Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Lymphocyte T CD4+ "helper"'

Le déclenchement de l'auto-immunité corrèle fréquemment avec un état lymphopénique dans des modèles murins expérimentaux, mais aussi chez des patients. Dans ces conditions, le système immunitaire a développé des mécanismes homéostatiques de compensation qui induisent la prolifération des cellules T naïves et leur différenciation en lymphocytes de type mémoire, en absence apparente de stimulation antigénique. Comme les conditions d'activation requises par les cellules T mémoires sont moins stringentes que celles des cellules T naïves, nous avons posé l'hypothèse que les cellules T auto-réactives, qui atteignent les organes lymphoïdes secondaires dans un environnement lymphopénique, pourraient se différencier et contourner les mécanismes de tolérance périphérique. L'utilisation d'un système murin transgénique spécifique pour un antigène modèle exprimé dans le pancréas, nous a permis de montrer que les cellules T CD8+ de type mémoire potentiellement auto-réactives, générées en conditions de lymphopénie, ne sont pas suffisantes pour induire de l'auto-immunité. Elles sont tolérisées dans les ganglions drainant le pancréas. L'induction de l'auto-réactivité nécessite l'aide des cellules T CD4+ antigène-spécifiques. Ces cellules « helper » entraînent la différenciation des cellules T CD8+ de type mémoire en cellules effectrices suite à la cross-présentation antigénique, et leur migration dans le pancréas où s'ensuit l'auto-immunité. De plus, nous avons trouvé que l'IL-2, une cytokine principalement produite par les cellules T CD4+ « helper », joue un rôle majeur dans cet effet. Ainsi, en conditions de lymphopénie, la coopération des cellules T CD4+ et CD8+ de type mémoire auto-réactives contourne la cross-tolérance et aboutit au déclenchement de l'auto-immunité. Ces études ouvrent de nouvelles perspectives, notamment pour le traitement des cancers par immunothérapie et le développement de nouvelles stratégies optimisant les réponses immunes anti-tumorales
The onset of autoimmunity in patients as well as experimental rodent models frequently correlates with a lymphopenic state. In this condition, the immune system has evolved compensatory homeostatic mechanisms that induce quiescent naive T cells to proliferate and differentiate into memory-like lymphocytes even in the apparent absence of antigenic stimulation. Since memory T cells have less stringent requirements for activation than naïve cells, we hypothesized that auto-reactive T cells that arrive to secondary lymphoid organs in a lymphopenic environment could differentiate and bypass the mechanisms of peripheral tolerance. Utilizing a transgenic mouse system in which a model antigen is expressed in the pancreas, we have shown that potentially auto-reactive memory-like CD8+ T cells, generated under lymphopenic conditions, are not sufficient to induce auto-immunity because they are tolerized in the draining lymph nodes of the pancreas. Induction of self-reactivity required antigen-specific CD4+ T cell help. These helper cells promoted the further differentiation of memory-like CD8+ T cells into effectors in response to antigen cross-presentation with subsequent migration to the tissue of antigen expression where autoimmunity ensued. We also found that this effect is mediated by IL-2, a cytokine mainly produced by CD4 helper T cells. Thus, the cooperation between self-reactive memory-like CD4+ and CD8+ T cells under lymphopenic conditions overcomes cross-tolerance resulting in autoimmunity. These studies raise new perspectives, notably on cancer immunotherapy and the development of promising strategies optimizing anti-tumor T cell responses

Le système immunitaire comporte différents mécanismes de tolérance périphérique permettant de contrôler la réponse des cellules T CD8+. Dans certaines conditions encore peu connues, des cellules T potentiellement auto-réactives peuvent contourner les mécanismes de tolérance et se différencier en cellules effectrices, capables d’attaquer différentes organes de l’organisme, dans un processus d’auto-réactivité. En utilisant une souris transgénique exprimant un antigène modèle dans les cellules bêta du pancréas, j’ai étudié deux processus fondamentaux impliqués dans la différenciation des cellules T CD8+ en réponse aux antigènes du soi.1) Rôle de la translocation des lipopolysaccharides (LPS) dans la rupture de la tolérance. Nous avons préalablement démontré dans le laboratoire que des protocoles de lympho-déplétions, tels l’irradiation, étaient capables d’induire une rupture de la tolérance périphérique dans les cellules T CD8+. L’irradiation provoque la translocation des LPS des bactéries commensales vers la circulation sanguine, ce qui induit une activation du système immunitaire inné. Mes données ont montré que la translocation des LPS était corrélée avec l’activation systémique des cellules dendritiques (DC) CD11c+, en particulier les DC CD8+, responsables de la cross-présentation des auto-antigènes pancréatiques dans les tissus lymphoïdes. Alors que le traitement par des antibiotiques avant l’irradiation permet de prévenir la translocation des LPS, l’activation des DC n’est que partiellement affectée, et le développement de l’auto-immunité résultant d’une rupture de la tolérance périphérique des cellules T CD8+ ne peut pas être empêchée par le traitement.2) Visualisation de la coopération entre cellules T CD4+ et CD8+ effectrices dans la destruction des cellules bêta pancréatiques in vivo. En utilisant la microscopie intra-vitale à 2-photons, j’ai pu analyser, pour la première fois, la dynamiques des cellules T CD4+ et CD8+ auto-réactives exprimant un marqueur fluorescent, lors de l’infiltration du pancréas et du développement du diabète auto-immun. J’ai mis en évidence que l’infiltration des cellules T était accompagnée d’un remodelage de la matrice extracellulaire du pancréas, permettant la migration dirigée des lymphocytes. De plus, j’ai montré que l’arrêt MHC classe II-dépendant des cellules T CD4+, dû à des interactions avec des cellules présentatrices d’antigène recrutées au site d’inflammation et impliquant dans certains cas également les cellules T CD8+, contribuait au maintien des fonctions effectrices des cellules T CD8+
The immune system has evolved multiple mechanisms of peripheral tolerance to control CD8+ T cell responses. Under particular conditions that are not yet well understood, potentially autoreactive T cells may override tolerance and differentiate into effector cells capable of targeting the own components of the organism resulting in self-reactivity. Utilizing transgenic mice expressing a model antigen in the beta cells of the pancreas, I have studied two important processes involved in CD8+ T cells differentiation in response to self-antigens. 1) Role of lipopolysaccharides (LPS) translocation in the breakdown of CD8+ T cell tolerance. It has been previously shown in our laboratory that lymphodepleting protocols, such as total body irradiation, promote breakdown of peripheral CD8+ T cell tolerance. Irradiation induces translocation of commensal bacteria LPS, a potent innate immune system activator, into the bloodstream. My data demonstrated that LPS translocation correlated with systemic activation of CD11c+ dendritic cells (DC), in particular CD8+ DC, responsible for pancreatic self-antigen cross-presentation, in lymphoid tissue. While antibiotic treatment of mice before irradiation prevented LPS translocation, DC activation was only partially affected, and onset of autoimmunity and breakdown of CD8+ T cell tolerance could not be prevented.2) Intra-vital visualization of effector CD8+ and CD4+ T cell cooperation in beta cell destruction in the pancreas. Using two-photon microscopy, I have been able, for the first time, to simultaneously analyze dynamics of fluorescently tagged autoreactive CD8+ and CD4+ T cells as they infiltrated the pancreas and induced autoimmune diabetes. I found that T cell infiltration promoted extracellular matrix remodeling in the pancreas, which in turn served as a scaffold for T cell migration. In addition, I showed that MHC class II dependent arrest of effector CD4+ T cells, due to interactions with antigen presenting cells, occasionally also implicating CD8+ T cells, provided help to effector CD8+ T cells in maintaining their effector functions

Les LT CD4 folliculaires (TFH) forment un lignage distinct de LT contrôlant spécifiquement les lymphocytes B (LB) et la mise en place de la mémoire B. Alors que ces cellules étaient considérées comme des cellules effectrices uniquement, récemment il a été identifié, chez l'Homme et la souris, l'existence de TFH mémoires. Les TFH mémoires en tant que LT CD4 mémoires sont nécessaires, en cas de nouvelle rencontre avec l'antigène (Ag), à la mise en place d'une réponse Anticorps (Ac) rapide, efficace et de forte affinité. En effet, leur présence est corrélée à la génération et le maintien à long terme d'Ac de forte affinité lors d'infections virales. De plus, des études récentes montrent que l'analyse des TFH mémoires dans le sang périphérique peut fournir des indices pour comprendre le mode d'action des vaccins ainsi que la pathogenèse de maladies auto-immunes. Par ailleurs, dans le contexte de nombreuses maladies, de récents travaux suggèrent que l'évaluation de la fréquence et du phénotype des TFH mémoires dans le sang périphérique pourrait servir de bio-marqueur à l'établissement de diagnostique. Tout comme les cellules B mémoires qui sont subdivisées en différentes sous-populations en fonction de leur localisation et de la nature de leur Ac, différentes populations de TFH mémoires ont été récemment identifiées. Certaines se situent dans les organes lymphoïdes secondaires (OLS) drainants le site d'immunisation, de vaccination ou d'infection, ou circulantes dans les OLS non-drainants ou à proximité des plasmocytes à longue durée de vie dans la MO. Ces observations soulèvent donc la question majeure de leurs phénotypes, différences fonctionnelles et interactions face aux différentes populations de cellules B mémoires. L'objectif de mes travaux de Thèse a consisté à étudier l'hétérogénéité phénotypique et fonctionnelle présente entre ces différentes populations de TFH mémoires aux localisations diverses. De plus au vu de l'hétérogénéité existante au sein des LB mémoires (nœuds lymphatiques ou rate) et plasmocytes à longue durée de vie (MO), nous avons aussi évalué l'interaction cellulaire et fonctionnelle qui a lieu entre ces populations mémoires. Dans ce contexte, nous avons développé un modèle expérimental unique de vaccination protéique chez la souris sauvage non modifiée
T Helper Follicular (TFH) cells form a distinct lineage of helper T cells and they specifically control B cells and memory B cell generation. While these cells were considered as effector cells, recently it was identified in Human and in mouse, the existence of memory TFH cells. Memory TFH cells, as CD4 memory T cells, are necessary in case of antigen (Ag) rechallenge to establish a fast, efficient and high affinity Antibody (Ab) response. Indeed, their presence is correlated with the generation and the long-term maintenance of high affinity Ac during viral infections. Moreover, recent studies have shown that analysis of memory TFH cells in the blood may provide clues to understanding the mode of action of vaccines and the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases. In addition, in the context of many diseases, recent works have also suggested that the frequency and phenotype of memory TFH cells in the blood could serve as a biomarker for diagnosis. Likewise to memory B cells that are subdivided into different cell populations based on their location and the nature of their Ab, different populations of memory TFH cells have recently been identified. Some are in secondary lymphoid organs (SLO) draining the site of immunization, vaccination or infection, or circulating in the non-draining SLO or near the long-lived plasma cells (PC) in bone marrow (BM). These observations raise the question of their phenotypes, functional differences and interactions with the different subsets of memory B cells. The aim of my thesis was to study the phenotypic and functional heterogeneity between the different subsets of memory TFH cells. Due to the heterogeneity of memory B cells (draining lymph nodes or non-draining spleen) and long-lived PCs (BM), we also evaluated the cellular and functional interaction that occurs between these different memories populations. In this context, we have developed a unique experimental model of protein vaccination in unmodified wild-type mice. Specifically, after immunization, we evaluated the development of memory TFH cells and memory B cells specific for the same Ag in the draining SLO and circulating in the spleen and BM. We demonstrated that local memory TFH cells (that reside in the draining SLO) exhibit a more polarized phenotype than their circulating counterparts (present in non-draining SLO)

The eosinophil is a leukocyte whose intracellular mediators are considered to play a central role in the pathogenesis of allergic diseases, including allergic asthma, allergic rhinitis and atopic dermatitis, and which is also involved in immunological responses to parasites. Eosinophil differentiation and maturation from bone marrow progenitors is regulated by interleukin-5 (IL-5), which may be secreted by T helper 2 (Th2) T lymphocytes, and is consistently upregulated in allergic conditions. Eotaxin is a potent chemoattractant for circulating and tissue eosinophils, and the production of this chemokine promotes eosinophil infiltration and accumulation within sites of allergic inflammation.¶ Eosinophils obtained from inflammatory tissues and secretions display an altered phenotype in comparison to peripheral blood eosinophils, with increased surface expression of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins and adhesion molecules (Hansel et al., 1991), and migration across the microvascular endothelium may also increase their capacity to generate an oxidative burst (Walker et al., 1993; Yamamoto et al., 2000). Eosinophils are phagocytic cells, and have been shown to present simple (no requirement for intracellular processing) and complex antigens to MHC-restricted, antigen-specific T lymphocytes (Del Pozo et al., 1992; Weller et al., 1993). Furthermore, eosinophils express the costimulatory molecules required for effective antigen presentation (Tamura et al., 1996), and ligation of costimulatory molecules on the eosinophil cell surface can induce the release of eosinophil derived cytokines (Woerly et al., 1999; Woerly et al., 2002). Therefore the eosinophil may also regulate immune responses.¶ To date, no studies have demonstrated the ability of eosinophils to modulate activated T lymphocyte function via presentation of relevant antigen in the context of MHC class II (MHC-II), concomitant with Th2 cytokine release. In the experiments described in this thesis, murine eosinophils have been observed to rapidly migrate to sites of antigen deposition within the airways mucosa of naïve mice, suggesting a potential role for this granulocyte in the primary response to inhaled antigen. However, human allergic diseases are often diagnosed after the establishment of allergic responses, and symptom development. Therefore, a murine model of allergic airways disease (AAD) was used to investigate the ability for eosinophils to participate as antigen presenting cells (APCs), and thereby modulate activated T lymphocyte function both in vitro and in vivo. Detailed histological analysis of the pulmonary draining lymph nodes following antigen challenge in sensitised mice revealed a rapid infiltration of eosinophils into this tissue, which preceded the accumulation of eosinophils in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). This suggested that eosinophils were preferentially translocating to the draining lymph nodes following antigen challenge, and that the subsequent accumulation of these cells in the BALF was a consequence of continued antigen delivery to the lower airways.¶ Eosinophil trafficking to lymphoid tissue via the afferent lymphatics was substantiated using electron microscopy of lymph node sections and the intravenous (i.v.) transfer of fluorescently labeled eosinophils, which did not traffic to lymph nodes via the blood. During the resolution of AAD, eosinophils were noted for their persistence in the pulmonary draining lymph nodes. These observations suggested a continued modulation of T cell function by lymph node dwelling eosinophils during AAD resolution, particularly in light of recent observations for draining lymph node T cell proliferation following instillation of antigen-pulsed eosinophils into the allergic mouse lung (Shi et al., 2000).¶ To further investigate the antigen presenting capacity, eosinophils were obtained from the BALF of mice with AAD, and their surface expression of MHC class II (MHC-II) proteins and costimulatory molecules confirmed using flow cytometric analysis. The ability to acquire and process complex antigen both in vitro and in vivo was also confirmed using naturally quenching fluorescenated ovalbumin (OVA), which is degraded into fluorescent peptides by the action of intracellular proteases. Thus, eosinophil expression of the surface molecules necessary for effective antigen presentation was confirmed, as was their ability to process complex antigen. Further investigations revealed that eosinophils can present complex OVA antigen to CD4+ T lymphocytes obtained from the allergic mouse, and to in vitro derived OVA-specific Th2 cells. In the presence of exogenous antigen, eosinophils co-cultured with T lymphocytes were able to induce Th2 cytokine production, and demonstrated an ability for eosinophils to modulate T lymphocyte function in vitro.¶ The ability for eosinophils to act as antigen presenting cells in vivo was also investigated. Eosinophils obtained from the antigen-saturated lungs of OVA sensitised and challenged mice were transferred to the peritoneal cavities of naïve host mice. When subsequently challenged with aerosolised OVA, eosinophil recipients developed a pulmonary eosinophilia similar to that of OVA sensitised and challenged mice. To validate this finding, the experimental procedure was altered to accommodate the use of non-allergy derived eosinophils, which were pulsed with OVA in vitro, prior to transfer into naïve recipients. When subsequently challenged with aerosolised OVA, eosinophil recipients developed a peripheral blood and pulmonary eosinophilia, and stimulation with OVA induced IL-5 and IL-13 cytokine production from pulmonary draining lymph node cells. Notably, the AAD induced by transfer of antigen pulsed eosinophils did not induce detectable OVA-specific IgG1, which may be attributed to the lack of soluble antigen required for B cell antibody production.¶ During the course of these investigations, an OVA T cell receptor (TCR) transgenic mouse (OT-II) was procured with a view to defining the interaction between eosinophils and activated T lymphocytes (Barnden et al., 1998). Despite having specificity for the OVA323-339 peptide, an immunodominant epitope that skews naïve T cell responses towards Th2 cytokine release (Janssen et al., 2000), T lymphocytes from the OT-II mouse preferentially secreted IFN-γ in response to stimulation with either OVA peptide or OVA. These mice were further characterised in a mouse model of AAD, and found to be refractory to disease induction and progression, which may be attributed to significant IFN-γ secretion by transgenic CD4+ T lymphocytes during antigen sensitisation. Indeed, these cells were noted for their ability to attenuate pulmonary eosinophilia when transferred to OVA sensitised and challenged wild type mice, although serum OVA-specific IgG1, peripheral blood eosinophilia levels and airways response to methacholine challenge remained intact.¶ Knowledge of the biased Th1 phenotype in naïve OT-II provided a unique opportunity to investigate the fate of T lymphocytes bearing high affinity OVA-specific TCRs following neonatal antigen exposure to soluble OVA. In a previous study, subcutaneous (s.c.) administration of soluble OVA to wild type neonatal mice was suspected to have deleted OVA-specific T cells from the T cell repertoire (Hogan et al., 1998a). Using flow cytometry and TCR specific antibody, the delivery of s.c. OVA to OT-II neonates did not alter transgenic T cell populations in adult mice. Instead, it was surprising to find a skewing towards the Th2 phenotype and loss of IFN-γ secretion following OVA sensitisation and challenge in adult mice. A mechanism for this reprogramming of the transgenic T cell from the Th1 to a Th2 phenotype following OT-II neonatal exposure to soluble OVA is proposed, and further experimentation may validate this hypothesis.¶ In conclusion, eosinophils residing in the allergic lung have the capacity to interact with activated T cells, both within this tissue and the draining lymph nodes. Despite their relative inefficiency as antigen presenting cells (Mawhorter et al., 1994), eosinophils may participate en masse in the serial triggering of activated TCRs, and provide appropriate costimulatory signals that modulate T lymphocyte function. Through the elaboration of Th2 cytokines and stimulation of T cell proliferation, antigen presenting eosinophils may transiently prolong or exacerbate the symptoms of allergic diseases. Alternatively, eosinophils presenting relevant antigens may inhibit T cell activity via degranulation, and such activity has recently been observed in a parasite model (Shinkai et al., 2002). Finally, experiments in the OT-II mouse have provided valuable information to suggest that therapies designed to modulate eosinophil numbers in allergic tissues through the secretion of opposing cytokines such as IFN-γ, may be of limited benefit. The results shown here suggest that airways dysfunction remains intact despite significantly reduced pulmonary eosinophilia

Chez les mammifères, les lymphocytes T CD4 sont essentiels à la défense de l’organisme contre des infections par des pathogènes ou le développement de tumeurs. Après activation, les lymphocytes T CD4 naïfs ont la capacité de se différencier en divers lymphocytes T helper (Th1, Th2, Th17…) en fonction des signaux reçus. Le choix du lignage permet d’adapter le phénotype et la fonction des cellules au type de danger détecté. Le processus de différenciation des lymphocytes T helper implique l’établissement de programmes d’expression des gènes distincts. La dynamique et la stabilité de ces programmes sont notamment régulées par l’activité d’éléments cis-régulateurs. Le but de ma thèse était de comprendre les mécanismes épigénétiques qui contrôlent la programmation des lymphocytes T CD4. Dans cet objectif, nous avons étudié le rôle de la H3K9 méthyl-transférase SETDB1 dans la différenciation des lymphocytes T CD4 en Th1 et Th2, deux lignages T helper fortement antagonistes. Nous avons découvert que SETDB1 réprime de manière critique le programme d’expression des gènes Th1. En effet, en l’absence d’expression de Setdb1, la différenciation Th1 est exacerbée. De plus, lorsqu’elles sont exposées à un signal pro-Th1, les cellules Th2 franchissent les barrières de lignage et se transdifférencient en Th1. De manière surprenante, SETDB1 ne cible pas directement les enhancers Th1. Au contraire, l’enzyme dépose de manière type cellulaire spécifique la marque répressive H3K9me3 au niveau d’un set restreint de rétrovirus endogènes (ERVs). Des analyses bio-informatiques ont indiqué que les rétrotransposons ciblés sont fortement associés à des gènes impliqués dans les processus immunitaires. La suite de ces analyses a indiqué que ces ERVs flanquent et répriment l’activité d’éléments cis-régulateurs des gènes Th1, ou agissent eux même comme des enhancers du lignage. En conclusion, la déposition de H3K9me3 par SETDB1 garantit l’intégrité des lymphocytes T helper en réprimant un panel d’ERVs qui ont été exaptés en modules cis-régulateurs pour façonner et contrôler le réseau de gènes Th1
CD4 T lymphocytes play a central role in the defense of mammal organisms against infections by pathogens and the development of tumors. Upon activation, naïve CD4 T cells differentiate into distinct helper cell subsets depending on environmental cues. T helper cells are key players of the immune system as they finely orchestrate immune responses in a danger-adapted manner. The process of T helper differentiation relies on the establishment of complex and lineage-specific gene expression programs. The dynamics and stability of these programs are regulated at the chromatin level through epigenetic control of cis-regulatory elements. My thesis objective was to investigate the epigenetic pathways involved in the regulation of enhancer activity in CD4 T cells. In this purpose, we studied the role of the H3K9 specific methyltransferase SETDB1 in the differentiation of Th1 and Th2 cells, which are strongly antagonistic. We report that SETDB1 critically represses the Th1 gene expression program. Indeed, Setdb1-deficient naïve T cells show exacerbated Th1 priming. Moreover, when exposed to a Th1-instructive signal, SETDB1-deficient Th2 cells cross lineage boundaries and transdifferentiate into Th1 cells. Surprisingly, SETDB1 does not directly target Th1 enhancers to heterochromatin. Instead, SETDB1 deposits the repressive H3K9me3 mark at a restricted and cell type specific set of endogenous retroviruses, strongly associated with genes involved in immune processes. Further bioinformatic analyses indicated that these retrotransposons flank and repress Th1 gene cis-regulatory elements or behave themselves as Th1 gene enhancers. Thus, H3K9me3 deposition by SETDB1 ensures T cell lineage integrity by repressing a repertoire of ERVs that have been exapted into cis-regulatory modules to shape and control the Th1 gene network

L’histoire naturelle du cancer implique des interactions entre la tumeur et les mécanismes de défense de l’hôte, tout particulièrement avec le système immunitaire adaptatif. Ainsi la transformation de cellules normales en cellules malignes peut engendrer l’expression d’antigènes tumoraux reconnus par les lymphocytes T. Plusieurs sous-populations de lymphocytes T (LT) CD4 contrôlent les réponses antitumorales, parmi elles, les LT CD4 helper de type-1 (Th1) jouent un rôle activateur majeur de l’immunité à médiation cellulaire antitumorale. Ils deviennent actifs grâce à la reconnaissance des peptides de 15 à 20 acides aminés dérivés d’antigènes tumoraux et présentés par les molécules HLA de classe II. Ils sont nécessaires à l’induction et la fonction des cellules effectrices dirigées contre les tumeurs notamment les lymphocytes T CD8 cytotoxiques (CTL). De plus la présence de lymphocytes CD4 Th1 infiltrant les tumeurs est souvent associée à un bon pronostic chez les patients. A l’aide d’un modèle in vitro chez l’homme et in vivo chez des souris transgéniques HLA, nous avons identifié quatre nouveaux peptides CD4 dérivés de la télomérase (TERT) un antigène de tumeur exprimé dans la majorité des cancers humains. Ces peptides appelés «Universal Cancer Peptide, UCP» se lient à la majorité des allèles HLA-DR et sont capables d’activer spécifiquement les LT CD4 de type-1. Des LT CD4 circulants spécifiques des UCP sont naturellement détectables dans plusieurs cancers humains mais absents chez des individus sains. Des clones T CD4 spécifiques des UCP générés à partir des lymphocytes de patients, produisent de forts taux d’IFN, TNF, et d’IL-2, cytokines associées à la polarisation Th1. L’analyse par ELISPOT IFN, de LT CD4 anti-UCP circulants au sein d’une cohorte de 84 patients atteints de cancers bronchiques métastatiques a montré la présence naturelle de ces lymphocytes chez 38 % des patients. De plus un effet bénéfique de la présence de cette réponse sur la survie globale a été observé chez les patients ayant une réponse clinique objective après chimiothérapie (13 vs 10 mois, P< 003). In vivo, l’immunisation de souris transgéniques HLA-A2/HLA-DR1 (Tg A2/DR1) avec les peptides UCP stimule des réponses T CD4 spécifiques caractérisées par une polarisation Th1. Nous avons montré que la présence in vivo de LT CD4 anti-UCP est nécessaire pour l’induction de réponses CTL antitumorales efficaces. Ainsi chez des souris co-immunisées en présence d’un peptide UCP, on observe un accroissement en nombre et de la qualité des réponses CTL proportionnellement à l’aide délivrée par les LT CD4 anti-UCP. L’induction de LT CD4 anti-UCP s’accompagne également d’une activation des cellules dendritiques in vivo via un mécanisme impliquant CD40L, IFN et GM-CSF. Dans un modèle de mélanome transplantable chez les souris Tg A2/DR1 nos résultats ont montré qu’une vaccination thérapeutique comportant un peptide UCP favorise un meilleur recrutement de CTL fonctionnels dans les tumeurs et améliore ainsi l’efficacité antitumorale du vaccin. Ces résultats confirment le rôle antitumoral majeur des lymphocytes CD4 Th1 et soulignent l’intérêt clinique de stimuler des réponses T CD4 spécifiques d’antigènes tumoraux de relevance clinique comme TERT
Recent advances in immunology have now validated the concept of cancer immunosurveillance and the leading role of adaptative T cell immunity. Until a few years ago, antitumor CD8 T cell responses have been the most studied due to their direct cytotoxic activity on tumor cells. On the other hand, study of antitumor CD4 T cell responses are even more challenging because of the heterogeneity and plasticity of the various CD4 T cells subpopulations described. Among them, CD4 T helper type-1 cells (Th1), mainly characterized by the production of IFN, control the activation of antitumor cellular immunity. Thus, stimulation of specific CD4 Th1 cells may have a major interest for the development of anticancer immunotherapies. During this research thesis, we characterized novel HLA class II epitopes derived from a relevant tumor antigen, telomerase (TERT), and studied their capacities to stimulate specific CD4 Th1 cell responses. Using a method based on predictive immunology, we identified 4 peptides derived from TERT, referred as « Universal Cancer Peptides » (UCPs), enable to bind the most commonly found HLA-DR alleles in human. Using HLA-A2/HLA-DR1 transgenic mouse model, we first evaluated the in vivo immunogenicity of these peptides. Immunization of mice with UCPs induces high avidity specific CD4 T cells. The study of their polarization showed that UCP-specific CD4 T cells do not produce IL-4, -5, -10 or -17 cytokines, excluding a Th1, Treg or Th17 differentiation. In contrast, we measured high amount of IFN and IL-2 which characterize a Th1 pattern. The study of helper role allow us to demonstrate that CD8 peptide-based vaccinations in presence of UCPs enhance the efficacy of tumor specific CTL responses. Indeed, the intensity of these responses is strongly correlated with that of UCP-specific CD4 T cells induced in vivo. Furthermore, the stimulation of UCP-specific CD4 T cells promotes activation and IL-12 release by dendritic cells through a mechanism that involves IFN, GM-CSF and CD40L. We also demonstrated the antitumor efficacy of UCPs during a therapeutic vaccination in mice, as well as their capacity to foster the recruitment of specific CD8 T cells at the tumor site. In addition, the presence of naturally occurring UCP-specific CD4 T cell responses was found in different types of cancers such as leukemia, lung, colorectal or renal cancers. A study conducted in a cohort of 84 metastatic lung cancer patients revealed a synergistic effect of spontaneous UCP-specific CD4 Th1 and chemotherapy-treatment. Altogether, this study provides further evidences that stimulation of antitumor CD4 Th1 cells is a powerful method to improve cancer vaccines and also highlights the interest of TERT-derived UCPs for the innovative monitoring of antitumor CD4 T cell responses

Au cours d’une réponse immunitaire primaire, les lymphocytes T CD8 mémoires émergent à partir d'un environnement de forte activation immunitaire. Les cellules régulatrices T CD4 FoxP3+ (LTregs) jouent un rôle clé de suppression de la réponse immunitaire. Nous montrons que les LTregs sont nécessaires pour la génération d’une réponse mémoire T CD8 fonctionnelle. En absence de LTregs lors du priming, les LT CD8 mémoires générées prolifèrent faiblement et ne parviennent pas à se différencier après une réactivation antigénique en effecteurs cytotoxiques secondaires fonctionnelles. Nous suggérons que les LTregs agissent tôt, lors de la phase d'expansion des LT CD8, en réduisant l’exposition des précurseurs mémoires T CD8 à l'interleukine-2. Ce nouveau rôle crucial des LTregs a des implications pour le développement optimal de vaccin.Chez les patients sous traitement antirétroviral efficace et prolongée (ART), le VIH peut persister dans un petit pool de cellules T CD4 mémoires quiescentes de longue durée de vie infectées par du virus latent intégré. Ce réservoir latent comprend différentes sous-populations mémoires. Nos résultats suggèrent une contraction progressive de la taille du réservoir latent autour d'un noyau formé de sous-populations T CD4 mémoires moins différenciées (centrales mémoires TCM et souches mémoires TSCM). Ce processus très lent semble dépendre de la taille initiale et du taux de décroissance qui diffère entre les sous-populations mémoires infectées de manière latente. Nos résultats suggèrent également une extrême stabilité du sous-réservoir TSCM, dont la taille est directement liée à l'exposition cumulée au virus plasmatique avant le début du traitement ART, soulignant l'importance d'une initiation précoce du traitement antirétroviral efficace. La présence de cette dynamique intrinsèque dans le réservoir latent peut avoir des implications pour la conception de stratégies optimales de purge thérapeutique contre le VIH
During the primary immune response, CD8 memory emerges from an environment of strong immune activation. The FoxP3 regulatory CD4 T-cell subset (Treg) is known as a key suppressive component of the immune system. We report that Tregs are required for the generation of functional CD8 memory. In the absence of Tregs during priming, the resulting memory cells proliferate poorly and fail to differentiate into functional cytotoxic secondary effectors following antigen reactivation. We find that the Tregs act early, during the expansion phase of primary CD8 effectors, by fine tuning interleukin-2 exposure of CD8 memory precursors. This crucial new role of Tregs has implications for optimal vaccine development. In patients who are receiving prolonged antiretroviral treatment (ART), HIV can persist within a small pool of long-lived resting memory CD4 T cells infected with integrated latent virus. This latent reservoir involves distinct memory subsets. We provide results that suggest a progressive reduction of the size of the blood latent reservoir around a core of less-differentiated memory subsets (central memory and stem cell-like memory).This process appears to be driven by the differences in initial sizes and decay rates between latently infected memory subsets. Our results also suggest an extreme stability of the TSCM sub-reservoir, the size of which is directly related to cumulative plasma virus exposure before the onset of ART, stressing the importance of early initiation of effective ART. The presence of these intrinsic dynamics within the latent reservoir may have implications for the design of optimal HIV therapeutic purging strategies

Les Contrôleurs du VIH sont de rares individus capables de contrôler spontanément la réplication virale en l’absence de traitement. De nombreuses études montrent que les Contrôleurs développent des réponses T antivirales remarquablement efficaces. Les cellules T CD4+ spécifiques de Gag pourraient jouer un rôle particulier car cette population est préservée en comparaison aux patients traités et corrèle négativement avec la charge virale. Afin d’étudier cette population, nous avons réalisé une analyse transcriptionnelle et protéique multiplexée sur cellule unique, à partir de cellules T CD4+ détectées ex vivo par marquage tétramère de CMH-II contre le peptide Gag293 (Tet+). Nous avons comparé l’expression de 44 gènes et 6 protéines membranaires chez 9 patients Contrôleurs et 9 patients traités. Nous avons d’une part validé la forte fréquence de cellules T CD4+ Tet+ chez les Contrôleurs en comparaison aux patients traités et, d’autre part, montré que les cellules T CD4+ Tet+ des Contrôleurs, étaient activées et engagées dans une différenciation Th1 avancée et présentant un profil cytotoxique. De plus, les cellules T CD4+ Tet+ de Contrôleurs ont montré un état d’épuisement limité, reflété par une expression faible de PD-1, qui pourrait être l’une des raisons du maintien de leur fréquence et de leurs fonctions. Dans une deuxième étude, nous avons étudié les cellules T folliculaires « helper » (Tfh) dans la population T CD4+ spécifique de Gag chez les Contrôleurs du VIH. Les Tfh jouent un rôle essentiel dans la maturation d’affinité des anticorps en aidant les cellules B. Afin de déterminer si ce sous-type cellulaire joue un rôle dans le contrôle de l’infection à VIH, nous avons analysé le phénotype et la fonction des Tfh circulantes (cTfh) : cellules T CD4+ CD45RA- CXCR5+). Nous avons utilisé un marquage tétramère de CMH-II contre le peptide Gag293, pour détecter les cTfh spécifiques du VIH (cTfh Tet+), et nous avons montré que cette population est préférentiellement maintenue chez les Contrôleurs du VIH. L’analyse phénotypique de la population cTfh Tet+ a montré une intensité d’expression (MFI) de PD-1 plus importante dans le groupe de patients traités, suggérant une activation immune anormale chez ces patients. La fonction des cTfh, analysée pour leur capacité à induire la sécrétion d’IgG en coculture avec des cellules B mémoires autologues, n’a pas montré de différences majeures entre les groupes en terme de production d’IgG totales. Cependant, la production d’IgG spécifiques anti-VIH est significativement plus efficace chez les Contrôleurs, en particulier pour la réponse anti-Env qui est plus de 30 fois supérieure à celle des patients traités. Enfin, la fréquence des cTfh Tet+ a corrélé positivement avec la production d’IgG spécifiques, supportant l'idée d'un rôle important de la fonction Tfh dans la réponse humorale anti-VIH. L’ensemble de ces résultats indique que la population T CD4+ spécifique de Gag supporte chez les Contrôleurs les deux bras de la réponse immunitaire antivirale : d’une part, une réponse de type cellulaire Th1 montrant un profil cytotoxique et, d’autre part, une réponse de type humorale, reflétée par des interactions cTfh/B préservées, résultant en une réponse B mémoire vigoureuse. Le maintien de la fonction et de la fréquence de ces cellules spécifiques de Gag pourrait donc jouer un rôle important dans le contrôle du VIH
HIV Controllers are rare individuals able to spontaneously control viral replication in the absence of treatment. Several studies showed that controllers develop effective anti-viral T cell responses. Gag-specific CD4+ T cells could play a particular role in HIV control, because this population is preserved in comparison with the treated patients and correlates negatively with the viral load. In order to study this population, we performed a multiplexed single cell transcriptional and protein analysis from CD4+ T cells detected ex vivo by MHC-II tetramer labeling against the Gag293 peptide (Tet+). We compared the expression of 44 genes and 6 surface proteins in 9 Controllers patients and 9 treated patients. Firstly, we validated the high frequency of Tet+ CD4+ T cells in controllers compared to the treated patients, then we showed that Tet+ CD4+ T cells from controllers were activated and engaged in advanced Th1 differentiation with a cytotoxic profile. In addition, Tet+ CD4+ T cells from controllers showed a limited state of exhaustion, reflected by a lower expression of PD-1, which could be one of the reasons for maintaining their frequency and functions. In a second study, we studied follicular helper T cells (Tfh) among the Gag-specific CD4+ T cell population of HIV controllers. Tfh plays an essential role in the affinity maturation of the antibody response by providing help to B cells. To determine whether this CD4+ T cell subset may contribute to the spontaneous control of HIV infection, we analyzed the phenotype and function of circulating Tfh (cTfh: T cells CD4+ CD45RA- CXCR5+). We performed a MHC-II tetramer labeling against Gag293 peptide to detect HIV-specific cTfh (cTfh Tet +), and showed that this population is preferentially maintained in HIV controllers. Phenotypic analysis of Tet+ cTfh population showed a higher intensity of PD-1 expression (MFI) in the treated group suggesting abnormal immune activation in these patients. The function of cTfh, analyzed by the capacity to promote IgG secretion in cocultures with autologous memory B cells, did not show major differences between groups in terms of total IgG production. However, the production of HIV-specific IgG is significantly more efficient in the controller group, especially for the anti-Env response that is more than 30-fold greater than those of the treated patients. Finally, the frequency of Tet+ cTfh correlated positively with the production of specific IgG, supporting the idea of an important role of Tfh function in the humoral antiHIV response. Taken together, these results indicate that Gag-specific CD4+ T cell population supports the two arms of the antiviral immune response in HIV controllers: the cell-mediated response through a preferential differentiation toward Th1 cell type showing a cytotoxic profile, and the humoral response, reflected by preserved cTfh / B interactions, resulting in a vigorous memory response. Maintaining the function and frequency of these Gag-specific CD4+ T cells could therefore play an important role in HIV control

La mémoire immunologique est le mécanisme biologique fondamental à la base du développement de la vaccination. La compréhension de ce mécanisme ainsi que de ses interactions avec les différents acteurs du système immunitaire a permis l’élaboration de vaccins qui sont aujourd’hui les garants d’une protection accrue face à l’émergence de maladies infectieuses potentiellement mortelles. La voie d’injection et le mode de transfert de ces vaccins sont des paramètres majeurs à prendre en considération car ils définissent une modulation des réponses immunitaires et de leurs spécificités d’action. De nos jours, seule la voie intramusculaire demeure la voie majoritaire d’administration de vaccins lors de la prophylaxie primaire en santé humaine. Au cours de notre étude, nous nous sommes intéressés à comparer l’injection d’un antigène (l’ovalbumine) selon deux voies d’administration : la voie intramusculaire et la voie intradermique. Nous nous sommes également appuyés sur une technologie du laboratoire qui consiste à transférer des gènes par des vecteurs AAV2/1 recombinants. Nous disposions de deux constructions de ces vecteurs ayant une spécificité pour cibler les cellules musculaires et permettant l’apport d’un effet auxiliaire par les lymphocytes T CD4+ lors d’injections dans des souris femelles. De plus, une de ces constructions nous permettait d’éviter la voie de présentation directe de l’antigène par les cellules dendritiques (DCs) aux lymphocytes T CD8+. Les capacités modulatrices de ces vecteurs nous permirent de montrer pour la première fois que le vecteur AAV2/1 recombinant était capable de faire exprimer un transgène au sein de la peau et d’y générer une réponse cellulaire forte. Nous avons également montré qu’il existait une synergie d’action entre l’effet auxiliaire et la voie intradermique qui améliorait considérablement les réponses cellulaires issues de la présentation croisée d’antigène. Enfin, nous avons pu démontrer que les lymphocytes T CD8+ générés suite à cette synergie d’action présentaient un profil phénotypique de cellules mémoires polyfonctionnelles et capables de protéger l’hôte face à un challenge pathogénique
Immunological memory is the fundamental biological mechanism at the beginning of the development of vaccination. Understanding this mechanism and its interactions with the various players of the immune system has allowed the development of vaccines that are today the most effective barrier against the emergence of life-threatening infectious diseases. Route of injection and the nature of carriers of these vaccines are key parameters to be taken into consideration because they define a modulation of immune responses and their specific features. Nowadays, only the intramuscular injection route remains the major route of vaccines injection in the context of primary prophylaxis in human health. During our study, we were interested in comparing the injection of antigen (ovalbumin) following two routes of administration: intramuscular and intradermal routes. We also relied on a technology in the laboratory that involves the transfer of genes by rAAV2/1 vectors. We had two constructs of these vectors having specificity to target skeletal muscle cells and allowing us to provide a helper effect from CD4+ T cells during injections into female mice recipients. Moreover, one of these constructs enabled us to avoid the direct presentation of antigens by dendritic cells (DCs) to CD8+ T cells. The capacity of modulation of these vectors allowed us to show for the first time that the rAAV2/1 vector was able to trigger the expression of a transgene in the skin, and there to generate a strong cellular response. We have also shown that CD4+ T cell help and the intradermal route of immunization synergize to improve greatly cellular responses from the cross-presentation of antigens. Finally, we have demonstrated that CD8+ T cells generated following this synergism exhibited a phenotypic profile of polyfunctional memory cells and able to protect the host against a pathogenic challenge

Over the past decade, studies using murine models have led to the demonstration that CD4+ T helper (Th) cells play a critical role in the control of cancer progression. Additional support for their importance comes from the growing body of recent clinical/translational research data demonstrating the importance of tumor-infiltrating T and B lymphocytes in long-term patient survival for various types of cancer, including breast cancer (BC). As the key population coordinating adaptive immune responses, the role(s) played by individual Th subsets in cancer immunity remains largely controversial. The Th1 subset has uniquely been shown to have a clear anti-tumor effect, guiding CD8+ cytotoxic T cells-mediated direct tumor cell lysis through IFN-γ secretion. Although the negative regulatory role played by Treg cells has been extensively studied in cancer, its prognostic value along with that of Th2 and Th17 cells have not been clearly demonstrated in patients. T follicular helper (Tfh) cells, a recently characterized Th subset that plays a primary role in the generation of B cell memory in secondary lymphoid organs, have not been previously described infiltrating solid tumors. The principal objective of this thesis was to perform an in-depth characterization of tumor-infiltrating CD4+ T cells (TIL) and Th subsets in human BC, where very little is currently known.

Using whole genome microarrays, we analyzed the gene expression profiles of TIL relative to their counterparts from the axillary lymph nodes and peripheral blood. Applying a novel approach, we compared TIL profiles with public microarray data for Th subsets, demonstrating: 1) the presence of all major Th subsets (Th1, Th2, Th17, Treg as well as Tfh) in the TIL, 2) the TIL are effector memory rather than central memory cells, 3) the TIL are concomitantly activated and suppressed and 4) TIL from tumors with extensive lymphoid infiltrates are more activated/less suppressed in the TCR/CD3 signaling pathway, producing higher levels and a wider panel of Th cytokines than TIL from minimally-infiltrated tumors.

We also performed in vitro experiments to study tumor microenvironment effects on TIL by treating normal CD4+ T cells from healthy donor blood with primary tumor supernatants (SN). Tumor SN largely reproduces the TIL profile in normal Th cells, totally suppressing their activation and inhibiting their cytokine production. Intriguingly, the highly restricted number of cytokines induced by tumor SN included several tumor-promoting factors, such as IL-8 and TNF. SN from an extensively-infiltrated tumor was found to be less immune-suppressive than SN from minimally-infiltrated tumors. In line with this, TIL from minimally-infiltrated tumors are closer to SN-treated (suppressed) activated donor cells whereas TIL from extensively-infiltrated tumors are more similar to activated cells without SN treatment.

These results led us to further investigate the observed differences between TIL from extensive and minimally-infiltrated tumors. Genes characterizing Th1 and Tfh cells were enriched in the extensively-infiltrated tumors. PD-1hiCD200hi Tfh cells were specifically detected in extensively-infiltrated tumors by flow cytometry and these cells were determined to be the major source of the chemokine CXCL13. Immunohistochemical analysis demonstrated highly-organized tertiary lymphoid structures (TLS) within the tumor, containing a CD4+/CD8+ T cell zone and a B cell zone with reactive germinal centers where Tfh cells and follicular dendritic cells (FDC) are resident. Their presence suggests the origin of an effective memory anti-tumor immune response.

Finally, we generated Tfh- and Th1-specific gene signatures reflecting differences between extensive and minimal TIL and tested their prognostic value in large-patient-scale public data sets. Our Tfh signature predicts better 10-year disease-free survival for all BC subtypes, outperforming the Th1 signature, suggesting that Tfh cells play a more central role than Th1 cells in anti-tumor immunity. CXCL13 is the determinant gene of our Tfh signature, showing particularly strong prognostic power for the HER2+ subtype. Additionally, these signatures also predict a better response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy.

This thesis research has demonstrated that a previously undetected Th subset, Tfh cells, infiltrates solid tumors and shown that their presence signals enhanced anti-tumor immunity.

Durant cette dernière décennie, des travaux menés dans des modèles murins ont permis de mettre en évidence le rôle crucial joué par les lymphocytes T auxiliaires CD4+ (Th) dans le contrôle de la progression des cancers. De plus, de nombreuses études cliniques et/ou translationnelles récentes corroborent ces observations en montrant une corrélation entre l’importance de l’infiltration intra-tumorale par les lymphocytes T et B et la survie à long terme des patients atteints de différents types de cancer, dont le cancer du sein. En tant que chefs d’orchestre de la réponse immune adaptative, les rôles spécifiques des sous-populations des cellules Th restent controversés. Les Th1 sont la seule population exerçant une claire réponse anti-tumorale, qui est liée à la sécrétion d’IFN-γ, une cytokine primordiale à l’action des lymphocytes T cytotoxiques CD8+. Bien que le rôle néfaste des T régulateurs (Treg) a été largement étudié dans le cancer, leur implication pronostique ainsi que celle des Th2 et Th17 n’ont pas encore été clairement démontrées. La présence d’une sous-population de CD4, les T auxiliaires folliculaires (Tfh), cellules clés dans la différenciation des lymphocytes B mémoires au sein des organes lymphoïdes secondaires, n’a jamais été décrite dans les cancers solides. Le but principal de ce travail est de caractériser les sous-populations des lymphocytes T CD4+ infiltrant la tumeur (TIL) en prenant comme modèle le cancer du sein humain. A l’heure actuelle, il existe très peu de données sur les TIL CD4 dans ce type de cancer.

Nous avons d’abord établi le profil génique des TIL en les comparant avec ceux provenant des ganglions axillaires ou du sang périphérique. En appliquant une nouvelle approche, nous avons comparé les profils des TIL avec les données publiques de sous-populations de Th et démontré que :1) toutes les sous-populations de cellules Th (Th1, Th2, Th17, Treg et Tfh) infiltrent la tumeur, 2) les TIL ont un phénotype plus proche de celui des cellules mémoires effectrices que des cellules mémoires centrales, 3) les TIL sont simultanément activés et supprimés et 4) les TIL provenant des tumeurs massivement infiltrées («extensives») par des lymphocytes sont mieux activés et moins supprimés que les TIL des tumeurs peu infiltrées («minimales») dans la voie de signalisation TCR et produisent des cytokines d’une quantité plus élevée et d’une répertoire plus large.

Nous avons également effectué des expériences in vitro pour étudier l’effet de l’environnement tumoral sur les TIL en traitant des CD4 normaux (provenant des donneuses saines) par le surnageant (SN) extrait des tumeurs fraiches. Le SN tumoral induit un profil génique proche de celui des TIL en inhibant l’activation et la production de cytokines de ces cellules stimulées. Curieusement, parmi le peu de cytokines induites par le SN tumoral, des facteurs pro-tumoraux comme IL-8 et TNF sont détectés. Le surnageant provenant d’une tumeur «extensive» est moins immunosuppresseur que ceux des tumeurs «minimales». Conformément, les TIL provenant des tumeurs «minimales» ont un profil génique proche des cellules normales activées et traitées (supprimées) par le SN tumoral tandis que les TIL des tumeurs «extensives» ressemblent aux cellules activées non traitées.

Ces résultats nous avaient guidés à investiguer plus profondément les différences observées entre les TIL des tumeurs «extensives» et «minimales». Les gènes caractéristiques des Th1 et Tfh sont enrichis dans les tumeurs «extensives». Les cellules Tfh PD1hiCD200hi sont spécifiquement détectées par cytométrie de flux dans les tumeurs «extensives» et sont identifiées comme les producteurs principaux de la chimiokine CXCL13. L’examen par immunohistochimie a permis de détecter des structures lymphoïdes tertiaires (TLS) dans la tumeur, composées d’une zone T (CD4 et CD8) et d’une zone B au sein de laquelle se trouve parfois un centre germinatif actif contenant des Tfh et des cellules dendritiques folliculaires (FDC). La présence de ces structures suggère l’origine d’une réponse immune mémoire anti-tumorale.

Finalement, nous avons établi des signatures géniques spécifiques aux Tfh et Th1 et recherché leur impact pronostique dans deux bases de données publiques à grande échelle. Notre signature Tfh est positivement corrélée avec la survie à 10 ans des patientes de tous les sous-types de cancer du sein, et est plus performante que la signature Th1. Ceci suggère que les Tfh pourraient jouer un rôle plus crucial que les Th1 dans la réponse immune anti-tumorale. CXCL13 est le gène déterminant de notre signature Tfh et son expression est fortement associée à une meilleure survie chez les patientes du sous-type HER2+. De plus, ces signatures prévoient également une meilleure réponse à la chimiothérapie néoadjuvante (préopératoire).

Cette étude a démontré qu’une nouvelle sous-population de CD4, les Tfh, infiltre la tumeur solide et leur présence indique l’existence d’une immunité anti-tumorale renforcée.

Doctorat en Sciences biomédicales et pharmaceutiques
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

La nature des cellules dendritiques (DC) engagées lors d'une vaccination conditionne la qualité de la réponse immunitaire adaptative. L'immunisation par la peau est particulièrement efficace car elle cible de nombreuses sous-populations de DC cutanées telles que les cellules de Langerhans (LC). Cependant, les relations entre ces DC et les cellules effectrices associées à la réponse humorale ne sont pas connues. L'objectif de ma thèse est d'identifier les mécanismes cellulaires précoces impliqués dans l'initiation de la réponse humorale, dans un contexte de vaccination intradermique (i.d.) avec un antigène particulaire. En étudiant la distribution spatiale et temporelle des particules synthétiques de PLA adsorbées par la protéine p24 du VIH, nous avons observé leur prise en charge par les DC cutanées mais également par les DC résidentes des ganglions drainant de la peau. Cependant, l'étude de la réponse immunitaire a démontré que seules les cellules cutanées, et en particulier les LC, induisent la polarisation des lymphocytes T CD4+ folliculaires (TFH) et le développement des lymphocytes B sécrétant des IgA. L'immunisation i.d. a également généré l'infiltration de cellules inflammatoires au niveau du site d'injection et du ganglion. En utilisant un modèle murin Ccr2-/-, nous avons démontré que les cellules dépendantes de CCR2+ interfèrent avec la formation des TFH. Enfin, l'étude du micro-environnement ganglionnaire suggère que TNF est favorable à la polarisation des TFH. En conclusion, ces résultats soulignent l'importance de cibler les DC cutanées lors de la vaccination afin de proposer de nouvelles stratégies vaccinales
The quality of the adaptive immune response to a vaccine is driven by the nature of dendritic cells (DCs) engaged during vaccination. Skin immunization is particularly efficient as it targets the numerous cutaneous DCs, including Langerhans cells (LCs). However, the relationship between DCs and effector cells associated with humoral immunity has not been elucidated. The main objective of my thesis was to identify cellular mechanisms implicated in the initialization of the humoral immune response, in the context of intradermal (i.d.) vaccination with particle-based antigens. In examining the spatial and temporal distribution of synthetic PLA particles adsorbed with the HIV-p24 protein, we observed their uptake by both cutaneous DCs and also skin-draining lymph node (dLNs) resident DCs. However, our immune response study highlighted that only skin cells, and in particular LCs, were able to stimulate polarization of follicular helper T cells (TFH) and the development of IgA-secreting B lymphocytes. I.d. vaccination also induced an inflammatory cell infiltration at both the injection site and in dLNs. Using a Ccr2-/- mouse model, we have shown the CCR2+ dependant cells can interfere in TFH polarization. Finally, the study of the dLN micro-environment suggested TNF can promote TFH formation. In conclusion, these findings highlight the importance of targeting skin DC in vaccination to propose new vaccine strategies

Les travaux presentes dans ce memoire ont permis de progresser dans la caracterisation des fonctions exercees par des populations monoclonales t cd4#+ et bifonctionnelles, en montrant: - que ces clones t cd4#+ et cytotoxiques sont capables de s'entretuer mais ce, seulement dans certaines conditions particulieres; - qu'il est possible de selectionner des modes de signalisation passant par la molecule cd2 et pouvant induire de facon preferentielle la fonction helper ou la fonction cytotoxique; - que les voies biochimiques utilisees pour induire ces deux fonctions par le biais de la molecule cd2 sont differentes puisque l'induction de la fonction helper s'accompagne d'un influx calcique, d'une hydrolyse des phosphadyl-inositols et depend de l'activation des proteines tyrosines kinases, alors qu'une activite cytolytique peut etre observee en l'absence de ces seconds messagers et n'est pas sensibles aux inhibiteurs de proteines tyrosine kinase; - enfin que l'interleukine-2 peut amplifier la production de cytokine de ces clones par le biais d'une activation d'une tyrosine kinase specifique des lymphocytes t, la p56#l#c#k

La susceptibilité des lymphocytes T CD4 (LT) à l'infection par VIH-1 est régulée par le métabolisme du glucose et de la glutamine. Cependant, les contributions relatives de ces nutriments à l'infection étaient peu connues lorsque j’ai débuté ma thèse. Au cours de mes travaux, j'ai identifié la glutaminolyse comme une voie majeure alimentant la phosphorylation oxydative (OXPHOS) dans les sous-populations de LT activés naïves et mémoires, et j'ai découvert que l'induction de ce réseau métabolique est nécessaire pour une infection optimale par VIH-1. J’ai constaté qu’en condition limitante en glutamine, l’α-kétoglutarate (α-KG), un intermédiaire du cycle TCA (TriCarboxylic Acid) issu de la glutaminolyse, constitue un facteur clé de l'infection des LT CD4 par VIH-1. L'ajout d’α-KG exogène induit une augmentation rapide du ratio OXPHOS/glycolyse et rend les LT naïfs et mémoires plus susceptibles à l’infection. Par ailleurs, l’inhibition du flux glycolytique du pyruvate vers le lactate induit une augmentation de l'OXPHOS et de l'infection des LT CD4 par VIH-1. En accord avec ces données, les LT CD4 infectés présentent une augmentation de la biomasse et de l'activité mitochondriale en comparaison à leurs homologues non infectés. Ces données identifient l'équilibre OXPHOS/glycolyse aérobie comme un élément clé de l'infection des LT par VIH-1.Afin de mieux appréhender les voies métaboliques régulant l'infection des LT par VIH-1, j'ai développé une approche complémentaire basée sur l’utilisation de shRNA ciblant spécifiquement les transporteurs de nutriments GLUT1, ASCT2 et CAT1, permettant notamment le transport du glucose, glutamine et arginine dans la cellule, respectivement. Ainsi, j’ai observé une diminution de la survie d’environ 80% des cellules shRNA+, témoignant ainsi de l’importance de ces transporteurs lors de l’activation de ces cellules. Cependant, la permissivité des LT CD4 à l’infection par VIH-1 est impactée différemment par la diminution de l’expression des transporteurs de nutriments. Conformément aux données présentées ci-dessus, l’inhibition de GLUT1 n'a pas eu d'impact significatif sur l'infection par VIH-1, tandis que l’inhibition de CAT1 a réduit de manière significative l’OXPHOS ainsi que l'infection par VIH-1 (de 35 %). Il est toutefois surprenant de constater que l’inhibition d’ASCT2 entraîne une augmentation de l'infection de 20 %. Cela était associé à une persistance significativement plus élevée des cellules T naïves dont l’expression d’ASCT2 était inhibée, par rapport aux LT mémoires. Ces données mettent ainsi en évidence l’importance relative de ces 3 transporteurs de nutriments dans la survie des LT naïfs par rapport aux LT mémoires et démontrent leur impact spécifique sur la permissivité de ces populations à l'infection par VIH-1.En conclusion, en utilisant deux approches complémentaires, mes travaux de thèse révèlent l'impact critique de l'état énergétique d'une cellule T CD4 sur sa susceptibilité à l'infection par VIH-1. Mes données mettent en évidence l'importance du métabolisme mitochondrial, avec un environnement riche en intermédiaires du cycle du TCA comme l’α-KG, dans la régulation de la sensibilité des LT à l'infection par VIH-1. En outre, l'expression des transporteurs de nutriments impacte différentiellement la sensibilité des LT naïfs et mémoires à l'infection par VIH-1. Ces études offrent donc de nouvelles perspectives utilisant le métabolisme pour le développement de stratégies thérapeutiques ciblées contre l'infection par VIH-1
The susceptibility of CD4 T cells to HIV-1 infection is regulated by glucose and glutamine metabolism, but the relative contributions of these nutrients to infection are not known. During my PhD, I identified glutaminolysis as a major pathway fueling oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) in activated naïve as well as memory CD4 cell subsets, and found that induction of this metabolic network is required for optimal HIV-1 infection. Moreover, we determined that under conditions of attenuated glutaminolysis, the α-ketoglutarate (αKG) TCA (tricarboxylic acid) cycle intermediate is a rate-limiting step in infection; exogenous α-KG directly increased OXPHOS and rendered both naïve and memory CD4 T cells significantly more sensitive to infection. Furthermore, blocking the glycolytic flux of pyruvate to lactate resulted in an increased OXPHOS and a significantly augmented level of HIV-1 infection. In agreement with these data, infected CD4 T cells exhibited increased mitochondrial biomass and respiration as compared to their non-infected counterparts. These data identify the OXPHOS/ aerobic glycolysis balance as a major regulator of HIV-1 infection in CD4 T lymphocytes.In order to gain more insight into the metabolic pathways regulating HIV-1 infection in CD4 T cells, we developed a complementary approach to target upstream processes, specifically altering glucose (GLUT1), glutamine (ASCT2), and arginine (CAT1) transporter expression by lentiviral-mediated delivery of specific shRNAs. Testifying to the importance of these transporters, CD4 T cells with downregulated expression of either GLUT1, ASCT2 or CAT1 were negatively selected, resulting in a loss of approximately 80% of shRNA-transduced cells within 14 days. Notably, the permissivity of CD4 T cells to HIV-1 infection was differentially impacted by inhibition of specific nutrient transporters. Consistent with the data presented above, knockdown of GLUT1 did not significantly impact HIV-1 infection whereas knockdown of CAT1 significantly decreased both OXPHOS as well as HIV-1 infection (by 35%). Surprisingly though, ASCT2 knockdown resulted in a significantly augmented infection, by approximately 20%. Mechanistically, we found that this was associated with a markedly higher persistence of naïve, as compared to memory, T cells with downregulated ASCT2 levels. These data highlight differences in the relative importance of distinct nutrient transporters in the survival of naïve vs memory CD4 T cell subsets and demonstrate their specific impact on the sensitivity of these populations to HIV-1 infection.In conclusion, using two complementary approaches, my PhD research has revealed the critical impact of a CD4 T cell’s energetic state on its susceptibility to HIV-1 infection. My data identify the importance of mitochondrial metabolism, with an environment rich in TCA cycle intermediates such as α-KG, in regulating the susceptibility of CD4 T cells to HIV-1 infection. Furthermore, I find that nutrient transporter expression differentially impacts the sensitivity of naïve and memory CD4 T cells to HIV-1 infection. These studies therefore provide new prospects for the development of targeted metabolic therapeutic strategies against HIV-1 infection

Les lymphomes b non-hodgkiniens font partie des rares tumeurs a exprimer des molecules hla de classe ii. Ceci leur permet d'interagir directement avec les lymphocytes t cd4+ qui infiltrent la tumeur (til-t). La signalisation induite par les molecules hla-dr peut induire soit l'apoptose, soit la proliferation. La premiere partie de ce travail a ete d'etudier le role joue par les molecules hla de classe ii dans l'interaction entre les til-t cd4+ et les lymphocytes b malins de lymphome folliculaire. Par l'intermediaire des molecules hla de classe ii, des clones de til-t cd4+ sont capables d'induire l'activation des lymphocytes b malins et leur entree en phase g1 du cycle cellulaire (induction du ki-67). Afin de determiner si les lymphocytes b malins presentent des anomalies intrinseques les empechant de progresser dans le cycle cellulaire, nous avons etudie dans une deuxieme partie l'effet d'une signalisation induite par les molecules hla-dr dans des lymphocytes b normaux. Nous avons d'abord montre que l'orientation vers une voie apoptotique ou proliferative ne depend pas de l'etat d'activation du lymphocyte b, mais de la capacite du ligand a regrouper les molecules hla-dr a la surface de la cellule. En effet, un ac anti-hla-dr couple a des billes de sepharose (qui mime la relation avec un lymphocyte t cd4+) induit la proliferation des lymphocytes b normaux alors qu'un ac anti-hla-dr couple a un ac secondaire, induit l'apoptose, sans entree prealable dans le cycle cellulaire. Ces resultats montrent que dans les lymphocytes b tumoraux, l'entree en cycle correspond bien a un debut de proliferation et non a un prelude a l'apoptose. Nous avons replace la signalisation hla-dr dans un contexte physiologique : les lymphocytes b recoivent d'abord un signal induit par l'interaction d'un antigene sur le recepteur a l'ag du lymphocyte b, ce qui induit une proliferation. Ensuite, ils interagissent avec des lymphocytes t cd4+, entrainant une signalisation par les molecules hla-dr dans le lymphocyte b. La proliferation induite par la stimulation du recepteur a l'ag est regulee negativement par co-stimulation avec un ac anti-hla-dr lie a un ac secondaire. Ceci se traduit au niveau du cycle cellulaire, par une diminution de la phosphorylation de la proteine prb due a une diminution d'expression des cdk2, 4 et 6 et des cyclines e et a, et a un retard d'expression de la cycline d2. Les cdkis p21 et p27 ne sont pas impliques. Nos resultats montrent qu'un signal induit par hla-dr est suffisant pour induire une proliferation. L'absence de proliferation dans les lymphocytes b tumoraux suggerent fortement la presence d'une (ou plusieurs) anomalie(s) intrinseque(s) empechant la progression dans le cycle cellulaire. Ce blocage semble etre general puisqu'il n'affecte pas que la voie hla de classe ii mais egalement la voie il4/cd40.

Aujourd’hui, plusieurs niveaux de complexité ont émergé dans l’étude des phénotypes T CD4 auxiliaires. 1) le nombre important de cytokines différentes pouvant être secrétées par les lymphocytes T CD4. 2) la multiplicité de signaux pouvant agir durant la différenciation des T CD4 pour spécifier leur profile de sécrétion cytokinique. 3) l’association de ces différents profils de cytokines à des pathologies complexes. Au cours de mon doctorat je me suis concentré sur ces trois niveaux de complexité en étudiant la génération de la diversité cytokinique T CD4 et ses associations aux différents sous types de cancer du sein en utilisant des analyses multivariées et des modèles statistiques. Tout d’abord, j’ai pu construire le premier modèle multivarié de la différentiation T CD4 reliant 37 signaux venant de cellules dendritiques à 18 cytokines T CD4. Utilisant ce modèle pour dériver des prédictions, j’ai pu trouver un nouveau rôle à l’IL-12p70 en tant qu’inducteur de différenciation Th17, mais également comme inducteur spécifique d’IL-17F mais pas d’IL-17A lorsqu’il est combiné à l’IL-1. Ensuite, j’ai étudié l’association de ces cytokines T CD4 avec les différents sous types de cancer du sein connus. J’ai pu trouver que les cytokines Th17 étaient préférentiellement associées avec les cancers du sein dits triple négatifs (TNBC). J’ai pu mettre en évidence qu’une forte signature Th17 était associée à une meilleure survie. De plus, en combinant cette signature Th17 à des scores utilisés pour définir le pronostic clinique, tel que l’index pronostic de Nottingham, j’ai pu proposer une nouvelle et meilleure stratification de la survie de ces patients
Today several levels of complexity have emerged in the field of T helper cytokines: 1) the important number of distinct cytokines that Th cell can secrete in various combinations; 2) The multiplicity of signals that can act during Th differentiation to define the Th cytokine secretion profiles 3) The associations of these T helper secretion profiles with complex diseases. During my PhD I focused on these three levels of complexity and study the generation of T helper cytokine diversity and its association to breast cancer subtypes using multivariate analysis and statistical modeling. First, I was able to build the first statistical model linking 37 dendritic cell derived signals to 18 T helper cytokines. Using this model to derive in silico predictions, I was able to found a new role for IL-12p70 as a promoter of Th17 differentiation and as a main differential inducer of IL-17F independently of Il-17A in presence of IL-1. Then, studying the associations of the Th cytokine diversity with the different subtypes of human breast cancers, I found that Th17 cytokines were preferentially associated to Triple Negative Breast Cancer (TNBC). I found that TNBC patients with a high Th17 signature had a better survival. In addition, I showed that Th17 can be combined to clinical prognosis assessment scores, such as the Nottingham Prognosis Index, to better stratify TNBC patients in relevant subgroups for survival prognosis assessment

Humoral immunity provides protection against subsequent infections. Antigen-specific, high-affinity, class-switched antibodies are produced by B cells through rounds of proliferation, B cell receptor rearrangement and selection in the germinal centres (GC). T cells play an essential and indispensable role in this process and in the recent years the term T follicular helper cells (TFH) was coined to describe this cell subset. The aim of my thesis is to investigate whether there is more than one type of T cells within the TFH population and whether it has important functional consequences. Firstly, I use sheep red blood cell immunisation (SRBC) and Salmonella enterica infection to show phenotypical differences between TFH expressing high and low level of surface molecule PD-1. In order to investigate the relationship between different TFH populations gene profiling was carried out on the microarray platform. Detailed transcriptome analysis revealed the discrete nature of isolated TFH cell subsets and provided an overview of their genetic landscape. Secondly, I have investigated the dependence of TFH subsets on cognate interactions with B cell in SRBC model by generating BM chimeras. I have demonstrated that generation of PD-1HI TFH, but not of PD-1LO TFH, depends on antigen presentation by B cells. Furthermore, I have shown that provision of wild-type but not MHC II knock-out B cells rescues PD-1HI formation in BM chimeras after SRBC immunisation. Finally, I have explored plasticity within TFH subsets and showed that none of the populations is in a terminally differentiated state, as they can convert into one another. Thirdly, experiments with S. enterica model revealed that the absence of PD- 1HI TFH is independent of the splenic architecture disruption present within the first week of the response. Surprisingly, co-immunisation studies showed that PD-1HI population is not only present but even enhanced in the group which received both SRBC and S. enterica when compared to single immunisations. The work presented in the thesis documents that there is a significant and previously unappreciated heterogeneity within TFH subset. This knowledge is important for designing optimal vaccine strategies and treating autoimmune diseases, as in both processes the antibody production plays a crucial role and its manipulation (either enhancing or blocking antibody production, respectively) can significantly improve clinical interventions.

CD4+ T cells can be subdivided on the basis of their lymphokine repertoire produced on activation resulting in TH1 like and TH2 like populations. The purpose of this study was to measure the intraocular expression of cytokines as a means of defining the CD4+ lymphocyte subsets present during the development of uveoretinitis. Lewis rats were immunised with retinal antigen and pertussis toxin resulting in early signs of disease activity evident by day 9 with increasing severity evident by day 12. Extensive clinical and histological damage was observed by day 14 with a reduction in severity through to end stage disease at day 24. In this study, the failure to establish pure populations of retinal antigen specific T lymphocyte cell lines and the observation of the lack of sensitivity of Northern hybridization to signals expressed at low levels resulted in the more sensitive technique of RT-PCR being utilized. Both IL2 and IFN mRNA expression was detected at all stages of disease with highest levels being present early in uveitis. In contrast IL4 mRNA levels increased with disease progression. This study suggests a pathogenic role for TH1 like cells and a protective role for TH2 like cells in this autoimmune disease. In order to provide an insight into alternative treatment strategies of the disease, immunomodulation of EAU was carried out using the immunosuppressive drugs CsA, FK506 and rapamycin and the resultant cytokine mRNA profiles examined. The results indicated that CsA and FK506 downregulated the TH1 response having suppressive effects on the levels of IL2 and IFN mRNA respectively. In contrast rapamycin was found to modulate the TH2 response enhancing IL4 levels. From this data, a drug based strategy employing rapamycin appears to be the most favourable approach.

Summary of the work

Abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is a chronic degenerative disease that usually affects men over 65 years with an estimated prevalence of 5%. Aneurysm rupture represents a catastrophic event which carries a mortality rate of almost 90%. Current therapeutic options for AAAs measuring 5.5 cm in diameter or larger are based on prophylactic surgery, including conventional open reconstruction and endovascular stent-graft insertion. For patients with small asymptomatic AAAs (4.0 up to 5.5 cm in diameter), evidence from two recent large randomized controlled trials indicates no long-term survival benefit from immediate elective surgical repair as compared to imaging surveillance until aneurysm expands to 5.5 cm. This highlights the need for development of novel medical management strategies, including selective pharmacologic approaches, directed at preventing aneurysm expansion. In this regard, it is expected that a detailed knowledge of the pathobiology of human AAA lesion and a better understanding of pathophysiological mechanisms underlying initiation and progression of aneurysmal degeneration, particularly the specific involvement of T lymphocytes, will have special relevance to this challenging issue.

Inflammatory and helper T-cell responses in abdominal aortic aneurysm :controversial issues

Innate and inflammatory responses to endovascular versus open AAA repair. The occurrence of early acute systemic inflammatory responses after conventional open AAA repair is widely recognized and is thought to lead to the development of organ dysfunction and multiple organ failure, responsible for a large proportion of morbidity and mortality associated with aortic surgery. New therapeutic strategies designed to avoid ischemia-reperfusion injury related to aortic cross-clamping and to minimize the degree of tissue damage have thus been developed recently. Specifically, the advent of endovascular techniques has radically extended management options for patients with AAA. Although the method is believed to offer a clear short-term benefit over open repair, notably as regards restricted perioperative haemodynamic parameter fluctuations, reduced blood loss, briefer duration of surgery, shorter hospital stay, and lower 30-day mortality and complication rates, conflicting data are available regarding the exact nature and extent of the inflammatory events arising after such endoluminal procedures ;while several authors have indeed reported that endovascular AAA repair can determine a less intense and extensive inflammatory response, others have unexpectedly observed that the method may elicit a strong inflammatory response, the so-called « postimplantation syndrome ».

Adaptive cellular immune responses in human aneurysmal aortic lesion.

The inflammatory nature of AAA disease has long been suggested by the presence of a great number of CD4+ T lymphocytes in the outer media and adventitia of human AAA lesion. Interestingly, such infiltrating T-cell populations may have significant implications in the process of aneurysm dilation, since cytokines produced by T cells, notably IFN-gamma, have previously been shown to modulate production of matrix-degrading enzymes by resident macrophages and to induce apoptosis of medial SMCs. Through these key pathological mechanisms, T cells could potentially contribute to orchestrate aortic wall connective tissue disordered remodeling and degradation, and promote extensive disruption of elastic media, ultimately leading to aneurysmal degeneration. Nevertheless, despite their relative abundance in human AAA wall tissues, there is limited and controversial information as regards the functional profile of lesional lymphocytes, the exact nature of aortic wall adaptive cellular responses, and the etiologic role of T cells and their cytokines in initiation and progression of the aneurysmal process. Indeed, both Th1-type and Th2-type responses have been identified in human studies and experimental animal models of AAA.

Aims of the work

The main objectives of our work were to explore the innate and adaptive cellular immune responses in human AAA. In the first part of our work, we aimed to examine prospectively innate and inflammatory responses arising in a non-randomised cohort of patients undergoing endovascular versus open AAA repair. In the second part of our work, we focused our efforts on characterizing the nature of adaptive cellular immune responses and the phenotypic and functional repertoire of T cells in human AAA wall tissues obtained from a consecutive series of patients undergoing open AAA repair. Specifically, we sought to determine whether type 1 or type 2 responses occur predominantly in advanced AAA lesion.

Main experimental findings

Limited inflammatory response after endovascular AAA repair. Serial peripheral venous blood samples were collected preoperatively, immediately after declamping or insertion of endograft, and after 1, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, and 72 hours. We first examined the acute phase reaction and liberation of complement cascade products using turbidimetric method and nephelometry. We found that endovascular repair produced lower postoperative CRP, leucocytosis, neutrophilia, and C3d/C3 ratio as compared to open surgery. We next analyzed surface expression of activation markers on peripheral CD3+ T cells using flow cytometry. We observed a strong upregulation of CD38 after open but not endovascular repair. Analysis of CD69 and CD25 molecules revealed no perioperative fluctuations in any group. We then investigated release of various circulating soluble cell adhesion molecules, proinflammatory cytokines, and chemokines using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. We demonstrated that both procedures are characterized by similar increases in ICAM-1 and IL-6 levels. Finally, tendency towards high levels of TNF-alpha and IL-8 was detected in endovascular repair, but data failed to reach statistical significance.

Predominance of type 1 CD4+ T cells in human aneurysmal aortic lesion. We have developed a tissue enzymatic digestion and cell extraction procedure to isolate intact mononuclear cells from aortic wall segments. This original cell isolation protocol enabled us to examine ex vivo the presence, phenotype, and cytokine secretion profile of infiltrating T lymphocytes freshly isolated from human AAA tissues for comparison with their circulating counterparts using flow cytometry. We found that both populations of infiltrating CD4+ and CD8+ T cells display a unique activated memory phenotype, as assessed by an increased expression of CD69 and HLA-DR activation antigens, downregulation of CD62L molecule, and predominant expression of the CD45RO isoform characteristics of memory cells. In addition, we identified the presence in human aneurysmal aortic wall lesion of CD4+ T cells producing high levels of IFN-gamma but not IL-4, reflecting their type 1 nature. In an additional series of experiments, cytokine gene expression was determined in whole aneurysmal and non-diseased aortic samples using LightCycler-based quantitative real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. The molecular basis of type 1 or type 2 dominant responses was further specified by analyzing mRNA levels of transcription factors specifically involved in Th1 or Th2 differentiation such as T-bet and GATA-3. We demonstrated that aneurysmal aortic specimens exhibit high transcript levels of IFN-gamma but not IL-4, and consistently overexpressed the IFN-g-promoting cytokine IL-12 and the type 1-restricted transcription factor T-bet, further establishing the prominent type 1 nature of aortic wall responses. Moreover, such selective tissue expression of IL-12 and T-bet in the vessel microenvironment points to a potential role for these signals in directing aortic wall responses towards a type 1 phenotype.

Conclusions

Our findings indicate that endovascular AAA repair is associated with a lesser degree of acute phase reaction, peripheral T-cell activation, and release of complement proteins as compared to conventional open surgery, suggesting that the innate and inflammatory responses to AAA repair are significantly attenuated by the endovascular approach as compared to the traditional open reconstruction. These results support the view that the endoluminal procedure represents an attractive alternative to open surgery for the treatment of large aneurysms. On the other hand, we have demonstrated that Th1 cell infiltrates predominate in human end-stage AAA lesion. These observations are relevant for helping clarify the pathobiology of human AAA tissues and defining prospects for the prevention of aneurysm expansion. Indeed, identification of such infiltrating populations of IFN-gamma-producing CD4+ T cells not only provide new insights into the pathogenesis of the disorder, but could also serve as a basis for the development of novel medical management strategies directed at preventing aneurysm formation and progression, including therapeutic approaches based on the modulation of aortic wall responses and designed to selectively target T-cell activation and cytokine production. In this respect, the present work provides experimental evidence in support of the emerging concept that, although multifactorial, aneurysm disease may be regarded as a Th1-driven immunopathological condition, and suggests that strategies targeting IFN-gamma could be a particularly exciting and fruitful avenue for further investigation. Ongoing clinical and basic research in these areas can be expected to yield design of promising pharmacologic approaches to control AAA expansion. From a clinical perspective, such efforts have the potential to dramatically influence both the outcome and management of this common and life threatening condition.

Doctorat en sciences médicales
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Le virus de l'hépatite C (VHC) établit généralement une infection chronique. Néanmoins, environ 20% des sujets vont résoudre spontanément l’infection. Il existe des preuves solides que les cellules T CD8 sont essentielles au contrôle du VHC. Dans la première partie de ma thèse, nous avons identifié un nouveau marqueur de la dysfonction des lymphocytes T, CD39, comme étant régulé positivement au cours de l'infection chronique par le VHC, le VIH et dans un modèle d’infection chronique par LCMV. Dans une deuxième partie, nous avons utilisé une approche d'analyse intégrative pour étudier la régulation transcriptionnelle des cellules T CD8 au cours de la phase aiguë de l'infection par le VHC. Nous avons identifié des changements précoces dans la régulation transcriptionelle d’importantes fonctions effectrices, de voies métaboliques et du nucléosome par les cellules T CD8 des patients souffrant d'une infection persistante. Certains de ces changements corrèlent avec l’absence des cellules T CD4 spécifiques du VHC et sont associés avec l’âge et le sexe du sujet infecté. Nos résultats suggèrent que la dysfonction des lymphocytes T CD8 au cours de l'infection par le VHC est liée à des événements précoces dans la régulation des gènes, non seulement amplifiés par une inflammation chronique et une absence des cellules T CD4 auxiliaires, mais qui pourraient également être influencés par des facteurs de l’hôte tels que l’âge et le sexe
Infection with Hepatitis C virus typically establishes chronic infection, but about 20% of subjects clear HCV spontaneously. There is strong evidence that functional CD8 T cells are critical for HCV control. In the first part of my thesis we identified a new marker for exhausted T cells, CD39, that we showed to be upregulated in chronic HCV infection, progressive HIV infection and in chronic infection with LCMV. In the second part we used an integrative analysis approach to study transcriptional regulation of CD8 T cells in the acute phase of HCV infection with different outcomes. We found early transcriptional changes in key immune effector pathways as well as metabolic and nucleosomal processes in CD8 T cells from patients with persistent infection. Some of these changes track with a lack of HCV-specific CD4 T cells exhibit associations with subject age and sex. Our findings suggest that CD8 T cell exhaustion in HCV infection is linked to early gene regulatory events that are not only amplified by chronic inflammation and a lack of CD4 help, but might also be influenced by disease-relevant host factors such as patient age and sex

Deficiencies in immune responses can lead to increases in the rate of infections and chronic diseases, such as cancer. Critical to the adaptive immune response is the activation of the T helper (Th)/CD4+ cell, the subsequent production of interleukin 2 (IL-2), expression of IL-2 and transferrin receptors (IL-2R, TfR) and transcription of genes resulting in DNA synthesis and T cell clonal expansion. The CD4+ lymphocyte response is impaired with ageing. Recent evidence suggests that moderate, regular aerobic training may increase the responsiveness of CD4+ lymphocytes to antigenic and mitogenic challenge, and thereby improve immune function in the older individual. Large volumes of chronic endurance training, and also high intensity training, may adversely affect the immune response, leading to immunosuppression and increased risk of infections. Impaired immune function and increased rates of URTI are found in athletes who undergo large volumes of training, often at high intensity. Purpose: To investigate if long-term aerobic training improved the immune response in men and women aged 65 to 75 years and, and to investigate if long-term endurance training depressed the immune response in male athletes aged 23 to 36 years. Methods:T helper lymphocyte proliferation was assessed monthly, by inducing the expression of CD25 (IL-2R ) and CD71 (transferrin) receptors with phytohemagglutinin (PHA). Percentage of CD4+ cells positive for the receptors, and the receptor density, were measured using two colour flow cytometry. Concentrations of intracellular calcium (Ca2+) and iron (Fe3+) were also measured monthly to determine the effect of endurance training on intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) and Fe3+ ([Fe3+]i) within the CD4+ lymphocyte signal transduction pathway. Results: After twelve months of moderate aerobic training the percentage of CD4+ lymphocytes positive for CD25 increased in males aged 65 to 75 years, but not in females. There was no training effect on the density of CD25 in either gender, nor was there a training-induced increase in [Ca2+]i, total intracellular [Ca2+] from endoplasmic reticulum stores ([Ca2+]t) or [Fe3+] in this age group. Significant month to month variations in leucocyte, erythrocyte and haemoglobin concentration, mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration, haematocrit, platelets, CD25 expression, CD71 expression, [Ca2+] and [Fe3+] were documented for both trained and untrained male and female groups. Aerobic capacity increased significantly with training for both men and women, with increases in peak, peak power and peak ventilation (p less than 0.05). Twelve months of chronic endurance training produced significantly lower haemoglobin, mean corpuscular haemoglobin and platelet concentration for six ([Hb]) and nine months ([MCHC], platelets) of the year in Ironman-distance triathletes, compared to sedentary males aged 23 to 36 years. There was no evidence of immunosuppression in the trained group, with no significant differences between groups in the percentage of CD4+ cells positive for CD25. The trained group showed a significantly higher density of CD25 receptors in October, January and June, suggesting a better immune response during these months. Endurance training did not effect [Ca2+] or [Fe3+]. The trained group did not show a reduced leucocyte concentration, and reported significantly fewer cases of URTI in twelve months than their sedentary counterparts. The 23 to 36 years age group showed seasonal changes in haematological and immunological indices similar to older individuals, indicating that autumn, late winter and late spring are periods of reduced immuno-competency. Conclusion: Twelve months of moderate intensity training significantly increased functional capacity in older men and women, and the percentage of CD4+ lymphocytes expressing CD25 in older men, thereby improving the lymphoid immune response. Twelve months of endurance training significantly increased CD25 density in CD4+ lymphocytes in Ironman triathletes compared to sedentary young males. The monthly changes in immune variables in young and older subjects suggested that autumn, late winter and late spring might be periods where individuals were more at risk of succumbing to infections due to decreased lymphocyte responsiveness. Summer months appeared to be a period of increased lymphocyte responsiveness and proliferation.

Cytotoxicity is the capacity for immune cells to kill infected or malignant cells in order to eliminate pathogens and tumours through different mechanisms including the exocytosis of perforin-containing cytosolic granules. This crucial property is usually restricted to specialized innate and adaptive lymphocytes such as natural killer (NK) cells and CD8 T cells. T lymphocytes differentiate in the thymus and are delivered to the peripheral blood as naive T cells committed to either the CD8 or the CD4 lineage. CD8 T cells are programmed to acquire cytotoxic effector functions under the control of the transcription factor (TF) Runx3. The fate of CD4 T cells is to acquire multiple helper functions through the action of the TF ThPOK that promotes CD4 helper functions and restricts the CD8 cytotoxic program. However, this restriction is not absolute as cytotoxic CD4 (CD4CTX) T cells differentiate in vivo, indicating that the multipotency of human naive CD4 T cells includes the ability to acquire perforin expression and potent cytotoxicity in vitro and ex vivo. This cytotoxic potential correlates with outcome in human pathology and mediates protection against viral challenge and tumour eradication in murine models. CD4CTX T cells are terminally differentiated effector memory T cells that accumulate during cytomegalovirus chronic infection and ageing. They are phenotypically and functionally related to T helper type 1 (Th1)-effector memory cells. However, whether they belong to the Th1 pathway or constitute a separate specialized helper T cell subset is unknown. In this work, we show that CD4CTX T cell differentiation is an integral part of the Th1 pathway. Indeed, CD4 T cells acquire cytotoxic potential early in the memory differentiation process as central memory Th1 but not Th2 and Th17 cells are epigenetically primed to develop a cytotoxic program. The expression of perforin and other cytotoxic genes present a stepwise increase profile that is specific of the Th1 differentiation pathway. This profile has been recapitulated in an in vitro model of effector CD4 T cell differentiation in which naive CD4 T cells acquire cytotoxicity one to two weeks after polyclonal stimulation when cultured in presence of Th1 cytokines. The molecular regulation of CD4CTX T cells is poorly understood and most available data have been generated in mice. These data include the observation of intraepithelial CD4CTX T cells in the mouse gut after loss of ThPOK expression and subsequent up-regulation of a Runx3-dependent cytotoxic program. Other candidate regulators of CD4 T cell cytotoxic function include the TF regulating Th1 and CD8CTX T cells differentiation such as Runx3, T-bet and Eomesodermin (Eomes). We show that the transcriptional program of human CD4CTX T cells is enriched in CD8-lineage genes. However, by contrast to CD4CTX T cells from the mouse intestine, human circulating CD4CTX T cells maintain the expression of ThPOK and even up-regulate this TF upon differentiation from naive CD4 T cells. Surprisingly, this sustained expression of ThPOK was compatible with the establishment of a T-bet- and Runx3-dependent cytotoxic transcriptional program. The specific knockdown of T-bet or Runx3 but not Eomes resulted in impaired cytotoxic differentiation whereas ThPOK knockdown enhanced perforin expression and cytotoxicity. We propose that CD4CTX T cells constitute the terminal stage of Th1 memory differentiation and that ThPOK, Runx3 and T-bet co-regulate this process by instructing a cytotoxic transcriptional network largely shared with CD8CTX T cells. The modulation of this network is a potential target for novel immunotherapeutic strategies in viral infections and cancer.
Doctorat en Sciences médicales (Médecine)
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

T follicular helper cells (T-FH) are a specialized subset of CD4 T cells that reside in B cell follicles and promote B cell maturation into plasma cells and long-lived memory B cells. During chronic infection prior to the development of AIDS, HIV-1 (HIV) replication is largely concentrated in T-FH. Paradoxically, T-FH numbers are increased in early and midstages of disease, thereby promoting HIV replication and disease progression. Despite increased T-FH numbers, numerous defects in humoral immunity are detected in HIV-infected individuals, including dysregulation of B cell maturation, impaired somatic hypermutation, and low quality of antibody production despite hypergammaglobulinemia. Clinically, these defects are manifested by increased vulnerability to bacterial infections and impaired vaccine responses, neither of which is fully reversed by antiretroviral therapy (ART). Deficits in T-FH function, including reduced HIV-specific IL-21 production and low levels of co-stimulatory receptor expression, have been linked to these immune impairments. Impairments in T-FH likely contribute as well to the ability of HIV to persist and evade humoral immunity, particularly the inability to develop broadly neutralizing antibodies. In addition to direct infection of T-FH, other mechanisms that have been linked to T-FH deficits in HIV infection include upregulation of PD-L1 on germinal center B cells and augmented follicular regulatory T cell responses. Challenges to development of strategies to enhance T-FH function in HIV infection include lack of an established phenotype for memory T-FH as well as limited understanding of the relationship between peripheral T-FH and lymphoid tissue T-FH. Interventions to augment T-FH function in HIV-infected individuals could enhance immune reconstitution during ART and potentially augment cure strategies.

The organs in which lymphocytes function are low in oxygen (<5% oxygen) and even lower oxygen levels may be more prevalent in inflammatory tissues. In this thesis the effects of environmental oxygen on human CD4+ memory T lymphocyte function in vitro have been investigated. The level of oxygen in normal air (21%) which historically has been used for most in vitro experiments with immune cells was found result in suboptimal responses of this cell type, especially with regards to proliferation. At physiologically more appropriate oxygen levels of 8.5%, optimal proliferation was observed which coincided with an increase in Th2-associated markers. At 3% oxygen, the average level found in the inflamed joint in rheumatoid arthritis, a more sustained pro-inflammatory response was observed. In 1% oxygen, cytokine production was not maintained over time paralleling observations of CD4+ T lymphocyte behaviour in both the tumour and chronic inflammatory environment. This comparison was further supported by the increased expression of the activation marker CD69 and the depression of CD4+ T lymphocyte proliferation. A model of reperfusion injury also highlighted the effect that varying oxygen levels can have on CD4+ memory T lymphocytes. Proximal T cell receptor signalling was found to be altered after equilibration at different oxygen levels, and preliminary experiments investigating the potential role that redox plays in regulating CD4+ memory T lymphocyte functions were performed. It is concluded that environmental oxygen levels significantly influence CD4+ memory T lymphocyte responses, have implications for their function in inflammatory sites in vivo, and need to be considered when designing or interpreting in vitro experiments.

Cardiovascular disease, often induced by hypertension, represents a serious health threat, is a primary cause of death worldwide, and results in altered cardiovascular function and ECM composition. Hypertension and related cardiovascular diseases are associated with immune dysfunction. This dissertation investigated the role of T-lymphocytes in modulating cardiovascular function and ECM composition as a possible therapeutic for the treatment of cardiovascular disease. Study one investigated the role of TCR peptide in the development of hypertension and subsequent cardiovascular changes in Balb/C mice. The coadminstration of TCR and L-NAME/8% NaCl reduced the effects of L-NAME/8% NaCl, decreasing blood pressure and crosslinked collagen compared to L-NAME/8% NaCl alone. Study two examined the effects of T-lymphocyte function on cardiovascular structure and function. Adoptive transfer of T-lymphocytes from C57BL/6 WT mice into C57BL/6 SCID mice induced changes in the SCID so that it resembled the WT donor, with increased percent crosslinked collagen and LOX activity. Hemodynamics in the SCID recipient resembled that of the WT and were significantly different from the sham injected SCID. Study three combined aspects of both previous studies. T-lymphocytes were adoptively transferred from hypertensive WT donors into naïve SCID recipients, who developed hypertension and cardiovascular function resembling the hypertensive donor, as well as changes in the ECM, including increased collagen crosslinking. Study four investigated the effect of strain specific T-lymphocyte polarization on hypertension induced cardiac ECM remodeling. Balb/C, C57BL/6 WT, and C57BL/6 SCID had divergent responses to L-NAME induced hypertension. Ventricular stiffness increased in Balb/C, decreased in C57 SCID and did not change in C57 WT; LOX activity changed correspondingly in all groups. The final study examined the effect of TCR administration on LOX activity and collagen crosslinking. Th1 polarization increased LOX activity and crosslinked collagen with corresponding changes in cardiovascular function. In conclusion, modulation of T-lymphocyte function alters cardiovascular function and ECM composition in pathologic and non-pathologic conditions. Immune modulation should be further investigated as a therapeutic for cardiovascular disease.

DNA immunization, inoculation with an antigen-expressing plasmid DNA, is a new method for generating an antigen-specific immune response. At the time these investigations began, very little was known about the immune response produced by DNA vaccines. Thus, the first aim of our studies was to perform a detailed examination of the antibody response generated by DNA immunization with an influenza hemagglutinin (HA)-expressing DNA in BALB/c mice. Using several different routes and methods of DNA immunization, we observed a number of findings. Although all three forms of DNA immunization elicited strong anti-HA antibody responses, i.m. and i.d. saline DNA immunization required approximately 100 times more DNA than a gene gun DNA immunization to raise an equivalent titer of anti-HA antibody. Indeed, as little as one inoculation and one boost by gene gun of 0.0004 μg of DNA produced a measurable antibody response in 50% of mice. Unexpectedly, we found the isotype of the antibody response differed among groups of mice immunized by different forms of DNA immunization. Intramuscular and i.d. saline DNA immunization produced predominantly an IgG2a anti-HA antibody response, whereas gene gun DNA immunization elicited mostly an IgG1 anti-HA antibody response. Considering that IgG2a and IgG1 antibody isotypes were known to correlate with Th1 and Th2 immune responses, respectively, we analyzed the type of immune responses produced by i.m., i.d., and gene gun DNA immunization. We found that i.m. and i.d. saline DNA immunization produced a Th1 predominant cellular immune response. In contrast, gene gun DNA immunization produced a Th2 cellular immune response. The differences in the type of immune responses were found to be due to the method of DNA immunization, and not due to the route of DNA inoculation. A gene gun DNA immunization of muscle produced the same IgG1, Th2 immune response as a gene gun DNA immunization of skin, while a saline DNA immunization of muscle and skin produced mostly an IgG2a, Th1 immune response. Each method of DNA immunization created good memory Th cell responses. The type of immune response created by an initial DNA immunization remained fixed even after multiple boosts with the identical method of DNA immunization, following a boost with the alternative method of DNA immunization, or after a viral challenge. The differentiation of naive Th cells into Th1 or Th2 cells depends on a variety of factors. We performed many experiments to elucidate which factors played a role in the generation of Th1 or Th2 immune responses following saline DNA immunization and gene gun DNA immunization. DNA dose response studies revealed the use of different doses of DNA between groups of saline DNA and gene gun DNA immunized mice did not account for the differentiation of distinct Th cell subsets. Cytokine production inducible by a number of factors inherently associated with either saline DNA or gene gun DNA immunization did not affect Th differentiation. For instance, contamination of plasmid DNA with lipopolysaccharide did not account for differences in the immune response. Immunostimulatory CpG sequences did not affect Th differentiation following DNA immunization, but they did enhance the IgG2a antibody response to coinoculated HA protein. Finally, cotransfection of IFNγ or IL-4 expressing plasmids with an HA-expressing plasmid by gene gun inoculation or as a saline DNA injection did not shift the type of immune response in a Th1 or Th2 direction, respectively. Thus, it appeared that increased cytokine stimulation was not responsible for selective Th subset differentiation. One factor related to the method of DNA immunization did seem to correlate with Th1 differentiation. Deposition of plasmid DNA extracellulary by saline DNA injections (as opposed to intracellular DNA delivery by gene gun) may have stimulated Th1 immune responses. Manipulating a gene gun DNA immunization to deliver DNA to the dermis (and thus extracellularly) shifted the immune response from that of a Th2 type to a mixed Th1/Th2 type. Furthermore, evidence was gathered demonstrating that pDNA can interact with cell surface molecules and that specific sequences in pDNA can act as a ligand and bind to molecules. Taken together, our data led us to propose a new model for Th1 differentiation following saline DNA immunization. We believe extracellular pDNA binds to an APC cell surface molecule which activates the cell. The activated APC preferentially stimulates naive Th cells to differentiate into Th1 cells. Finally, studies using a variety of mice differing in their genetic backgound and MHC genotype demonstrated the generality of our findings regarding i.m. saline DNA inoculations of an HA-expressing pDNA. Saline DNA immunization produced IgG2a, Th1-predominant immune responses independent of the genetic background and MHC genotype of the mice. In contrast, the type of immune response elicited by a gene gun DNA immunization was dependent on the MHC genotype of mice. Thus the type of immune response produced by gene gun DNA immunization probably depends on the specific antigen (and its effect on MHC-peptide/TcR interaction and signaling) and is less likely due to any inherent feature associated with the process of gene gun DNA delivery.

Thesis (M.A.)--Boston University
A preventive vaccine for HIV infection is urgently needed to curb the HIV/AIDS pandemic. To date only one human trial testing the combination of an ALVAC-HIV/gp120 protein strategy (Thai trail) has resulted in some protection from HIV infection. The correlate of protection elicited by this vaccine strategy was non-neutralizing antibodies to the gp120 protein. Nevertheless, the overall efficacy of the Thai trial was limited (31.2%); indicating that more work needs to be performed to ameliorate the Thai trial vaccine efficacy. T Follicular Helper (TFH) cells are subset of CD4 T cells that localize within the follicular region of lymph nodes, are required for the formation and maintenance of the germinal center, and provide help to B cells. TFH may therefore be critical for the development of effective antibodies to HIV/SIV. Here, we characterize TFH in different lymphoid compartments of naïve and infected rhesus macaques, the preferred animal model to assess the efficacy of candidate vaccines for HIV. First, we looked at the frequency of TFH within the various lymphoid compartments. TFH, characterized as PD-1++, ICOS++ and CCR7-, were higher within the spleen, the lamina propria of the rectal mucosa, and the tonsils than the lymph nodes. Interestingly, during chronic SIV infection, the frequency of TFH significantly increased in the lymph nodes while remaining fairly constant in the spleen. We then functionally characterized TFH in the lymph nodes of infected and non-infected macaques by performing an intracellular cytokine staining to measure the production of IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-17, and IL-21 after in vitro stimulation with PMA-ionomycin and SIV-env and SIV-gag overlapping peptides. Interestingly, while TFH (CCR7-/PD-1++) and non-TFH were capable of producing IFN-γ, TNF-α and IL-21 after stimulation with PMA- ionomycin, in chronically infected animals, we observed an impaired production of IL-21. As localization in the germinal center is believed to be relevant for TFH functionality, we established a migrational assay as a way to better discriminate TFH from non-TFH in macaques. The aim was to mimic the in vivo migration of non-TFH to the T cell zone and of TFH to the B cell zone of the lymph nodes, induced by CCL19/CCL21, and CXCL13, respectively, using a two-step assay. We obtained an enrichment of phenotypic defined non-TFH (first migration: CCL19/CCL21) and TFH cells (second migration: CXCL13) from lymph nodes from both naïve and infected macaques. We show that CD4 T cells from naïve macaques that migrated to the CXCL13 had higher levels of Bcl-6 expression and were capable of producing higher levels of IL-21 and lower levels of IFN-γ than cells that migrated to the CCL19 and CCL21-T zone chemokines. Additionally, in SIV infected macaques, CD4 T cells that migrated to CXCL13 were impaired in the production of IL-21 following stimulation with PMA- ionomycin. These results validate our two-step migration assay as an innovative way to study TFH in macaques.

Ce travail de thèse reposait sur l’hypothèse que la variabilité génétique des protéines « cibles » des médicaments immunosuppresseurs de la famille des inhibiteurs de la calcineurine (ICN ; ciclosporine et tacrolimus) pourrait expliquer une partie de la variabilité observée dans leur efficacité et toxicité. Une revue de la littérature nous a permis de lister un panel de variants génétiques au sein de la voie de la calcineurine, considérés comme étant de bons candidats pour des études en transplantation. Ces variants n’ont pas été associés au risque de rejet aigu ou d’infection grave dans une étude incluant 381 patients transplantés rénaux suivis durant un an après la transplantation. La variabilité pharmacodynamique des ICN a ensuite été explorée au travers des régulations épigénétiques. Une analyse de la méthylation de l’ADN après exposition médicamenteuse a été menée sur deux modèles. Premièrement, la lignée cellulaire JURKAT a été utilisée pour développer la méthode d’immunoprécipitation de l’ADN méthylé (MeDIP). Chez des souris traitées par ciclosporine et tacrolimus durant 3 mois, nous avons ensuite isolé les cellules cibles des médicaments, les lymphocytes T CD4 puis, après immunoprécipitation de l’ADN méthylé et analyse par séquençage pangénomique haut débit (MeDIP-seq, séquençeur Ion Proton), nous avons recherché les régions du génome présentant des différences de méthylation induites par le traitement. L’analyse différentielle bio-informatique a été menée à l’aide des outils SAMtools (Li et col., 2009), BEDtools (Quinlan and Hall, 2010), MACS2 (Zhang et col., 2008) et Diffbind (Stark and Brown, 2011 - Bioconductor). Sur l’ensemble du génome, nous n’avons identifié que 24 régions présentant un niveau de méthylation modifié par l’exposition au tacrolimus. Le promoteur du gène Calm2, codant pour l’isoforme 2 de la calmoduline, semble être davantage méthylé chez les souris traitées. Ces résultats préliminaires semblent prometteurs pour la découverte de biomarqueurs épigénétiques de la réponse thérapeutique aux immunosuppresseurs
Inter-individual genetic variation might account for diverse efficacy and toxicity of calcineurin inhibitors (cyclosporin and tacrolimus). In particular, some variants located within genes coding for proteins of the calcineurin pathway can explain part of this variability. In this manuscript, a panel of candidate genes was selected based on bibliographic review and tested in a pharmacogenetics study encompassing 381 renal transplants followed for one year after surgery. None of these candidates was associated with the acute rejection or serious infection risks. Furthermore, the pharmacodynamic variability of these drugs was also investigated, exploring the use of epigenomics profiling as proximal readout of the calcineurin inhibition treatment. In particular, we investigated the impact of drug exposure on DNA methylation in two experimental models. Methylated DNA immunoprecipitation followed by high-throughput sequencing (MeDIP-seq, Ion Proton technology) was deployed in JURKAT cell line, used as in vitro model, and in CD4 T lymphocytes isolated from mice treated with either cyclosporin or tacrolimus for three months. After sequencing, the differentiated methylated regions caused by drug exposure were analyzed. Bioinformatics analyses were performed using SAMtools (Li et al., 2009), BEDtools (Quinlan and Hall, 2010), MACS2 (Zhang et al., 2008) and Diffbind (Stark and Brown, 2011 - Bioconductor). Overall, the genome-wide analysis revealed only 24 regions with a differentiated enrichment in DNA methylation after three month-tacrolimus treatment, indicating a targeted effect of these treatments on a subset of key genes. Of note, CALM2 promoter, coding for the calmodulin isoform 2 protein, showed significant hypermethylation in tacrolimus-treated mice. These preliminary results corroborate the interest in using DNA methylation as promising approach to identify candidate biomarkers for therapeutic drug monitoring in calcineurin inhibitor treatments

The ability of cells within the adaptive immune system to develop into specialized subsets allow for a robust and tailored immune response in the advent of an infection or injury. Here, CD4+ T-cells are a crucial component within this system, with subsets such as TH1, TH2, TH17, TFH and TREG cells playing vital roles in propagating cell-mediated immunity. For example, TH1 cells are essential in combating intracellular pathogens such as viruses, while TFH cells communicate with B-cells to optimize antibody responses against an invading pathogen. The development (and functionality) of these subsets is ultimately dictated by the appropriate integration of extracellular cues such as cytokines with cell intrinsic transcription factors, thereby promoting the necessary gene profile. Moreover, the observation that T-helper cells could exhibit a flexible nature (i.e having shared gene profiles and effector functions) not only demonstrate the efficiency of our immune system but also how such flexibility could have unintended consequences during adverse events such as autoimmunity. An important mediator of such flexibility is cytokines. However, the complete network of factors that come together to co-ordinate cytokine mediated plasticity remain unknown. Thus, the work in this dissertation hope to delineate the factors that collaborate to regulate cytokine induced T-helper cell flexibility. As such, we see that in the presence of IL-2, the Ikaros Zinc Finger (IkZF) transcription factor Eos is upregulated in TH1 cells, with this factor playing a significant role in promoting regulatory and effector functions of TH1 cells. Moreover, we show that Eos forms a novel protein complex with STAT5 and promotes STAT5 activity in TH1 cells. However, depleting IL-2 from the micro-environment leads to the upregulation of two other members within the IkZF family, Ikaros and Aiolos. Aiolos in turn collaborate with STAT3, induces Bcl-6 expression within these cells, thus promoting these cells to exhibit characteristic features of TFH cells. The work in this dissertation hopes to advance our understanding of the regulatory mechanisms involved in cytokine mediated T-cell flexibility thereby hoping to open new avenues for the development of novel therapeutic strategies in the event of autoimmunity.
Ph. D.
T-helper (TH) cells are an important component of the immune system, as these cells aid in the fight against pathogens by secreting factors that either accentuate the inflammatory response during infection or attenuate immune responses post infection. Such effects are made possible because T-helper cells can differentiate into a variety of subsets, with each subset being an important mediator in maintaining immune homeostasis. For example, the T-helper cell subset called TH1 plays a vital role in the fight against intracellular pathogens such as viruses and certain parasites, while T-follicular helper (TFH) cells aid in the production of antibodies specific to the invading pathogen. The development of such subsets occur when cell extrinsic signals, called cytokines, lead to the activation or induction of cell intrinsic proteins called transcription factors. Interestingly, research over the years have shown that T-helper cells are highly adaptable in nature, with one subset having the ability to attain certain characteristic features of other subsets. This malleable nature of T-helper cells relies on several factors, with cytokines within the micro-environment being an important one. Although this form of flexibility is efficient and beneficial at times, it can also be detrimental, as such flexibility is known to promote certain autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis and type 1 diabetes. Such detrimental effects are thought to be due to cytokines within the environment. Therefore understanding how cytokines influence the flexible nature of T-helper cells is important; as controlling such flexibility (either by regulating cytokines or the transcription factors activated as a consequence) could prevent the propagation of undesired T-helper cell functions. As such, the work in this dissertation hopes to uncover how one such cytokine, termed Interleukin-2 (IL-2) mediates the flexibility between TH1 and TFH cells. The work highlighted in this dissertation broadens our understanding of how cytokines influence T-helper cell development and flexibility, and consequently allows the design of novel therapeutic strategies to combat autoimmune diseases.

During the course of an immune response, CD4+ T helper cells differentiate into a number of subsets including: T helper 1 (TH1), TH2, TH17, and T follicular helper (TFH) populations. The functional diversity of CD4+ T effector cells results in a coordinated, pathogen-specific immune response. For example, the production of IFNγ by TH1 cells is vital for the clearance of intracellular pathogens, while TFH cell engagement with cognate B cells is required for germinal center (GC) formation and the generation of pathogen- and vaccine- induced antibody production. The development of CD4+ subsets is contingent on extracellular signals, in the form of cytokines, and downstream transcriptional networks responsible for promoting the unique gene expression profile for each subset while simultaneously suppressing alternative cell fates. However, the exact composition of, and stage-specific requirements for, these environmental cytokines and transcription factor networks in the governance of TFH cell differentiation remain incompletely understood. The work in this dissertation seeks to understand how cell-extrinsic cytokine signals and cell-intrinsic transcription factor activities are integrated to properly regulate TFH cell development. Here, we demonstrate that in response to decreased IL-2 and constant IL-12 signaling, T helper 1 (TH1) cells upregulate a TFH-like phenotype, including expression of the TFH lineage defining transcription factor Bcl-6. Intriguingly, our work established that signals from IL-12 were required for both the differentiation and function of this TFH-like population. Mechanistically, IL-12 signals are propagated through both STAT3 and STAT4, leading to the upregulation of the TFH associated genes Bcl6, Il21, and Icos, correlating with increased B cell helper activity. Conversely, exposure of these TFH-like cells to IL-7 results in the STAT5-dependent repression of Bcl-6 and subsequent inhibition of the TFH phenotype. Finally, we describe a novel regulatory mechanism wherein STAT3 and the Ikaros zinc finger transcription factors Ikaros and Aiolos cooperate to regulate Bcl-6 expression in these TFH-like cells. Collectively, the work in this dissertation significantly advances our understanding of the regulatory mechanisms that govern TFH cell differentiation, setting the basis for the rational design of novel immunotherapeutic strategies and increasingly effective vaccines.
Ph. D.
Specialized cells called T helper cells serve as a critical interface between the innate (first line of defense) and adaptive (specialized and long-term) immune systems. During the course of an infection, T helper cells are responsible for orchestrating the immune-mediated elimination of invading viruses, bacteria, and parasites. This wide breadth of functionality is achieved through the formation of distinct T helper subsets including T helper 1 (TH1), TH2, TH17, and T follicular helper (TFH) populations. Individual subsets have distinct developmental requirements and have unique functions within the immune system. For example, TFH cells are required for the production of effective antibodies that recognize invading pathogens, leading to their subsequent elimination. This naturally occurring process is the basis for a number of modern medical therapies including vaccination. Conversely, aberrant generation of antibodies that recognize host tissues can result in the onset of various autoimmune diseases including lupus, multiple sclerosis, and crohn’s disease. Due to the importance of TFH cells to human health, there is intense interest in understanding how these cells are formed. It is recognized that the generation of these therapeutically important immune cells is mediated by numerous cell-extrinsic andintrinsic influences, including proteins in their cellular environment called cytokines, and important proteins inside of the cell called transcription factors. However, as this is a complicated and multi-step process, many questions remain regarding the identity of these cytokines and transcription factors. The work in this dissertation seeks to understand how cellextrinsic cytokine signals and cell-intrinsic transcription factor activities are integrated to properly regulate TFH cell development. Collectively, this body of work significantly advances our understanding of the regulatory mechanisms that govern TFH cell differentiation, setting the basis for the rational design of novel immunotherapeutic strategies and increasingly effective vaccines.

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a betaherpesvirus that infects up to 80% of the population worldwide, and establishes latency in monocytes and bone marrow cells. Reactivated HCMV can become an opportunistic pathogen in individuals who are immunocompromised, such as those with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). HCMV infection of AIDS patients causes a sight-threatening retinitis that leads to vision loss and blindness in up to 46% of this population without antiretroviral treatment. Because untreated HIV-infected individuals exhibit the loss of cell-mediated immunity and alterations in CD4+ T-helper (Th) cell cytokines, including elevation of interleukin-4 (IL-4), IL-10, and IL-17, we sought to test the hypothesis that these cytokines play key roles in governing the susceptibility to AIDS-related HCMV retinitis. This hypothesis was tested utilizing a clinically relevant mouse model of experimental murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) retinitis that occurs in C57BL/6 mice immunosuppressed by mouse retroviruses (MAIDS). Studies revealed that MAIDS progression was associated with increased levels of IL-4 and IL-10, cytokines whose production has been associated with diminished CD8+ T-cell-mediated immunity during HIV infection. However, MCMV–infected eyes of retinitis-susceptible IL-4-/- or IL-10-/- MAIDS mice exhibited frequency and severity of retinitis and viral titers equivalent to MCMV-infected eyes of wild-type MAIDS animals. These studies indicated that neither IL-4 nor IL-10 alone play key roles in increased susceptibility to MCMV retinitis. In comparison, IL-17, an inflammatory cytokine associated with the ocular autoimmune disease uveitis, was systemically increased during the progression of MAIDS, but MCMV-infected eyes of retinitis-susceptible MAIDS mice exhibited a significant reduction in IL-17. These findings suggested that IL-17 plays no direct role in the pathogenesis of experimental MCMV retinitis. However, these results also suggested the remarkable possibility that MCMV downregulates IL-17 production, a hypothesis supported by the observation that systemic MCMV infection of healthy and MAIDS mice resulted in the downregulation of IL-17. Mechanistic studies revealed that knockdown of IL-10 resulted in a partial recovery IL-17 levels during MCMV infection. We conclude that MCMV-induced IL-17 downregulation occurs via the stimulation of IL-10 and the suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS)-3. Taken together, our results add new information to the immunobiology of HCMV and to our basic understanding of the pathogenesis of AIDS-related HCMV retinitis.

Follicular lymphoma is a common B cell malignancy which usually follows an indolent course but it is a heterogeneous disease and there are no biomarkers that can accurately predict outcome or prognosis at the time of diagnosis. There is now clear evidence that the microenvironment plays an important role in the pathogenesis of this disease and the composition of the microenvironment has been linked to prognosis with variable results. The biological basis for the influence of the microenvironment and the contribution of individual cell types remain unclear. In this research we focus on CD4+ T cell subsets, in particular T follicular helper cells and characterise their number, phenotype and distribution in follicular lymphoma with comparisons to normal germinal centres in reactive lymph nodes. We also investigate if T follicular helper cells have a role in promoting B cell proliferation, and induction of AID, whether B and T cells form immunological synapses in follicular lymphoma, and if there is evidence of antigen specificity in the T-cell receptor repertoire.