brain. I also characterized the selectivity in chimerized enzymes that combine firefly luciferase and ACSLs. In summary, my work improves the utility of bioluminescence for in vivo use and informs us about how evolutionarily-related enzymes function as luciferases on a molecular level.

L’ATP est bien connue pour son rôle de transporteur d'énergie à l’intérieur des cellules, mais en dehors de la cellule, elle agit en tant que molécule de signalisation extracellulaire. En se liant aux récepteurs purinergiques, l’ATP extracellulaire amorce la signalisation purinergique afin de réguler certains processus physiologiques et pathophysiologiques. Dans les poumons, l’ATP stimule la sécrétion de surfactant et promeut la clairance mucociliaire. Compte tenu du rôle critique de l’ATP extracellulaire dans les poumons, il est important de comprendre le mécanisme du relargage d’ATP cellulaire — la première étape de la signalisation purinergique. Parce que les forces mécaniques constituent le déclencheur principal du relargage d’ATP, cette thèse a pour but d’investiguer le(s) mécanisme(s) physiologique(s) et les sources cellulaires d’un tel relargage d’ATP mécanosensible. Cet ouvrage est divisé en trois parties : 1) Pour étudier les caractéristiques spatiales et temporelles du relargage d’ATP, j’ai développé une technique d’imagerie hautement sensible basée sur la bioluminescence de la luciférine-luciférase couplée avec un système de lentilles à grand champ de vision (WFOV, wide field of view) optimisant l’apport de lumière. Pour évaluer notre approche d’imagerie, j’ai soumis des cellules A549, dérivées d’un adénocarcinome pulmonaire humain, à un étirement ou un choc hypotonique de 50% pour déclencher un relargage d’ATP. J’ai démontré que notre technique nous permet de quantifier précisément la quantité et le taux (ou l’efflux) d’ATP s’échappant des cellules. Le WFOV constitue un outil essentiel utilisé dans les études décrites dans cette thèse pour déterminer le mécanisme et la source cellulaire du relargage d’ATP dans l’alvéole. 2) Afin d’examiner le mécanisme physiologique du relargage d’ATP induit par l’étirement dans les cellulaires alvéolaires primaires, j’ai déterminé les contributions individuelles des cellules alvéolaires de type 1 (AT1) en comparaison des cellules alvéolaires de type 2 (AT2). Pour ce faire, des cellules AT2 fraîchement isolées de poumons de rats ont été ensemencées sur une chambre flexible en silicone et cultivées jusqu’à sept jours, ce qui permettait aux cellules AT2 de se transdifférencier progressivement en cellules semblables aux cellules AT1. Le ratio des cellules alvéolaires (AT2:AT1), étant de 4:1 au jour 3, est devenu 1:4 au jour 7. La quantité d'ATP libérée diminuait avec le nombre décroissant de cellules AT2, les impliquant en tant que principale source pour le relargage d’ATP en réponse à un étirement. Alors que les modulateurs pharmacologiques des canaux d’ATP, carbenoxolone et probénécide, ne diminuaient pas la quantité d’ATP libérée, le BAPTA, un chélateur de calcium intracellulaire ([Ca2+]i), l’a significativement réduite. De même, ces trois modulateurs exercent des effets similaires sur les réponses calciques intracellulaires mesurées par le Fura-2, suggérant une connexion entre le relargage d’ATP et les niveaux de [Ca2+]i. 3) Pour explorer le rôle qu’ont les propriétés viscoélastiques de la membrane dans le relargage d’ATP mécanosensible, j’ai démontré qu’une déformation de 30% induisait un relargage d’ATP transitoire qui était accompagné d’une absorption d’iodure de propidium (PI, propidium iodide) chez des cellules AT2. Ceci est cohérent avec une rupture membranaire transitoire induite par une déformation, assez large pour le passage d’ATP et de PI. L’efflux d’ATP augmente aussi selon le taux de déformation, et la durée de déformation prolonge la demi-vie du relargage d’ATP. Donc, ces résultats fournissent des indices sur la manière dont l’étirement de la membrane viscoélastique peut mener au relargage d’ATP par un mécanisme alternatif impliquant une mécanoporation de la membrane cellulaire. Dans l’ensemble, ces résultats démontrent que le relargage d’ATP ne se produit pas à travers les canaux conduisant l’ATP mais plutôt par une mécanoporation transitoire de la membrane. D’autres études sur les dommages membranaires sont nécessaires pour mieux comprendre sa contribution dans le relargage d’ATP mécanosensible et les signaux de [Ca2+]i. De telles études élucideront la signalisation purinergique dans les organes qui sont constamment exposés à des contraintes physiques. Ceci pourrait suggérer des cibles/approches thérapeutiques pour moduler les impacts négatifs d’un relargage d’ATP excessif observés lors de certaines conditions pathologiques, telles que les lésions pulmonaires induites par la ventilation mécanique.
ATP is widely known to be an energy carrier within cells, but outside of the cell, it acts as an extracellular signaling molecule. Upon binding to purinergic receptors, extracellular ATP initiates the purinergic signaling to regulate certain physiological and pathophysiological processes. In the lungs, ATP stimulates surfactant secretion and promotes mucociliary clearance. Given the critical role of extracellular ATP in the lungs, it is important to understand the mechanism of cellular ATP release — the first step of purinergic signaling. Because mechanical forces constitute the primary trigger of ATP release, this thesis aims to investigate the physiological mechanism(s) and cellular sources of such mechanosensitive ATP release. This work is divided into three parts: 1) To study the spatial and temporal characteristics of ATP release, I developed a highly sensitive imaging technique based on luciferin-luciferase bioluminescence coupled with a custom-designed lens system, which combined a wide field of view (WFOV) and high light-gathering power. To evaluate our imaging approach, I subjected A549 cells, derived from human lung adenocarcinoma, to stretch or 50% hypotonic shock to trigger ATP release. I demonstrated that our technique allows us to precisely quantify the amount and the rate (or efflux) of ATP escaping from cells. The WFOV constitutes an essential tool used in the studies described in this thesis to determine the mechanism and cellular source of ATP release in the alveolus. 2) To examine the physiological mechanism of stretch-induced ATP release in primary alveolar cells, I determined the individual contributions of alveolar type 1 (AT1) in comparison with alveolar type 2 (AT2) cells. To this end, freshly isolated AT2 cells from rat lungs were seeded on a flexible silicone chamber and were cultured for up to seven days, which allowed AT2 cells to progressively transdifferentiate into AT1-like cells. The ratio of alveolar cells (AT2:AT1), being 4:1 on day 3, became 1:4 on day 7. The quantity of released ATP decreased with the decreasing numbers of AT2 cells, implicating them as the main source of ATP release in response to stretch. While pharmacological ATP channel modulators, carbenoxolone and probenecid, did not diminish the amount of ATP release, BAPTA, an intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) chelator, significantly reduced it. Likewise, these three modulators had similar effects on intracellular calcium responses measured by Fura-2, suggesting a connection between ATP release and [Ca2+]i levels. 3) To explore the role of membrane viscoelastic properties in mechanosensitive ATP release, I demonstrated that a 30% strain induced transient ATP release that was accompanied by uptake of propidium iodide (PI) in AT2 cells. This is consistent with a strain-induced transient membrane rupture, big enough for the passage of ATP and PI. ATP efflux also increases with strain rate, and hold time prolongs the half-life of ATP release. Thus, these results provide clues on how stretching of the viscoelastic membrane may lead to ATP release via an alternate mechanism involving transient mechanoporation of the cell membrane. Overall, these findings demonstrate that stretch-induced ATP release does not occur through ATP-conducting channels but rather a transient membrane mechanoporation. Further studies on membrane injury induced by strain are needed to better understand its contribution to mechanosensitive ATP release and [Ca2+]i signaling. Such studies will elucidate purinergic signaling in organs that are constantly exposed to physical stresses. This could suggest novel therapeutic targets/approach to modulate the negative impacts of excessive ATP release observed under certain pathological conditions, such as ventilator-induced lung injury.

The firefly bioluminescence reaction has been exploited for in vivo optical imaging in life sciences. To develop highly sensitive bioluminescence imaging technology, many researchers have synthesized luciferin analogs and luciferase mutants. This chapter first discusses synthetic luciferin analogs and their structure–activity relationships at the luminescence wavelength of the firefly bioluminescence reaction. We then discuss the development of luciferin analogs that produce near-infrared (NIR) light. Since NIR light is highly permeable for biological tissues, NIR luciferin analogs might sensitively detect signals from deep biological tissues such as the brain and lungs. Finally, we introduce two NIR luciferin analogs (TokeOni and seMpai) and a newly developed bioluminescence imaging system (AkaBLI). TokeOni can detect single-cell signals in mouse tissue and luminescence signals from marmoset brain, whereas seMpai can detect breast cancer micro-metastasis. Both reagents are valid for in vivo bioluminescence imaging with high sensitivity.

This chapter describes the design of an imidazopyrazinone-type luciferin named as HuLumino1 by us and investigation of its luminescence properties. This luciferin was designed to generate bioluminescence by human serum albumin (HSA) rather than by luciferase derived from luminous organisms. HuLumino1 was developed by modifying a methoxy-terminated alkyl chain to the C-6 position and eliminating a benzyl group at the C-8 position of coelenterazine. To clarify the basis of light emission by HSA, the detailed kinetic properties of the HuLumino1/HSA pair were investigated using a calibrated luminometer. The enzymatic oxidation of HuLumino1 was observed only in the presence of HSA. Results of HSA quantification experiments using HuLumino1 agreed with less than 5% differences with those of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, suggesting HuLumino1 could be used for quantitative analysis of HSA levels in serum samples without any pretreatments. These results demonstrate the advantages of the coelenterazine analogue as a bioluminescence reagent to detect non-labeled proteins, which generally do not function as enzymes.

Light emission is widespread in the oceans, with over three quarters of all observed marine species exhibiting bioluminescence. Several organisms such as the copepod Metridia pacifica and the ostracod Vargula hilgendorfii have been proven to synthesise their luciferin and luciferase to facilitate light emission. However, many luminescent species lack the capability to do this and instead it is possible that they acquire some of the components for their luminescence through predation or filter feeding on organisms that produce luciferins or precursors to these molecules. This has resulted in many organisms using certain luciferins, such as coelenterazine, as their substrate without possessing a clear mechanism to synthesise these. This chapter will review several examples of these semi-intrinsic luminescent systems and how the substrates and enzymes can be obtained for these reactions. Moreover, it will look at why particular luciferins, such as coelenterazine, are more widespread and utilised in this manner compared to other substrates.