Journal articles on the topic 'Malaria – Economic aspects'

Objective. A Socio-economic-political-cultural (SEPC) study was undertaken under the Roll Back Malaria (RBM) initiative to understand the process of programme implementation and how far in the changing malaria context, the broader environment has been understood and programme components have undergone changes.Material and Methods. Two studies were carried out; first in four villages under the primary health unit (PHU) Banavaralu in Tiptur Taluka in September 2002 and the second one in April 2003 in four villages in Chitradurga district, namely, Kappagere, Kellodu in Hosadurga Taluka, and Vani Vilas Puram and Kathrikenhally in Hiriyur Taluka. Focus group discussion and key interviews were adopted to collect the qualitative data.Results. Gender discrimination and lack of empowerment of women came out strongly in social analysis. In the rural elected bodies calledPanchayats, the concept of health committees was not known. Health committees as one of the important statutory committees under everyPanchayatwere nonexistent in reality in these villages. Financial difficulties atGrama Panchayatlevel and also meager budget allocation for health have led to indifferent attitude ofPanchayatmembers towards health. It was observed that there were generally no specific cultural practices in relation to malaria cure. Cultural and traditional practices in malaria-related issues were not predominant in the community except for some sporadic instances.Conclusion and Recommendation. SEPC study is an important indicator in malaria control programme. It is ultimately the community that takes the major decision directly or indirectly and the health authority must guide them in right direction.

Climate variability and change is a major driver of infectious diseases around the world. This study sought to investigate the role of climate variability on the emergence of malaria in the North West region of Cameroon. Both biophysical and socio-economic data were collected for this study. Biophysical data, mainly secondary, was collected from meteorological stations (rainfall and temperature data) and hospitals (malaria morbidity and mortality statistics) in the study area. Socio-economic data were collected from primary sources, mainly, survey of households and hospitals, using semi-structured questionnaires. A total of 164 questionnaires were distributed amongst medical personnel and the general public (aged 18-70 years). Data obtained were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Findings revealed that patterns of fluctuation in climate parameters did not have a perfect match with rates of prevalence of malaria. However, some relatively significant correlation was found to exist between certain aspects of climate and rates of prevalence of malaria. It was noted that other drivers are involved in influencing rates of prevalence of malaria besides climate variability and change. Amongst the impacts of malaria prevalence on the population were high rates of morbidity and mortality. The population employed treated mosquito bed nets as the main coping strategy for fighting against malaria. The study recommends that the health sector should incorporate the phenomena of climate variability and change into its policy framework, and more research should be conducted to assess other drivers of malaria prevalence in north western Cameroon.

Having changed our understanding about issues related to poverty, even in the fight against malaria we must keep in mind a number of issues other than simple lack of economic resources. In this article we tried to discuss the various aspects that make malaria a disease closely related to poverty and the effects of malaria on the same poverty of patients who are affected. If you want the program to "Rool Back Malaria" to succeed, you must program interventions that improve the living conditions of populations in endemic area, individually and as communities. As has become clear that the discovery of an effective vaccine will not eradicate the disease, remains a fundamental understanding of mechanisms related to poverty that cause Malaria remains one of the major killers in the world, to help communities affected and individuals to prevent, cure properly and not being afraid of this ancient disease.

Dependence of damage estimates upon assumptions of economic growth and technological development Greater economic growth could, by increasing emissions, lead to greater damages from climate change. On the other hand, by increasing wealth and advancing technological development and human capital, economic growth would also increase a society's adaptive capacity and reduce those damages. Although analyses of the impacts (or damages) of climate change generally incorporate economic growth into the emissions and climate change scenarios that they use as inputs, these analyses do not adequately account for the increase in adaptive capacity resulting from that very growth. Because of this inconsistency, these analyses generally tend to overstate impacts. For instance, the average GDP per capita for developing countries in 2100 is projected to be $11,000 (in 1990 US$, at market exchange rates) under A2, the slowest economic growth scenario, and $66,500 under A1, the scenario with both the greatest economic growth and largest climate change. By comparison, in 1990 the GDP per capita for Greece, for example, was $8,300 while Switzerland, the country with the highest income level at that time, had a GDP per capita of $34,000. Based on historical experience, one should expect that at the high levels of GDP per capita projected by the IPCC scenarios in 2100, wealth-driven increases in adaptive capacity alone should virtually eliminate damages from many climate-sensitive hazards, e.g., malaria and hunger, whether or not these damages are caused by climate change. Current damage estimates are inflated further because they usually do not adequately account for secular (time-dependent) improvements in technology that, if history is any guide, ought to occur in the future unrelated to economic development. A compelling argument for reducing greenhouse gases is that it would help developing countries cope with climate change. It is asserted that they need this help because their adaptive capacity is weak. Although often true today, this assertion becomes increasingly invalid in the future if developing countries become wealthier and more technologically advanced, per the IPCC's scenarios. Damage assessments frequently overlook this. Are scenario storylines internally consistent in light of historical experience? Regardless of whether the economic growth assumptions used in the IPCC scenarios are justified, their specifications regarding the relationship between wealth and technological ability are, in general, inconsistent with the lessons of economic history. They assume that the less wealthy societies depicted by the B1 and B2 scenarios would have greater environmental protection and employ cleaner and more efficient technologies than the wealthier society characterized by the A1F1 scenario. This contradicts general experience in the real world, where richer countries usually have cleaner technologies. Under the IPCC scenarios, the richer A1 world has the same population as the poorer B1 world, but in fact total fertility rates — a key determinant of population growth rates — are, by and large, lower for richer nations and, over time, have dropped for any given level of GDP per capita (Goklany 2001a). Merits of reallocating expenditures from mitigation to international development Halting climate change at its 1990 level would annually cost substantially more than the $165 billion estimated for the minimally-effective Kyoto Protocol. According to DEFRA-sponsored studies, in 2085, which is at the limit of the foreseeable future, such a halt would reduce the total global population at risk (PAR) due to both climate change and non-climate-change-related causes by 3 percent for malaria, 21 percent for hunger, and 86 percent for coastal flooding, although the total PAR for water shortage might well increase. The benefits associated with halting climate change — and more — can be obtained more economically through “focused adaptation”, i.e., activities focused on reducing vulnerabilities to the above noted climate-sensitive hazards, or through broadly advancing sustainable development in developing countries by meeting the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by 2015. In fact, such efforts, which together could annually cost donor countries $150 billion according to UN Millennium Project and World Health Organization studies, should reduce global malaria, hunger, poverty, and lack of access to safe water and sanitation by 50 percent (each); reduce child and maternal mortality by at least 66 percent; provide universal primary education; and reverse growth in AIDS/HIV, and other major diseases. These numbers also indicate that no matter how important climate change might be in this century, for the next several decades it would be far more beneficial for human well-being, especially in developing countries, to deal with non-climate change related factors. Not only would either focused adaptation or adherence to the MDGs provide greater benefits at lesser costs through the foreseeable future than would any emission reduction scheme, they would help solve today's urgent problems sooner and more certainly. Equally important, they would also increase the ability to deal with tomorrow's problems, whether they are caused by climate change or other factors. None of these claims can be reasonably made on behalf of any mitigation scheme today. Accordingly, over the next few decades the focus of climate policy should be to: (a) broadly advance sustainable development, particularly in developing countries since that would generally enhance their adaptive capacity to cope with the many urgent problems they currently face, including many that are climate-sensitive, (b) specifically reduce vulnerabilities to climate-sensitive problems that are urgent today and might be exacerbated by future climate change, and (c) implement “no-regret” emission reduction measures, while (d) concurrently striving to expand the universe of no-regret options through research and development to increase the variety and cost-effectiveness of available mitigation options. Ancillary benefits associated with greenhouse gas (GHG) reductions Some GHG emission control options might provide substantial co-benefits by concurrently reducing problems not directly caused by climate change (e.g., air pollution or lack of sustained economic growth, especially in developing countries). However, in both these instances, the same, or greater, level of co-benefits can be obtained more economically by directly attacking the specific (non-climate change related) problems rather than indirectly through greenhouse gas control. On the other hand, a direct assault on the numerous climate-sensitive hurdles to sustainable development (e.g., hunger, malaria, and many natural disasters) would, as indicated, provide greater benefits more cost-effectively than would efforts to mitigate climate change.

Millions of people fall ill with malaria every year—most of them are located in sub-Saharan Africa. The weight of the burden of malaria on a society is determined by a complex interplay of environmental and social factors, including poverty, awareness and education, among others. A substantial share of the affected population is characterized by a general lack of anticipation and coping capacities, which renders them particularly vulnerable to the disease and its adverse side effects. This work aims at identifying interdependencies and feedback mechanisms in the malaria social vulnerability system and their variations in space by combining concepts, methods and tools from Climate Change Adaptation, Spatial Analysis, and Statistics and System Dynamics. The developed workflow is applied to a selected set of social, economic and biological vulnerability indicators covering five East-African Nations. As the study areas’ local conditions vary in a multitude of aspects, the social vulnerability system is assumed to vary accordingly throughout space. The study areas’ spatial entities were therefore aggregated into three system-regions using correlation-based clustering. Their respective correlation structures are displayed as Causal Loop Diagrams (CLDs). While the three resulting CLDs do not necessarily display causal relations (as the set of social vulnerability indicators are likely linked through third variables and parts of the data are proxies), they give a good overview of the data, can be used as basis for discussions in participatory settings and can potentially enhance the understanding the malaria vulnerability system.

The acute medical services could not exist without blood transfusions—life-savers in many situations. But transfusions can also be a quick and easy route for the transmission of infectious agents such as HIV, HBV, HCV and malaria. Infection through blood supply is a major issue in all countries but particularly in those with economic constraints which limit safety. This study was carried out in India (March—May 1997) and involved centres in Delhi, Calcutta and Vellore. It examined many aspects of blood transfusion including donor screening, use of professional donors, blood testing and criteria for blood use1. The many problems in Indian blood transfusion services are mirrored in other countries. Here we examine the problems, priorities and practicalities of blood transfusion particularly in developing countries.

Approximately two billion people lack access to medicines globally. People living with HIV, cancer patients, those suffering from tuberculosis or malaria, and other populations in desperate need of life-saving medicines are increasingly unable to access existing preventative, curative, and life-prolonging treatments. In many cases, treatment may be unavailable or inaccessible for even some of the most common and readily treatable health concerns, such as hypertension. In the developing world, many of the factors that contribute to making the world’s most vulnerable and marginalized populations particularly susceptible to illness also operate to restrict their access to medicines. As a result of dramatic economic inequities and widespread poverty, it is not profitable for most originator pharmaceutical companies to develop new medicines for sale in developing markets or to lower the cost of existing drugs so that they are affordable for the majority of these populations.

Throughout history, Cyprus has hosted many civilizations and states due to its strategic location in the Mediterranean. One of them is the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans conquered the island in 1571 and maintained their rule until 1878. The scholarly attempt to grasp the Ottoman Empire with its all institutional, political, social, economic and cultural aspects has been one of the fields of interest for world historiography. It is obvious that local history studies in the countries experienced the Ottoman rule, would help and contribute to draw a general picture of the Ottoman Empire. In this context, the current work, mainly relying on the religious court records, aims to identify the diseases except the contagious ones such as cholera, plague and malaria. The other aim is to investigate and analyse the doctor-patient relations within social, economic and juridical contexts in Ottoman Cyprus. The results reveal that the overwhelming majority of the doctors operating in Cyprus were in private practice until the second half of the 19th century when the Ottomans started the centralization and modernization of its institutions including the health services, and thus to view the healthcare services as a public service. Although the state did not take responsibility for public healthcare services for public, it had a certain control mechanism on the doctors and their operations.

As a worldwide economic crisis emerged at the end of 2008, international health agencies were quick to highlight its predictable impact on health in the poorest of communities. The World Health Organization (WHO) underscored the need for a multisectoral approach to the crisis, “seeking health gains through demonstrating the importance of health in all policies” and whether current investments in health addressed the broader social determinants of health. However, despite good intentions and decades of discussion addressing the need for transformative changes globally to reduce poverty and improve health equity, little progress has been made.A recent report on progress towards the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) indicates that many targeted goals have not been met, with some goals lagging many years behind schedule (“Four years after the target date, gender parity in education has yet to be achieved”). Although progress towards achieving the MDGs has been made for some specific conditions (e.g., malaria), where targeted interventions have had an immediate impact, limited progress is reported in more complex areas such as maternal child health. Such complex health issues require structural changes, strong political will, long-term funding, and consideration of other health determinants, such as education and exposure to environmental hazards.

Abstract The three presentations in this session encompass clinical, pathophysiological and therapeutic aspects of hematologic diseases which impact most heavily on developing world countries. Dr. Victor Gordeuk discusses new insights regarding the multi-faceted pathogenesis of anemia in the complicated malaria occurring in Africa. He describes recent investigations indicating the possible contribution of immune dysregulation to this serious complication and the implications of these findings for disease management. Dr. Surapol Issaragrisil and colleagues describe epidemiologic and clinical characteristics of the thalassemic syndromes. In addition to being considered a major health problem in Southeast Asia, the migration throughout the world of people from this region has caused the disease to have global impact. A unique thalassemia variant, Hb Eβ-thalassemia, with distinctive clinical features, has particular relevance for this demographic issue. Special focus will be reported regarding recent prenatal molecular screening methods in Thailand which have proven useful for early disease detection and disease control strategies. Dr. Raul Ribeiro describes a clinical model for providing effective treatment for a complex malignancy (childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia) in countries with limited resources. With the multidisciplinary approach in Central American of the joint venture between St. Jude Children's Research Hospital International Outreach Program and indigenous health care personnel, major therapeutic advances for this disease have been achieved. Given the major demographic population shifts occurring worldwide, these illnesses also have important clinical implications globally. These contributions demonstrate that lessons learned within countries of disease prevalence aid our understanding and management of a number of disorders prominently seen in developed countries. They will show how effective partnerships between hematologists in more and less developed nations may work together to produce important advances for treating major hematologic diseases in less developed regions. A major focus relates to the socio-economic and medical burden of these diseases in developing countries with limited resources. As such, these problems provide a challenge and an opportunity for collaborative interaction between hematologists and policy makers worldwide.

ABSTRACT Pathogens vectored by nematodes pose serious agricultural, economic, and health threats; however, little is known of the ecological and evolutionary aspects of pathogen transmission by nematodes. Here we describe a novel model system with two trophic levels, bacteriophages and nematodes, each of which competes for bacteria. We demonstrate for the first time that nematodes are capable of transmitting phages between spatially distinct patches of bacteria. This model system has considerable advantages, including the ease of maintenance and manipulation at the laboratory bench, the ability to observe many generations in short periods, and the capacity to freeze evolved strains for later comparison to their ancestors. More generally, experimental studies of complex multispecies interactions, host-pathogen coevolution, disease dynamics, and the evolution of virulence may benefit from this model system because current models (e.g., chickens, mosquitoes, and malaria parasites) are costly to maintain, are difficult to manipulate, and require considerable space. Our initial explorations centered on independently assessing the impacts of nematode, bacterium, and phage population densities on virus migration between host patches. Our results indicated that virus transmission increases with worm density and host bacterial abundance; however, transmission decreases with initial phage abundance, perhaps because viruses eliminate available hosts before migration can occur. We discuss the microbial growth dynamics that underlie these results, suggest mechanistic explanations for nematode transmission of phages, and propose intriguing possibilities for future research.

Background: Anemia in pregnancy is a major public health problem especially in Low and Middle-income countries (LMIC) including Ghana and is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as being present when the hemoglobin concentration in the peripheral blood is 11g/dl or less. In most African countries anemia in pregnancy occurs if the hemoglobin concentration falls below 10g/dl. Pregnant women are at a higher risk of developing anemia due to several factors such as hemodilution, nutritional factors, multiple gestation, socio-economic status and malaria infestation. Anemia in pregnancy is an important cause of maternal mortality and affects half of pregnant women worldwide; with 56% of West African pregnant women being anemic. The objective of this study is to assess the prevalence and identify the risk factors associated with anemia among pregnant women receiving antenatal care at the West Gonja Hospital(WGH) Methods: A cross-sectional was conducted with 136 pregnant women receiving antenatal care at the WGH between January 2017 to February 2018. Random sampling was used to select participants and data was collected using a structured questionnaire. Data was analyzed using the SPSS Version 24.0. Results: A total 71(52.2%) of the study population were anemic, while 65 (47.8%) were not anemic. 20(74.1%) of the 27 pregnant housewives were anemic, while 11(64.7%) of the pregnant farmers were anemic. 27 (96.4%) of the 28 pregnant women who took their iron/folate supplement only some few days were anemic. 12 (100%) of the 12 participants who took their iron/folate supplement a few times a week were anemic. 4 (80%) of the 5 participants who never took their iron/folate supplement were anemic. 21 (70%) of those who did not sleep under ITN were anemic. 33 (84.6%) of the 39 patients who were diagnosed with malaria were also anemic. 28 (87.5%) of the 32 participants who took only 2 meals a day were anemic. 27 (79.4%) of the 34 patients who took liver, beef, chicken and fish only twice weekly were anemic. 15 (88.2%) of the 17 patients who drank tea some days in a week were anemic. Conclusion: Although most of the pregnant women were adequately educated on the most relevant aspects of anemia in pregnancy, more than half of them were still anemic. Anemia was more prevalent among pregnant uneducated housewives with poor nutritional habits. All the pregnant sickle cell disease patients as well as those diagnosed with malaria were also anemic.

Background: Anemia in pregnancy is a major public health problem especially in Low and Middle-income countries (LMIC) including Ghana and is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as being present when the hemoglobin concentration in the peripheral blood is 11g/dl or less. In most African countries anemia in pregnancy occurs if the hemoglobin concentration falls below 10g/dl. Pregnant women are at a higher risk of developing anemia due to several factors such as hemodilution, nutritional factors, multiple gestation, socio-economic status and malaria infestation. Anemia in pregnancy is an important cause of maternal mortality and affects half of pregnant women worldwide; with 56% of West African pregnant women being anemic. The objective of this study is to assess the prevalence and identify the risk factors associated with anemia among pregnant women receiving antenatal care at the West Gonja Hospital (WGH) Methods: A cross-sectional was conducted with 136 pregnant women receiving antenatal care at the WGH between January 2017 to February 2018. Random sampling was used to select participants and data was collected using a structured questionnaire. Data was analyzed using the SPSS Version 24.0. Results: A total 71(52.2%) of the study population were anemic, while 65 (47.8%) were not anemic. 20(74.1%) of the 27 pregnant housewives were anemic, while 11(64.7%) of the pregnant farmers were anemic. 27 (96.4%) of the 28 pregnant women who took their iron/folate supplement only some few days were anemic. 12 (100%) of the 12 participants who took their iron/folate supplement a few times a week were anemic. 4 (80%) of the 5 participants who never took their iron/folate supplement were anemic. 21 (70%) of those who did not sleep under ITN were anemic. 33 (84.6%) of the 39 patients who were diagnosed with malaria were also anemic. 28 (87.5%) of the 32 participants who took only 2 meals a day were anemic. 27 (79.4%) of the 34 patients who took liver, beef, chicken and fish only twice weekly were anemic. 15 (88.2%) of the 17 patients who drank tea some days in a week were anemic. Conclusion: Although most of the pregnant women were adequately educated on the most relevant aspects of anemia in pregnancy, more than half of them were still anemic. Anemia was more prevalent among pregnant uneducated housewives with poor nutritional habits. All the pregnant sickle cell disease patients as well as those diagnosed with malaria were also anemic.

Background: Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a group of hereditary hemolytic disorders characterized by abnormal hemoglobin molecules that distort red blood cells (RBCs) into a rigid, sickle-like shape. The global burden of SCD is substantial. In North America and Europe, the incidence and prevalence of SCD range from approximately 0.00008% to 0.274% and 0.01% to 0.05%, respectively. In these regions, the median age at death for patients with the disease ranges from 40 to 60 years, and childhood mortality has steadily dropped in recent years. Sickle cell disease is more common in certain ethnic groups and is most prominent in malaria-endemic regions, as individuals who are heterozygous for the sickle cell mutation are relatively protected against malaria infection. One such region is the Middle East, where the incidence and prevalence rates of SCD in some countries are amongst the highest in the world, and childhood mortality rates for patients with SCD are relatively high. However, the overall burden of illness-encompassing various aspects of disease and their impact on costs and health outcomes-is largely uncharacterized for SCD in Middle Eastern countries. Understanding the burden of illness of SCD in this region could help to inform and prioritize health care policies and assist in the allocation of health care resources. Objective: To understand the burden of illness of SCD in Middle Eastern countries by identifying available information using a systematic literature review (SLR). Methods: A systematic literature search of English-language studies published within five years of the search date (July 2018) was conducted using PubMed and EMBASE databases. Pre-defined population, intervention, comparator, and outcomes (PICO) criteria were used to identify relevant studies conducted in Middle Eastern countries. All patient populations with SCD receiving any approved or guideline-recommended medical interventions were of interest. Studies that reported any outcomes related to burden of illness such as epidemiology, treatment patterns, prognosis, health-related quality of life (HRQoL), and economic information were included. All study types were included except for case reports and conference meeting minutes. Results: Twenty-three studies from Middle Eastern countries met the inclusion criteria (Figure 1). Of these studies, eight were from Saudi Arabia, one was from the United Arab Emirates, six were from Bahrain, three were from Lebanon, one was from Oman, one was from Kuwait, and three were from Egypt. Epidemiological information was captured for six countries, treatment pattern information was captured for three countries, disease prognosis information was captured for six countries, HRQoL information was captured for two countries, and cost information was captured for one country. Overall, the incidence and prevalence of SCD in Middle Eastern countries both ranged from approximately 0.04% to 2.1%. Vaso-occlusive crises (VOC), acute chest syndrome (ACS), acute splenic sequestration events, viral infections, and anemic/hemolytic events were the most common causes of hospitalization; however, the rates generally differed between countries. Limited information was available for disease prognosis; factors related to high mortality included age, frequency of hospitalizations, and length of stay in the ICU. Information on HRQoL was even further limited; only two studies captured by the search reported this type of data. In these two studies, SCD patients experienced a reduced QoL compared with non-diseased controls. The reported reductions in QoL for SCD patients were associated with poor education, age of onset of ACS and blood transfusion in the three-month period preceding the study, and specific physical symptoms including fever and pain. Finally, the only published economic information identified by the search was the cost of screening for SCD with high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) in Lebanon ($3.50 per newborn). Conclusions: Substantial data gaps across all aspects of burden of illness were identified. Moreover, the data captured-especially for HRQoL and costs-were limited and reported in very few countries. These findings highlight the importance of further characterizing the burden of illness of SCD in the Middle East, where the incidence and prevalence rates of the disease are relatively high. Disclosures Bailey: Novartis: Employment. Gibbs:Novartis: Employment. Dani:Novartis: Employment. Mendell:Novartis: Consultancy. Thompson:Novartis: Consultancy.

Les biomédicaments permettent un meilleur accès au traitement spécialement pour les affections de longue durée (cancer, diabète, maladie de sang,…) leur marché représente un enjeu important pour l’industrie pharmaceutique, Les brevets de certains biomedicaments arrivent déjà à échéance, ouvrant la voie à d’autres fabricants pour mettre sur le marché des produits dits biosimilaires qui sont moins chers que les biomedicaments de référence et ils peuvent ainsi représenter une source d’économie importante pour les système de santé. Les processus de développement et de fabrication de ces biosimilaires sont plus complexes et plus coûteux que ceux des génériques de médicaments chimiques et expliquent en dernier lieu les grandes différences de prix entre ces deux types de médicaments. Les biosimilaires ne peuvent pas être exactement identiques aux biomédicaments de référence mais ils ont un profil de qualité, d’efficacité et de sécurité similaire à celui–ci, et la démonstration de la similarité nécessite de nouveaux essais précliniques et cliniques. Au Maroc, un nouveau décret vient poser un cadre réglementaire garantissant l'autorisation de produits comparables à la référence, sûrs et efficaces Toutefois, la question de l’interchangeabilité reste posée dans la mesure où ces produits présentent des variabilités de l’un à l’autre.

Border governance is a necessity for Indonesia as an archipelagic country bordering maritime and / or land with other countries. Indonesia is located geographically between two continents and two oceans and no less than 17,504 islands. the border region has a very strategic multifunctionality. Politically, border areas provide legal certainty for internal and external sovereignty, both in the context of managing government administration and applying national law and in engaging with other countries. The existence of clarity of this border region will also provide legal certainty for a country for the utilization and management of natural resources contained in its territory for the benefit of the prosperity of the whole community. Border management must also be aimed at the prosperity of the people, especially those living on the border. The development of socio- economic activities to improve the socio-economic well-being of people at the border is very important because it will directly and indirectly strengthen the security aspects at the border. As a & quot;front page & quot; the creation of prosperity at the border will contribute positively to the conditions of security and defense, both regionally and nationally.

The article examines the main global problems of the modern world space, defining the main tendencies of overcoming the crisis and the further path of human development. Globalization indicates the general nature of most processes meaningful to mankind. Modern humanity represents an indivisible system of economic, political, social and cultural ties and interactions, which is significative for the unity of its future destiny. Informatization became the basis of globalization, reflecting the current level of technology development. Global problems are problems affecting all mankind, influencing the course of economic development and social sphere, also ecology and political stability. These problems require international cooperation, since none, even a highly developed State, is able solve them on its own. The number of hungry people in the world has increased over the past few years. Now every ninth person in the world is starving every day, suffering from a lack of nutrition. Both the food scarcity and hunger are among the greatest threats to the overall health of the human population exceeding malaria, tuberculosis or HIV. Responsibility for the planet should begin with responsibility for the country, because the crisis of a separate country complicates the world situation in the political aspect; ecological and resource crises jeopardize environmental equilibrium and complicate the problem of resources on a global scale; an economic crisis leads to social consequences in other countries.

Nowadays, sustainable development brings a different kind of meaning especially among scholars who have their own purposes. This principle is not only limited to the preservation of the environment and its resources, but it also included human resources and financial management as well as physical development. The awareness towards sustainable development had been started in 1987 which was pioneered by the report of Brundtland (UNWCED), then it was recognized by Rio de Jeneiro Summit in 1992. Next, the concept of this agenda is also has been reinforced during the World Conference in 2002 on sustainable development in Johannesburg, South Africa by bringing the world's attention to the challenges and importance of sustainable development. In Malaysia, there are not all of the activities on Marine Protected Area (MPA) that are carried out in line with the concept of sustainable development, although there are various efforts and policies that have been introduced to preserve the natural environment and ecosystems for the sake of future generations. Therefore, this article highlights the key aspects that stakeholders should consider in order to introduce a philosophy of sustainable development in the Marine Protected Areas management sector. The initiative proposed in this article provides a strategic focus on maintaining harmony between those involved in the management of the Marine Park and the industry of maritime tourism. It also takes into account the legal framework and economic interests of stakeholders in this sector to focus on exploiting the national resources of the National Park and protecting the integrity of the Marine Park environment in line with the concept of sustainable development.

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This research is a study that focus on local wisdom aspect as the force behind the sustainable development, whether development in economic, social, culture, education and other aspects. The scope of this research problem is coastal development based on the local coastal wisdom itself. Where wisdom is positioned as a potential for environmentally friendly and sustainable development. So this study looks at how the strategy of Panglima Laot as an institution of adat laot or local wisdom which is a maritime cultural heritage that developed in Aceh coast in maintaining sustainable coastal environment. This research was conducted in Pidie District of Aceh Province, where Pidie District is one of the coastal regency in Aceh. By borders, the North side of the regency is bounded by the Malacca Strait, South by West Aceh and Aceh Jaya Regencies, the East with Pidie Jaya Regency and the West is bounded by the Regency of Aceh Besar. This research uses qualitative research methods. In addition, the study also uses a multi-disciplinary approach. The approach used in this research is the approach of sociology, anthropology and history. The existence of three disciplinary approaches, can provide a comprehensive description of Panglima Laot, so that the researchers can build concepts in answering research problems. The results of this study indicates that, Panglima Laot as chief of adat (custom) has its own role in regulating fishermen as coastal custom communities. The existence of Panglima Laot is strategic enough in limiting the behavior of fishing communities, especially behavior that can damage the coastal environment. To curb such behavior, the Panglima Laot undertook by customary approach as a strategy in preventing the destruction to the coastal environment caused by the behavior of fishermen. The customary approach strategy used by panglima laot as adat leader in encouraging sustainable coastal maritime conservation in Pidie District.

Leadership is the ability of a government in shaping the people’s mind to achieve goals that have been planned together in order to strengthen its administration especially in establishing diplomatic relations with other countries. Without the mobilization of intellectual and physical cooperation from these two groups, it is impossible for a government to succeed in its diplomatic missions. Therefore, this article will discuss the leadership of the Malay sultanate in establishing diplomatic relations through data analysis of the events described in historiographic manuscripts such as Sulalat al- Salatin , Al-Tarikh Salasilah Negeri Kedah , Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa and Tuhfat al-Nafis . In addition, this article also describes the effectiveness of this leadership in response to the diplomatic relations that had been initiated by and accepted from other governments. The result of the study will show that a variety of methods or approaches were used by the rulers of the Malay sultanate in advancing the government’s reputation from the economic, social and physical aspects. Keywords: leadership, leaders/rulers, Malay sultanate, diplomatic, historiography Abstrak Kepemimpinan merupakan upaya pemerintah dalam usaha membentuk jiwa dan minda rakyat untuk bersama-sama merealisasikan matlamat yang telah direncanakan bagi memantapkan tadbir urus kerajaan, khususnya, dalam usaha menjalinkan hubungan diplomatik dengan kerajaan lain. Tanpa penggemblengan daya fikir dan fizikal daripada dua golongan ini, adalah mustahil untuk sesebuah kerajaan itu berjaya dalam misi diplomatiknya. Oleh itu, makalah ini akan membincangkan kepemimpinan pemerintah kesultanan Melayu dalam hubungan diplomatik dengan menggunakan kaedah analisis data terhadap peristiwa yang terdapat dalam naskhah historiografi seperti Sulalat al- Salatin , Al-Tarikh Salasilah Negeri Kedah , Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa dan Tuhfat al-Nafis . Selain itu, tulisan ini juga menghuraikan keberkesanan kepemimpinan tersebut terhadap hubungan diplomatik yang ditawarkan dan diterima daripada kerajaan luar. Dapatan menunjukkan bahawa terdapat pelbagai kaedah kepemimpinan yang digunakan oleh pemerintah kesultanan Melayu untuk melonjakkan nama kerajaan yang diperintah dari aspek ekonomi, sosial dan fizikal. Kata kunci: kepemimpinan, pemerintah, kesultanan Melayu, diplomatik, historiografi

Chinese government has developed transport infrastructure rapidly under Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) strategy. The BRI strategy is China's economic development strategies for expanding trade and cultural influence towards countries in western and eastern regions, including ASEAN. The development of BRI strategy is consists of two main components i.e., (i) the Silk Road Economic Belt, follows the historical overland Silk Road through Central Asia, Iran, Turkey and eventually to Europe, and (ii) the Maritime Silk Road, originates in the South China Sea, passing through the Malacca Strait, the Indian Ocean, and the Red Sea and extending into the Mediterranean Sea (Chris & Elizabeth, 2015). Due to the BRI strategy, more than 6000 trains made the journey from China to Europe in 2018, which is an increase of 72% compared to 2017. China has sent more than 11,000 freight trains to Europe and back since the BRI strategy was announced in 2013. Railway networks have been constructed under the BRI strategy for connecting 48 Chinese cities with 42 cities in Europe through Asia. There are many railway infrastructures under the BRI strategy. The China – Laos railway (Vientiane–Boten railway) is one of project under the Silk Road Economic Belt that has been developed for serving as a key infrastructure for the economic corridor between the two countries. In nearly future, this railway will be helped to boost trade, investment and tourism for Lao PDR. and south China's Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. The Vientiane–Boten railway, especially transportation time will attract both travelers and Logistics Service Providers (LSP), which can be reduced time of journey compared with road mode. In this paper, modal shift potential of travelers and freight on Kunming-Bangkok Highway (R3A), AH2, AH8, AH9, AH10, AH12, AH13, and AH18 have been investigated by considering behavioral aspects of long distance travel. Keywords: Mode Split Model, Modal Shift, Vientiane–Boten railway, Travel Behaviour

SUMMARYParasitic infections in man and domestic animals exhibit two striking characteristics (a) their prevalence is high, but infections are unequally distributed among individuals within populations and (b) immunity is often slow to develop and appears, at best, only partially effective. Recent immunological and epidemiological studies suggest that effective immunity can develop, but that high prevalence within populations reflects the operation, not only of socio-economic and climatic factors, or husbandry practices, but also of powerful environmentally induced constraints upon the development of resistance. Immunogenetic studies suggest the operation of additional constraints which reflect individual genetic characteristics, and which influence the ability to develop and express effective immunity. A full understanding of all constraints is necessary before levels of population and individual resistance to infection can be increased; the need for such understanding has become more pressing with the prospect that anti-parasite vaccines may become available. Two aspects of environmentally induced constraints are considered, those arising from nutritional inadequacies and those resulting from exposure to infection in early life. Both are discussed primarily in terms of helminth parasites. Genetically determined constraints are discussed with reference to MHC-restricted recognition of malarial peptide vaccines and in terms of Class II molecule-directed control of T-cell function inLeishmaniainfections. Genetic influences are also considered from the standpoint of inflammatory cell function, in immunity against intestinal nematodes and in vaccine-induced immunity againstSchistosoma. Finally, parasite-induced constraints, particularly those which down-regulate protective responses are discussed briefly.

Tongkol komo (Euthynnus affinis) merupakan komoditas perikanan ekonomis penting. Di Selat Malaka sumber daya tongkol komo merupakan stok bersama antara Indonesia dan Malaysia yang telah dimanfaatkan secara intensif dengan berbagai alat tangkap. Dalam rangka pengelolaan sumber daya ikan tongkol komo di Selat Malaka supaya tetap lestari, penelitian ini dilakukan dengan tujuan memperoleh informasi mengenai parameter populasi, aspek biologi dan aspek penangkapan. Penelitian dilakukan secara observasi, enumerasi dan wawancara. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan nilai berbagai parameter populasi; panjang maksimum tercapai (L) = 64,25 cmFL, laju pertumbuhan (K) = 0,96/tahun, laju kematian alami (M) = 1,38 /tahun, laju kematian karena penangkapan (F) = 1,41/tahun, panjang pertama tertangkap (Lc) = 34,5 cmFL dan panjang pertama matang gonad (Lm) = 41,02 cmFL dan laju pengusahaan (E) = 0,50. Dari aspek biologi diperoleh; nisbah kelamin betina : jantan =1 : 1,15, puncak gonad matang dan indek kematangan gonad terjadi pada Maret dan November, mangsa dominan ikan teri (Stolephorus sp.). Alat tangkap utama untuk penangkapan tongkol komo berupa pukat langgai (purse seine). Nilai CPUE tertinggi diperoleh pada Juli dengan musim penangkapan terjadi pada periode April-Juli. Kontribusi tangkapan ikan tongkol komo sebesar 17,42-27,20 % dari total tangkapan ikan. Jenis ikan tangkapan utama yang berinteraksi dengan tongkol komo adalah kembung (Rastrelliger sp.) dan layang (Decapterus sp). Parameter yang bersifat negatif terhadap kelestarian populasi ikan tongkol komo, seperti ukuran ikan dan hasil tangkapan per unit usaha nilainya kecil. Parameter yang bersifat positif antara lain; rasio antara nilai kematian alami dengan nilai laju pertumbuhan masih dalam kisaran normal dan nilai tingkat pengusahaan masih dalam kisaran optimum. Penangkapan ikan tongkol komo di Selat Malaka masih dalam keadaan normal, tetapi perlu pengawasan terhadap mata jaring dan alat tangkap yang digunakan serta aktifitas penangkapan pada musim pemijahan. Adanya interaksi dengan jenis ikan pelagis kecil dan dominasi ikan teri dalam isi lambung, sehingga dalam pengelolaan ikan tongkol komo harus dilakukan bersama dengan kedua komoditi. Mackerel tuna (Euthynnus affinis) is an important economic fishery commodity. In the Malacca Strait, mackerel tuna resource is a share stock between Indonesia and Malaysia that has been used intensively with various fishing gear. In order to manage the fish resources of mackerel tuna in the Malacca Strait to be sustainable, this research is conducted with the aim of obtaining information on parameteer population, biology aspects and fishing aspects. The research was conducted by observation, enumeration and interview. The results showed the values of various population parameters: length infinity (L”) = 64.25 cmFL, growth rate (K) = 0.96/year, natural mortality rate (M) = 1.38 /year, capture mortality rate (F) = 1.41 /year, length of first captured (Lc) = 34.5 cmFL and length of first maturity (Lm) = 41.02 cmFL and exploitation rate (E) = 0,50. Biological aspect was obtained; sex ratio female : male = 1: 1.15, peak of mature gonad and index gonad maturity occurred in March and November, main prey are anchovy (Stolephorus sp.). The main fishing gear for catching mackerel tuna is purse seine. The highest CPUE value was obtained in July with the fishing season occurring in the April-July period. The contribution of catch mackerel tuna are 17.42-27.20 % of the total catch of fish. The main species of fish that interact with mackerel tuna are mackerel (Rastrelliger sp.) and sardine (Decapterus sp). Negative parameters to sustainability of mackerel tuna population such as fish size and catch per unit effort are small. Positive parameters are the ratio between the value of natural mortality and the rate of growth is still within the normal range and the level of exploitations rate is still within the optimum range. The fishing of mackerel tuna in the Malacca Strait is still in normal condition, but it is necessary to monitor of the nets mesh size and fishing gear used and fishing activity on spawning season. The existence of interaction with small pelagic fish species and the dominance of anchovy in the contents of the stomach, so that in the management of mackerel tuna fish should be done together with the two commodities.

Since February 26, 2020, when coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic emerged in Karachi City and rapidly spread throughout Pakistan, the disease has affected more than 6200 people and more than 111 deaths have been reported till April 15. If we compare the disasters of COVID-19 in Pakistan with other countries like China, Iran and European Union nations, so many questions arise. We have so many challenges in controlling this pandemic like the geopolitics of country, poverty, low literacy rate, environmental conditions, hygienic conditions, and food intake habits. In all these aspects, there are poor conditions but the outbreak of COVID-19 in Pakistan was slower than other developing countries. Pakistan’s humid condition, hot weather, early response to COVID-19, population immune system, BCG vaccination and the number of young people favors to attenuate the impact of COVID-19. In this paper, we discuss the outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic in China, Iran and Pakistan and share day-by-day developments in this pandemic. We present the structure of COVID-19 and its similarity with SARSCOV and SARS-COV2. We also discuss the treatment procedure like use of Remdesivir (an adenosine similarity) used against RNA viruses, Chloroquine (extensively used anti-malarial drug), convalescent plasma, neutralizing antibody targeting the ACE-2 receptor and ACE-2-like molecule that might bind to the S protein of the coronavirus and disadvantages of the discussed medications. The impact of COVID-19 in the economics of Pakistan and government reliefs are also discussed. Key words: • Coronavirus • COVID-19 • Pakistan • Pandemic • Outbreak Copyright © 2020 Ilyas et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

One of the effects of industrial development in plantation is the development in shipping and trade. Before the existence of plantations in East Sumatera, shipping and trade in Medan were centered at Labuhan Deli, as a river seaport. Periodically, shipping and trade activities at Labuhan Deli were in export and import from and to Malaya Peninsula (Penang and Malacca) and Singapore. The growth of plantations, of course, needed effective and efficient transportation. After the economy grew and was developed, Labuhan Deli as a river seaport was considered not effective and efficient anymore since ships with large cargoes could not sail on the river. Therefore, the Netherlands East Indies Government made a policy to build a new seaport which was located by the seaside in order to make loading and unloading goods easier. The Netherlands East Indies Government finally selected Belawan to be a new seaport for Medan. The research problems were as follows: how was the existence of Labuhan Deli by the policy of the Netherlands East Indies Government in moving the seaport to Belawan and what was the reason? How were the shipping and trade in Belawan seaport? These questions would be discussed in this research by using archives as the source and several writings published in Medan during the Dutch colonial period. The objective of the research was to describe the economic condition of the plantations which could change various aspects, specifically in shipping and trade. The research used historical research method which largely used archives from the Dutch colonial period, especially the statistics of shipping and trade, and the reports from BOW (Public Works Agency).

Ikan Layang (Decapterus russelli, Rupell, 1928) merupakan salah satu ikan pelagis kecil bernilai ekonomis penting di perairan Selat Malaka. Ikan ini banyak tertangkap oleh alat tangkap purse seine. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui beberapa aspek biologi dan parameter pertumbuhan ikan Layang yang tertangkap purse seine di perairan Selat Malaka. Penelitian ini dilaksanakan selama bulan April hingga September 2016. Informasi yang disajikan oleh studi ini meliputi: hubungan panjang berat, faktor kondisi, rasio kelamin, tingkat kematangan gonad dan parameter pertumbuhan. Parameter pertumbuhan diperoleh dari data frekuensi panjang bulanan dan dianalisis dengan ELEFAN I dalam program FiSAT II, nisbah kelamin dianalisis menggunakan uji chi-kuadrat dan TKG ditentukan secara morfologi. Ikan Layang yang diperoleh selama penelitian sebanyak 958 ekor dengan kisaran ukuran antara 8,4-28,7 cmFL dan nisbah kelamin antara jantan dan betina yaitu 1:1,01. Pola pertumbuhan panjang-bobot ikan Layang jantan dan betina bersifat allometrik positif dengan mengikuti persamaan W=0,0057L3,2984 (R2=0,9745) untuk jantan dan W=0,0079L3,183 (R2=0,9825) untuk Layang betina. Kisaran faktor kondisi ikan Layang antara 0,97-1,67.Ikan Layang yang diamati mempunyai TKG I sampai dengan IV dengan nilai IKG 0,056– 6,36 % untuk ikan jantan dan 0.103 – 6,044 % untuk ikan betina. Persamaan kurva pertumbuhan Von Bertalanffy ikan Layang di Selat Malaka yaitu Lt =24,25 (1 - e 1,03(t+-0.163)) dengan panjang asimtotik (L∞) =24,25 cmFL, koefisien pertumbuhan (K) = 1,03 per tahun dengan umur teoritis (t0) = - 0,163. Ukuran rata-rata tertangkap (L50% = Lc) untuk ikan Layang adalah 16,21cmFL.Indianscad (Decapterus russelli, Rupell, 1928) is one of small pelagic fish that have economic values in The Malacca straits. This fish is caught by purse seine. The aim of this research were to assess several aspects of biolocal reproduction and growth parameter for Indianscad caught by purse seine in the Malacca straits. This research was conducted from April to September 2016. Information resulted from this study consisted of length weight relationship, condition factor, sex ratio, gonad maturation stage and growth parameter. Growth parameter used the ELEFAN I method by using FiSAT II software, sex ratio was analyzed using Chi-Square and gonad maturation stage by using morphology. This study used 958 fish samples with size between 8,4-28,7 cmFL and the sex ratio between male and female was 1:1,01. The growth patterns of Indian scad for male and female were negative allometric expressed by the following equation: W=0,0057L3,2984 (R2=0,9745) for male and W=0,0079L3,183 (R2=0,9825) for female. The condition factors were about 0,65-1,67.Indianscads observedranged between TKG I and TKG IV with IKG for male and female were 0.056– 6,36 % and 0.103 – 6,044 %, respectively. The Von Bertalanffy Growth Equation of Indian scad in Malacca straits was Lt =24,25 (1 - e 1,03(t+-0.163)) with the asymptotic length (L∞) =24,25 cmFL, growth coefficient (K) = 1,03 per year and the theoretical age (t0) Indian scad that was equal to (t0) = - 0,163. Length at first capture of Indian scad (Lc) was 16,21cmFL.

This paper aims to portray the overall picture of poverty in the world and mentions the key solution to overcome poverty from a critical perspective. The data and figures were quoted from a number of researchers and organizations in the field of poverty around the world. Simultaneously, the information strengthens the correlations among poverty and lack of education. Only appropriate philosophies of education can improve the country’s socio-economic conditions and contribute to effective solutions to worldwide poverty. In the 21st century, despite the rapid development of science and technology with a series of inventions brought into the world to make life more comfortable, human poverty remains a global problem, especially in developing countries. Poverty, according to Lister (2004), is reflected by the state of “low living standards and/or inability to participate fully in society because of lack of material resources” (p.7). The impact and serious consequences of poverty on multiple aspects of human life have been realized by different organizations and researchers from different contexts (Fraser, 2000; Lister, 2004; Lipman, 2004; Lister, 2008). This paper will indicate some of the concepts and research results on poverty. Figures and causes of poverty, and some solutions from education as a key breaker to poverty will also be discussed. Creating a universal definition of poverty is not simple (Nyasulu, 2010). There are conflicts among different groups of people defining poverty, based on different views and fields. Some writers, according to Nyasulu, tend to connect poverty with social problems, while others focus on political or other causes. However, the reality of poverty needs to be considered from different sides and ways; for that reason, the diversity of definitions assigned to poverty can help form the basis on which interventions are drawn (Ife and Tesoriero, 2006). For instance, in dealing with poverty issues, it is essential to intervene politically; economic intervention is very necessary to any definition of this matter. A political definition necessitates political interventions in dealing with poverty, and economic definitions inevitably lead to economic interventions. Similarly, Księżopolski (1999) uses several models to show the perspectives on poverty as marginal, motivation and socialist. These models look at poverty and solutions from different angles. Socialists, for example, emphasize the responsibilities of social organization. The state manages the micro levels and distributes the shares of national gross resources, at the same time fighting to maintain the narrow gap among classes. In his book, Księżopolski (1999) also emphasizes the changes and new values of charity funds or financial aid from churches or organizations recognized by the Poor Law. Speaking specifically, in the new stages poverty has been recognized differently, and support is also delivered in limited categories related to more specific and visible objectives, with the aim of helping the poor change their own status for sustainable improvement. Three ways of categorizing the poor and locating them in the appropriate places are (1) the powerless, (2) who is willing to work and (3) who is dodging work. Basically, poverty is determined not to belong to any specific cultures or politics; otherwise, it refers to the situation in which people’s earnings cannot support their minimum living standard (Rowntree, 1910). Human living standard is defined in Alfredsson & Eide’s work (1999) as follows: “Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.” (p. 524). In addition, poverty is measured by Global Hunger Index (GHI), which is calculated by the International Food Policy Institute (IFPRI) every year. The GHI measures hunger not only globally, but also by country and region. To have the figures multi-dimensionally, the GHI is based on three indicators: 1. Undernourishment: the proportion of the undernourished as a percentage of the population (reflecting the share of the population with insufficient calorie intake). 2. Child underweight: the proportion of children under age 5 who are underweight (low weight for their age, reflecting wasting, stunted growth or both), which is one indicator of child under-nutrition. 3. Child mortality: the mortality rate of children under 5 (partially reflecting the fatal synergy of inadequate dietary intake and unhealthy environments). Apart from the individual aspects and the above measurement based on nutrition, which help partly imagine poverty, poverty is more complicated, not just being closely related to human physical life but badly affecting spiritual life. According to Jones and Novak (1999 cited in Lister, 2008), poverty not only characterizes the precarious financial situation but also makes people self-deprecating. Poverty turns itself into the roots of shame, guilt, humiliation and resistance. It leads the poor to the end of the road, and they will never call for help except in the worst situations. Education can help people escape poverty or make it worse. In fact, inequality in education has stolen opportunity for fighting poverty from people in many places around the world, in both developed and developing countries (Lipman, 2004). Lipman confirms: “Students need an education that instills a sense of hope and possibility that they can make a difference in their own family, school, and community and in the broader national and global community while it prepare them for multiple life choices.” (p.181) Bradshaw (2005) synthesizes five main causes of poverty: (1) individual deficiencies, (2) cultural belief systems that support subcultures of poverty, (3) economic, political and social distortions or discrimination, (4) geographical disparities and (5) cumulative and cyclical interdependencies. The researcher suggests the most appropriate solution corresponding with each cause. This reflects the diverse causes of poverty; otherwise, poverty easily happens because of social and political issues. From the literature review, it can be said that poverty comes from complex causes and reasons, and is not a problem of any single individual or country. Poverty has brought about serious consequences and needs to be dealt with by many methods and collective effort of many countries and organizations. This paper will focus on representing some alarming figures on poverty, problems of poverty and then the education as a key breaker to poverty. According to a statistics in 2012 on poverty from the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), nearly half the world's population lives below the poverty line, of which is less than $1.25 a day . In a statistics in 2015, of every 1,000 children, 93 do not live to age 5 , and about 448 million babies are stillborn each year . Poverty in the world is happening alarmingly. According to a World Bank study, the risk of poverty continues to increase on a global scale and, of the 2009 slowdown in economic growth, which led to higher prices for fuel and food, further pushed 53 million people into poverty in addition to almost 155 million in 2008. From 1990 to 2009, the average GHI in the world decreased by nearly one-fifth. Many countries had success in solving the problem of child nutrition; however, the mortality rate of children under 5 and the proportion of undernourished people are still high. From 2011 to 2013, the number of hungry people in the world was estimated at 842 million, down 17 percent compared with the period 1990 to 1992, according to a report released by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) titled “The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2013” . Although poverty in some African countries had been improved in this stage, sub-Saharan Africa still maintained an area with high the highest percentage of hungry people in the world. The consequences and big problems resulting from poverty are terrible in the extreme. The following will illustrate the overall picture under the issues of health, unemployment, education and society and politics ➢ Health issues: According a report by Manos Unidas, a non- government organization (NGO) in Spain , poverty kills more than 30,000 children under age 5 worldwide every day, and 11 million children die each year because of poverty. Currently, 42 million people are living with HIV, 39 million of them in developing countries. The Manos Unidas report also shows that 15 million children globally have been orphaned because of AIDS. Scientists predict that by 2020 a number of African countries will have lost a quarter of their population to this disease. Simultaneously, chronic drought and lack of clean water have not only hindered economic development but also caused disastrous consequences of serious diseases across Africa. In fact, only 58 percent of Africans have access to clean water; as a result, the average life expectancy in Africa is the lowest in the world, just 45 years old (Bui, 2010). ➢ Unemployment issues: According to the United Nations, the youth unemployment rate in Africa is the highest in the world: 25.6 percent in the Middle East and North Africa. Unemployment with growth rates of 10 percent a year is one of the key issues causing poverty in African and negatively affecting programs and development plans. Total African debt amounts to $425 billion (Bui, 2010). In addition, joblessness caused by the global economic downturn pushed more than 140 million people in Asia into extreme poverty in 2009, the International Labor Organization (ILO) warned in a report titled The Fallout in Asia, prepared for the High-Level Regional Forum on Responding to the Economic Crisis in Asia and the Pacific, in Manila from Feb. 18 to 20, 2009 . Surprisingly, this situation also happens in developed countries. About 12.5 million people in the United Kingdom (accounting for 20 percent of the population) are living below the poverty line, and in 2005, 35 million people in the United States could not live without charity. At present, 620 million people in Asia are living on less than $1 per day; half of them are in India and China, two countries whose economies are considered to be growing. ➢ Education issues: Going to school is one of the basic needs of human beings, but poor people cannot achieve it. Globally, 130 million children do not attend school, 55 percent of them girls, and 82 million children have lost their childhoods by marrying too soon (Bui, 2010). Similarly, two-thirds of the 759 million illiterate people in total are women. Specifically, the illiteracy rate in Africa keeps increasing, accounting for about 40 percent of the African population at age 15 and over 50 percent of women at age 25. The number of illiterate people in the six countries with the highest number of illiterate people in the world - China, India, Indonesia, Brazil, Bangladesh and Egypt - reached 510 million, accounting for 70 percent of total global illiteracy. ➢ Social and political issues: Poverty leads to a number of social problems and instability in political systems of countries around the world. Actually, 246 million children are underage labors, including 72 million under age 10. Simultaneously, according to an estimate by the United Nations (UN), about 100 million children worldwide are living on the streets. For years, Africa has suffered a chronic refugee problem, with more than 7 million refugees currently and over 200 million people without homes because of a series of internal conflicts and civil wars. Poverty threatens stability and development; it also directly influences human development. Solving the problems caused by poverty takes a lot of time and resources, but afterward they can focus on developing their societies. Poverty has become a global issue with political significance of particular importance. It is a potential cause of political and social instability, even leading to violence and war not only within a country, but also in the whole world. Poverty and injustice together have raised fierce conflicts in international relations; if these conflicts are not satisfactorily resolved by peaceful means, war will inevitably break out. Obviously, poverty plus lack of understanding lead to disastrous consequences such as population growth, depletion of water resources, energy scarcity, pollution, food shortages and serious diseases (especially HIV/AIDS), which are not easy to control; simultaneously, poverty plus injustice will cause international crimes such as terrorism, drug and human trafficking, and money laundering. Among recognizable four issues above which reflected the serious consequences of poverty, the third ones, education, if being prioritized in intervention over other issues in the fighting against poverty is believed to bring more effectiveness in resolving the problems from the roots. In fact, human being with the possibility of being educated resulted from their distinctive linguistic ability makes them differential from other beings species on the earth (Barrow and Woods 2006, p.22). With education, human can be aware and more critical with their situations, they are aimed with abilities to deal with social problems as well as adversity for a better life; however, inequality in education has stolen opportunity for fighting poverty from unprivileged people (Lipman, 2004). An appropriate education can help increase chances for human to deal with all of the issues related to poverty; simultaneously it can narrow the unexpected side-effect of making poverty worse. A number of philosophies from ancient Greek to contemporary era focus on the aspect of education with their own epistemology, for example, idealism of Plato encouraged students to be truth seekers and pragmatism of Dewey enhanced the individual needs of students (Gutex, 1997). Education, more later on, especially critical pedagogy focuses on developing people independently and critically which is essential for poor people to have ability of being aware of what they are facing and then to have equivalent solutions for their problems. In other words, critical pedagogy helps people emancipate themselves and from that they can contribute to transform the situations or society they live in. In this sense, in his most influential work titled “Pedagogy of the Oppressed” (1972), Paulo Freire carried out his critical pedagogy by building up a community network of peasants- the marginalized and unprivileged party in his context, aiming at awakening their awareness about who they are and their roles in society at that time. To do so, he involved the peasants into a problem-posing education which was different from the traditional model of banking education with the technique of dialogue. Dialogue wasn’t just simply for people to learn about each other; but it was for figuring out the same voice; more importantly, for cooperation to build a social network for changing society. The peasants in such an educational community would be relieved from stressfulness and the feeling of being outsiders when all of them could discuss and exchange ideas with each other about the issues from their “praxis”. Praxis which was derived from what people act and linked to some values in their social lives, was defined by Freire as “reflection and action upon the world in order to transform it” (p.50). Critical pedagogy dialogical approach in Pedagogy of the Oppressed of Freire seems to be one of the helpful ways for solving poverty for its close connection to the nature of equality. It doesn’t require any highly intellectual teachers who lead the process; instead, everything happens naturally and the answers are identified by the emancipation of the learners themselves. It can be said that the effectiveness of this pedagogy for people to escape poverty comes from its direct impact on human critical consciousness; from that, learners would be fully aware of their current situations and self- figure out the appropriate solutions for their own. In addition, equality which was one of the essences making learners in critical pedagogy intellectually emancipate was reflected via the work titled “The Ignorant Schoolmaster” by Jacques Rancière (1991). In this work, the teacher and students seemed to be equal in terms of the knowledge. The explicator- teacher Joseph Jacotot employed the interrogative approach which was discovered to be universal because “he taught what he didn’t know”. Obviously, this teacher taught French to Flemish students while he couldn’t speak his students’ language. The ignorance which was not used in the literal sense but a metaphor showed that learners can absolutely realize their capacity for self-emancipation without the traditional teaching of transmission of knowledge from teachers. Regarding this, Rancière (1991, p.17) stated “that every common person might conceive his human dignity, take the measure of his intellectual capacity, and decide how to use it”. This education is so meaningful for poor people by being able to evoking their courageousness to develop themselves when they always try to stay away from the community due the fact that poverty is the roots of shame, guilt, humiliation and resistance (Novak, 1999). The contribution of critical pedagogy to solving poverty by changing the consciousness of people from their immanence is summarized by Freire’s argument in his “Pedagogy of Indignation” as follows: “It is certain that men and women can change the world for the better, can make it less unjust, but they can do so from starting point of concrete reality they “come upon” in their generation. They cannot do it on the basis of reveries, false dreams, or pure illusion”. (p.31) To sum up, education could be an extremely helpful way of solving poverty regarding the possibilities from the applications of studies in critical pedagogy for educational and social issues. Therefore, among the world issues, poverty could be possibly resolved in accordance with the indigenous people’s understanding of their praxis, their actions, cognitive transformation, and the solutions with emancipation in terms of the following keynotes: First, because the poor are powerless, they usually fall into the states of self-deprecation, shame, guilt and humiliation, as previously mentioned. In other words, they usually build a barrier between themselves and society, or they resist changing their status. Therefore, approaching them is not a simple matter; it requires much time and the contributions of psychologists and sociologists in learning about their aspirations, as well as evoking and nurturing the will and capacities of individuals, then providing people with chances to carry out their own potential for overcoming obstacles in life. Second, poverty happens easily in remote areas not endowed with favorable conditions for development. People there haven’t had a lot of access to modern civilization; nor do they earn a lot of money for a better life. Low literacy, together with the lack of healthy forms of entertainment and despair about life without exit, easily lead people into drug addiction, gambling and alcoholism. In other words, the vicious circle of poverty and powerlessness usually leads the poor to a dead end. Above all, they are lonely and need to be listened to, shared with and led to escape from their states. Community meetings for exchanging ideas, communicating and immediate intervening, along with appropriate forms of entertainment, should be held frequently to meet the expectations of the poor, direct them to appropriate jobs and, step by step, change their favorite habits of entertainment. Last but not least, poor people should be encouraged to participate in social forums where they can both raise their voices about their situations and make valuable suggestions for dealing with their poverty. Children from poor families should be completely exempted from school fees to encourage them to go to school, and curriculum should also focus on raising community awareness of poverty issues through extracurricular and volunteer activities, such as meeting and talking with the community, helping poor people with odd jobs, or simply spending time listening to them. Not a matter of any individual country, poverty has become a major problem, a threat to the survival, stability and development of the world and humanity. Globalization has become a bridge linking countries; for that reason, instability in any country can directly and deeply affect the stability of others. The international community has been joining hands to solve poverty; many anti-poverty organizations, including FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), BecA (the Biosciences eastern and central Africa), UN-REDD (the United Nations Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation), BRAC (Building Resources Across Communities), UNDP (United Nations Development Programme), WHO (World Health Organization) and Manos Unidas, operate both regionally and internationally, making some achievements by reducing the number of hungry people, estimated 842 million in the period 1990 to 1992, by 17 percent in 2011- to 2013 . The diverse methods used to deal with poverty have invested billions of dollars in education, health and healing. The Millennium Development Goals set by UNDP put forward eight solutions for addressing issues related to poverty holistically: 1) Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger. 2) Achieve universal primary education. 3) Promote gender equality and empower women. 4) Reduce child mortality. 5) Improve maternal health. 6) Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases. 7) Ensure environmental sustainability. 8) Develop a global partnership for development. Although all of the mentioned solutions carried out directly by countries and organizations not only focus on the roots of poverty but break its circle, it is recognized that the solutions do not emphasize the role of the poor themselves which a critical pedagogy does. More than anyone, the poor should have a sense of their poverty so that they can become responsible for their own fate and actively fight poverty instead of waiting for help. It is not different from the cores of critical theory in solving educational and political issues that the poor should be aware and conscious about their situation and reflected context. It is required a critical transformation from their own praxis which would allow them to go through a process of learning, sharing, solving problems, and leading to social movements. This is similar to the method of giving poor people fish hooks rather than giving them fish. The government and people of any country understand better than anyone else clearly the strengths and characteristics of their homelands. It follows that they can efficiently contribute to causing poverty, preventing the return of poverty, and solving consequences of the poverty in their countries by many ways, especially a critical pedagogy; and indirectly narrow the scale of poverty in the world. In a word, the wars against poverty take time, money, energy and human resources, and they are absolutely not simple to end. Again, the poor and the challenged should be educated to be fully aware of their situation to that they can overcome poverty themselves. They need to be respected and receive sharing from the community. All forms of discrimination should be condemned and excluded from human society. When whole communities join hands in solving this universal problem, the endless circle of poverty can be addressed definitely someday. More importantly, every country should be responsible for finding appropriate ways to overcome poverty before receiving supports from other countries as well as the poor self-conscious responsibilities about themselves before receiving supports from the others, but the methods leading them to emancipation for their own transformation and later the social change.

Background: Malaria is responsible for a social and an economic burden in most low-income malaria-affected countries. Thus, newer antimalarials are needed to tackle morbidities and mortalities associated with the drug-resistant malarial strains. Haemoglobin digestion inside the food vacuole of malarial parasite would lead to producing redox-active and toxic-free heme. The detoxification process adopted by Plasmodium sp. would give rise to hemozoin (Hz) (beta-hematin) formation. Targeting the pathway of hemozoin formation is considered as a validated target for the discovery of newer antimalarials. Objective: This study aims to collect detailed information about aspects of hemozoin (Hz) (beta-hematin) inhibitors. Methods: A systemic search has been carried out using PubMed, Google Scholar, CNKI, etc., for relevant studies having the keyword, ' hemozoin or beta-hematin' for almost the last 2 decades (2000-2021). Results: This mini-review tries to summarize all the recent advancements made for the developments of synthetic, natural isolated phytoconstituents and plant extracts inhibiting the hemozoin (beta-hematin) formation. Conclusion: thus, would act as promising antimalarial candidates in near future.

Malaria is a public health problem in 90 countries around the world affecting 300 million people and responsible for about 1 million deaths annually. Bangladesh is considered as one of the malaria endemic countries in Asia. Every year large number of people suffered for malaria. But there is little studies about clinico-epidemiology of malaria. Aim: To study the epidemiological and clinical aspects of malaria. Methods: This is a Prospective observational study that was conducted in all medicine unit of Chittagong Medical College Hospital, Chittagong, Bangladesh during August 2017 to June 2018. Total 55 patients were included in the study having malaria diagnosed by blood slide examination or rapid diagnostic test. Patients were enrolled in this study after getting written informed consent from the patient or attendant. Detail demographic and clinical data were recorded in structured case report form. Patients were regularly followed up and outcome recorded. Results: Results showed males (65.5%) of 25±15.109 years of age were the main sufferer. Majority (45%) came from low socio-economic condition (<5000 taka/month). 65.5% patients denied any history of recent travel to malarias’ area. 69.1% cases give history of using mosquito net, but only 25.5% have insecticide treated mosquito net. Majority (89.1%) were diagnosed as severe malaria and only few (10.9%) as uncomplicated malaria. Most of the diagnosis done at Chittagong Medical College Hospital, mainly presenting with coma or altered consciousness and convulsion. At field level diagnostic test done in 67.27% cases, of which RDT in 14.5%, BSE in 45.5% and both in 7.3% cases. 78.2% cases outcome were good with improvement and death occurred in 21.8% cases, mainly due to acute renal failure. Conclusion: Though we are making significant effort to control malaria, still we have to improve in controlling malaria based on both preventing the infection and on prompt effective treatment of the infection and illness when it does occur.

Malaria is a public health problem in 90 countries around the world affecting 300 million people and responsible for about 1 million deaths annually. Bangladesh is considered as one of the malaria endemic countries in Asia. Every year large number of people suffered for malaria. But there is little studies about clinico-epidemiology of malaria. Aim: To study the epidemiological and clinical aspects of malaria. Methods: This is a Prospective observational study that was conducted in all medicine unit of Chittagong Medical College Hospital, Chittagong, Bangladesh during August 2017 to June 2018. Total 55 patients were included in the study having malaria diagnosed by blood slide examination or rapid diagnostic test. Patients were enrolled in this study after getting written informed consent from the patient or attendant. Detail demographic and clinical data were recorded in structured case report form. Patients were regularly followed up and outcome recorded. Results: Results showed males (65.5%) of 25±15.109 years of age were the main sufferer. Majority (45%) came from low socio-economic condition (<5000 taka/month). 65.5% patients denied any history of recent travel to malarias’ area. 69.1% cases give history of using mosquito net, but only 25.5% have insecticide treated mosquito net. Majority (89.1%) were diagnosed as severe malaria and only few (10.9%) as uncomplicated malaria. Most of the diagnosis done at Chittagong Medical College Hospital, mainly presenting with coma or altered consciousness and convulsion. At field level diagnostic test done in 67.27% cases, of which RDT in 14.5%, BSE in 45.5% and both in 7.3% cases. 78.2% cases outcome were good with improvement and death occurred in 21.8% cases, mainly due to acute renal failure. Conclusion: Though we are making significant effort to control malaria, still we have to improve in controlling malaria based on both preventing the infection and on prompt effective treatment of the infection and illness when it does occur.

Abstract Background Malaysia is on track towards malaria elimination. However, several cases of malaria still occur in the country. Contributing factors and communal aspects have noteworthy effects on any malaria elimination activities. Thus, assessing the community’s knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) towards malaria is essential. This study was performed to evaluate KAP regarding malaria among the indigenous people (i.e. Orang Asli) in Peninsular Malaysia. Methods A household-based cross-sectional study was conducted in five remote villages (clusters) of Orang Asli located in the State of Kelantan, a central region of the country. Community members aged six years and above were interviewed. Demographic, socio-economic and KAP data on malaria were collected using a structured questionnaire and analysed using descriptive statistics. Results Overall, 536 individuals from 208 households were interviewed. Household indoor residual spraying (IRS) coverage and bed net ownership were 100% and 89.2%, respectively. A majority of respondents used mosquito bed nets every night (95.1%), but only 50.2% were aware that bed nets were used to prevent malaria. Nevertheless, almost all of the respondents (97.9%) were aware that malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes. Regarding practice for managing malaria, the most common practice adopted by the respondents was seeking treatment at the health facilities (70.9%), followed by self-purchase of medication from a local shop (12.7%), seeking treatment from a traditional healer (10.5%) and self-healing (5.9%). Concerning potential zoonotic malaria, about half of the respondents (47.2%) reported seeing monkeys from their houses and 20.1% reported entering nearby forests within the last 6 months. Conclusion This study found that most populations living in the villages have an acceptable level of knowledge and awareness about malaria. However, positive attitudes and practices concerning managing malaria require marked improvement.

In the present era, researchers are focusing on medicinal plant research throughout the world as medicinal plants are an important and cheap source of drugs and have a long history. Most of the remedies in the traditional system were taken from plants due to lack of technology, and using plants as medicines were proven to be useful. Lantana camara L. (Verbenaceae) is an aromatic plant as well as a rich source of medicinal compounds. From decades the plant is used to treat many diseases i.e., malaria, fever, cold and cough etc. Several essential phytochemicals have been isolated from L.camara L., including triterpenoids, flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, steroids, and tannins. Moreover, it is also known as an essential oil-producing plant, and the essential oil is available in the market known as Lantana oils. Thus due to the above mentioned economic as well as medicinal properties of L.camara L; there is a need of a comprehensive report on the ethnobotanical, phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological aspects of L. camara L. This review will be useful for researchers working in the field of genomics, metabolomics and molecular studies of medicinal plants.

Abstract Background Human infection studies (HIS) that involve deliberately infecting healthy volunteers with a pathogen raise important ethical issues, including the need to ensure that benefits and burdens are understood and appropriately accounted for. Building on earlier work, we embedded social science research within an ongoing malaria human infection study in coastal Kenya to understand the study benefits and burdens experienced by study stakeholders in this low-resource setting and assess the wider implications for future research planning and policy. Methods Data were collected using qualitative research methods, including in-depth interviews (44), focus group discussions (10) and non-participation observation. Study participants were purposively selected (key informant or maximal diversity sampling), including volunteers in the human infection study, study staff, community representatives and local administrative authorities. Data were collected during and up to 18 months following study residency, from sites in Coastal and Western Kenya. Voice recordings of interviews and discussions were transcribed, translated, and analysed using framework analysis, combining data- and theory-driven perspectives. Findings Physical, psychological, economic and social forms of benefits and burdens were experienced across study stages. Important benefits for volunteers included the study compensation, access to health checks, good residential living conditions, new learning opportunities, developing friendships and satisfaction at contributing towards a new malaria vaccine. Burdens primarily affected study volunteers, including experiences of discomfort and ill health; fear and anxiety around aspects of the trial process, particularly deliberate infection and the implications of prolonged residency; anxieties about early residency exit; and interpersonal conflict. These issues had important implications for volunteers’ families, study staff and the research institution’s reputation more widely. Conclusion Developing ethically and scientifically strong HIS relies on grounded accounts of volunteers, study staff and the wider community, understood in the socioeconomic, political and cultural context where studies are implemented. Recognition of the diverse, and sometimes perverse, nature of potential benefits and burdens in a given context, and who this might implicate, is critical to this process. Prior and ongoing stakeholder engagement is core to developing these insights.

Antimicrobial resistance is one of the most complex global health challenges today. The world has long ignored warnings that antibiotics and other medicines are losing their effectiveness after decades of overuse and misuse in human medicine, animal health and agriculture. Common illnesses like pneumonia, postoperative infections, diarrhoeal and sexually transmitted diseases, as well as the world’s largest infectious disease killers – tuberculosis (TB), HIV and malaria – are increasingly becoming untreatable because of the emergence and spread of drug resistance. Worsening antimicrobial resistance could have serious public health, economic and social implications. The threat of antimicrobial resistance is also becoming a key consideration for programmes addressing maternal and child health, sexual and reproductive health, foodborne diseases, water and sanitation, and infection prevention and control. Although the 21st century is being shaped by technology and innovation, humans could soon find themselves in an era where simple infections once again kill millions every year. The past three years have seen unprecedented global political momentum to address antimicrobial resistance: in 2015, governments adopted a global action plan at the World Health Assembly and in 2016 passed a political declaration at the United Nations General Assembly. Antimicrobial resistance has made it onto the agendas of the G7 and G20 groups and is a core component of the Global Health Security Agenda. WHO is working closely with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the World Organization for Animal Health in leading global efforts against antimicrobial resistance and ensuring that the necessary momentum is consolidated and sustained. These efforts are guided by an ad-hoc interagency coordination group established in 2017. A global development and stewardship framework to combat antimicrobial resistance is being drafted to support the development of new antimicrobial medicines, diagnostics, vaccines and other tools. One of the gravest global concerns about antimicrobial resistance currently is that antibiotic resistance has emerged in so many pathogens, including TB. In 2016, at the high-level meeting of the UN General Assembly on antimicrobial resistance, Heads of State directed an unprecedented level of attention to curbing the spread of infections that are resistant to antimicrobial medicines. They reaffirmed their commitment to stopping the misuse of antimicrobial medicines in human health, animal health and agriculture, and recognized the need for stronger systems to monitor drug-resistant infections and the amounts of antimicrobials used in humans and animals. In the wake of the increasing global awareness of the need for new antibiotics, Member States highlighted market failures, and called for new incentives for investment in research and development of new, effective and affordable medicines, rapid diagnostic tests, and other important therapies to replace those that are losing their effectiveness. In response to this and in line with the Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance to support the identification of pathogens of greatest concern, WHO developed a priority list of antibiotic resistant bacteria to underpin renewed efforts for the research and development of new antibiotics. The only possible defence against the threat of antimicrobial resistance and the (very real) possibility of a post-antibiotic era is a global and coordinated effort by all stakeholders to support other important therapies such as the Oxygen-Ozone (O2O3) therapy. As a result, the scope and focus of the work underlying this dissertation was to study the application of O2O3 therapy towards several resistant bacteria. Moreover, we evaluated three different framework for gut bacteria, skin and soft tissue infections and mucosal infections.

Context: This research is performed in Banjarnegara, an endemic malaria area in Indonesia. Considering the incidence of malaria in Indonesia in the last ten years, it is essential to assess the potential risk factors to maintain the cases and to accelerate malaria elimination. Aims: This study examined the potential risk factors from the human socio-economic aspect and human behavior for malaria cases. Settings and Design: This is a match case-control study conducted in 34 cases and 34 controls in Banjarmangu Subdistrict, Banjarnegara, Indonesia. The subjects for the two groups were based on the routine report of Banjarmangu I public health center from July 2017–March 2018. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied to select the subject. Statistical Analysis: Logistic regression was used to seek the association among the variables. Results: This research found that installing wire netting, not sleeping under a bed net, and consuming higher transportation costs were significant protective factors for malaria cases. Having lower family income was significant as a potential risk factor for malaria cases (OR=10.68, CI = 1.01-112.59). Conclusions: This study may explain that economic income was the essential aspect of malaria prevention as it contributed to the other health issues, such as health-seeking behavior.

This article is about the planning and implementation of the government in an emergency when faced with the threat of the Communist Party of Malaya (PKM). Threats and attacks by the CPM have suppressed the social, political and economic stability of our country. Two leaders from Britain have been the pillars of the government's plan to combat the enemy. Its foundations from Harold Briggs are designed to block the absorption of the enemy into the general public. Briggs's death from the accident has been replaced with Gelard Templer an experienced military officer. The government streamlines all aspects of defense and security against enemy encroachment. The key aspects of security such as military and police are streamlined, on the part of the civil defense and human development teams are strengthened and become a strong fortress as a whole. It is evident that this comprehensive plan and strategy has successfully blocked the enemy from extending their movement and winning the government. The emergency took 12 years to end in 1960 when the state was declared safe from Communist chaos.

Every year on 24 March, World Tuberculosis Day is commemorated annually, for raising the public awareness regarding devastating consequences of tuberculosison health and economic aspects of life. This helps to launch efforts to end the globalepidemic of tuberculosis. On the date of 24th March in 1882, Dr. Robert Koch announced about the discovery of bacterium that causes tuberculosis.1 It was held on 24th March 1982 first time by The World Health Organization at the 100th anniversary of Dr. Koch’s discovery. The target 3.3 of SDG calls for, by 2030, ending the epidemics of tuberculosis, malaria, AIDS, combat other communicable and water-borne diseases. A large number of people 1.7 billion, roughly 23% of the world's population suffered from tuberculosis. In the world, each year 1.5 million people died due to TB, proving it a leading infectious killer disease. Thirty countries having the high burden of TB, accounted for 87% of new TB cases during 2019.2 Among these, two thirds of the total cases were in India, Indonesia, China, Bangladesh, Philippines, Pakistan, Nigeria, and South Africa. An estimated 510,000 new TB cases are emerging each year in Pakistan. Among these about, 15 000 are developing drug resistant TB cases. Pakistan is bearing 61% of the TB burden in the EMRO. Tuberculosis is preventable and curable disease. The causative agent of tuberculosis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, most often affect the lungs. The vaccine for tuberculosis (TB) disease is called BCG (Bacille Calmette-Guérin). In 1921, first patient was vaccinated with BCG vaccine, 13 years were spent in the making the vaccine. In countries where TB is common, BCG vaccine is given to infants and small children. It does not always protect people from getting TB. BCG vaccine is included in national Expanded Program on Immunization (EPI) in Pakistan and given at birth. To make TB free Pakistan through universal access to quality TB care, National TB Control Program (NTP) is striving for achieving Zero TB death by reducing 50% prevalence of TB in general population by 2025. The mode of transmission of TB from person to person is through the air. The TB germs are propelled into the air,when people with lung TB cough, sneeze or spit carelessly due to lack of awareness that they are participating in the spread of disease and weakening the efforts. These germs are when inhaled by other people, resulting in lung infection, which is called primary TB. From primary TB infection, majority of people recover withoutany further evidence of the disease. For years the infection may stay inactive (latent). People with TB infection are not contagious, do not have any symptoms, and do not put their friends, co-workers and family at risk. Many people who have latent TB infection never develop TB disease. In these people, the TB bacteria remain inactive for a lifetime without causing disease. But in other people, especially people who have weak immune systems, the bacteria become active, multiply, and cause TB disease. There is good news for people with TB disease! It can almost always be treated and cured with medicine. But the medicine must be taken as directed by Physician. The relapse rate differs by a country's incidence and control: 0–27% of TB relapses occur within 2 years after treatment completion and most relapses occur within 5 years; however, some relapses occur 15 years after treatment. A person who has genital tuberculosis can infect others through sexual contact. The most common means of spreading genital TB can be through blood or lymph. Hence, sexual contact can spread genital tuberculosis. Genital tuberculosis can spread to any other body organ, once it enters the body. Consuming a diet high in nutritious foods and beverages is a smart way to support and protect lung health. Coffee, dark leafy greens, fatty fish, peppers, tomatoes, olive oil, oysters, blueberries, and pumpkin are just some examples of foods and drinks that have been shown to benefit lung function. Milk can be used by TB patient. It is also a great source of protein, providing strength necessary to perform day-to-day activities. Directly observed treatment, short-course (DOTS, also known as TB-DOTS) is the name given to the tuberculosis (TB) control strategy recommended by the World Health Organization. According to WHO, "The most cost-effective way to stop the spread of TB in communities with a high incidence is by curing it. The usual treatment is: two antibiotics (isoniazid and rifampicin) for 6 months, two additional antibiotics (pyrazinamide and ethambutol) for the first 2 months of the 6-month treatment period. Groups with high rates of TB transmission are homeless persons, injection drug users, and persons with HIV infection are more susceptible for TB and persons who have immigrated from areas of the world with high rates of TB. The disease is prevalent mainly in the underprivileged sections of the society. The lack of knowledge in the masses and the communities is a factor that contributes largely to the spread of the disease. The theme of World TB Day 2020 was “It's TIME to end TB” and in 2021 it is,” Am I stopping TB” highlighting the importance of awareness. It is the time to fuel the awareness program with full energy, resources and ways. In such a scenario, there is always a need for new and innovative ideas to create mass awareness about tuberculosis. The more focus of this awareness campaign should be very much targeted towards people living in an area where there are a lot of people are with TB, or have been homeless or live in poorly ventilated or overcrowded housing and sufferers of a weakened immune system.