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1
Torre, Margarita. "Attrition from Male-dominated Occupations." Sociological Perspectives 60, no. 4 (December 23, 2016): 665–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0731121416683160.
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Women in male-dominated occupations remain at a considerable risk of attrition. This study examines both the consequences of being an occupational minority and the effect of occupational attributes on women’s exit from male-dominated occupations. Drawing on prior theories and empirical studies, I argue that women in high-status occupations are better prepared than women in low-status occupations to overcome obstacles derived from their minority status. Using the Current Population Survey data set and the Occupational Information Network database, this study reveals that a greater proportion of males in an occupation increases the probability of exit from low-status occupations, once we account for relevant individual and occupational attributes. Conversely, women employed in high-status occupations are less likely to leave strongly male-dominated occupations. These findings underscore that women’s attrition from male-dominated occupations cannot be adequately explained without considering differences among women at the moment of hiring.
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Milner, Allison, Marissa Shields, Anna J. Scovelle, Georgina Sutherland, and Tania L. King. "Health Literacy in Male-Dominated Occupations." American Journal of Men's Health 14, no. 5 (September 2020): 155798832095402. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1557988320954022.
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Low levels of health literacy are associated with poorer health outcomes. Both individual- and social-level factors have been identified as predictors of low health literacy, and men are known to have lower health literacy than women. Previous research has reported that men working in male-dominated occupations are at higher risk of accidents, injury, and suicide than other population groups, yet no study to date has examined the effect of gendered occupational contexts on men’s health literacy. The current article examined the association between occupational gender ratio and health literacy among Australian males. The Australian Longitudinal Study on Male Health (Ten to Men) was used to examine associations between occupational gender ratio (measured in Wave 1) and health literacy (measured in Wave 2) across three subscales of the Health Literacy Questionnaire. Multivariable linear regression analyses were used and showed that the more male dominated an occupational group became, the lower the scores of health literacy were. Results for the different subscales of health literacy for the most male-dominated occupational group, compared to the non-male-dominated group were: ability to find good health information, (Coef. −0.80, 95% CI [−1.05, −0.54], p < .001); ability to actively engage with health-care providers, (Coef. −0.35, 95% CI [−0.62, −0.07], p = .013); and feeling understood and supported by health-care providers, (Coef. −0.48, 95% CI [−0.71, −0.26], p = < .001). The results suggest the need for workplace interventions to address occupation-level factors as an influence on health literacy among Australian men, particularly among the most male-dominated occupational groups.
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Adachi, Tomoko. "Occupational Gender Stereotypes: Is the Ratio of Women to Men a Powerful Determinant?" Psychological Reports 112, no. 2 (April 2013): 640–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/17.07.pr0.112.2.640-650.
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Gendered division of occupational choices still exists in contemporary Japanese society. Women are underrepresented in traditionally male-dominated fields, while few men occupy positions in traditionally female-dominated areas. The purpose of the present study was to examine occupational gender stereotypes and its relation to the female-to-male ratio of jobholders. Participants were 540 Japanese (262 women, 278 men) who participated in an Internet survey. The results showed that the female-to-male ratio of jobholders was a strong predictor of gender stereotyping. That is to say, contemporary Japanese recognized male-dominated occupations as typically masculine and female-dominated ones as typically feminine. Gender comparisons revealed that men rated female-dominated occupations as more feminine in nature than did women, while women rated male-dominated occupations as more masculine than did men. Future implications for career interventions focusing on occupational gender stereotypes were also discussed.
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Leadbeater, Bonnie, Megan E. Ames, and Alejandra Contreras. "Male-Dominated Occupations and Substance Use Disorders in Young Adulthood." American Journal of Men's Health 14, no. 2 (March 2020): 155798832090810. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1557988320908105.
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This article examined associations between male-dominated occupations and substance use disorders in young adulthood, accounting for adolescent experiences of work intensity (more than 15 hr a week at 16 to 17 years of age) and substance use (i.e., smoking, heavy drinking, cannabis, and illicit drug use). The moderating effects of biological sex and coming from a family with a low socioeconomic status (SES) were also assessed. Data were from a 10-year prospective study of community-based youth aged 12–18 in 2003 (T1; N = 662; 48% male; Mage = 15.5, SD = 1.9). Their occupations at ages 22–29 were categorized so that higher scores indicated more male-dominated occupations. Young adults in male-dominated occupations (more than 75% males) had lower education, worked in less prestigious occupations, and earned higher hourly wages than those in the other gendered-occupation groups. Work intensity in high school was associated with substance use at ages 18–25 and substance use was also associated with alcohol- and cannabis-use disorder symptoms and illicit drug use in young adulthood (ages 22–29). Adding to these effects, employment in a male-dominated occupation was associated with more cannabis-use disorder symptoms for the low, but not the high SES group. Public health messages need greater focus on preventing substance use disorders among individuals employed in male-dominated jobs in young adulthood. Efforts to promote self-assessment of problematic substance use and motivation to change may be particularly important for young workers.
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Sobiraj, Sonja, Sabine Korek, and Thomas Rigotti. "Instrumentality and Expressiveness at Work." Zeitschrift für Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie A&O 58, no. 3 (July 2014): 111–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1026/0932-4089/a000148.
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Men’s professional work roles require different attributes according to the gender-typicality of their occupation (female- versus male-dominated). We predicted that levels of men’s strain and job satisfaction would be predicted by levels of self-ascribed instrumental and expressive attributes. Therefore, we tested for positive effects of instrumentality for men in general, and instrumentality in interaction with expressiveness for men in female-dominated occupations in particular. Data were based on a survey of 213 men working in female-dominated occupations and 99 men working in male-dominated occupations. We found instrumentality to be negatively related to men’s strain and positively related to their job satisfaction. We also found expressiveness of men in female-dominated occupations to be related to reduced strain when instrumentality was low. This suggests it is important for men to be able to identify highly with either instrumentality or expressiveness when regulating role demands in female-dominated occupations.
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Gonäs, Lena, Anders Wikman, Marjan Vaez, Kristina Alexanderson, and Klas Gustafsson. "Changes in the gender segregation of occupations in Sweden between 2003 and 2011." Scandinavian Journal of Public Health 47, no. 3 (April 12, 2019): 344–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1403494819831910.
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Aim: The aim of this study was to analyze possible changes in the gender composition of occupations in Sweden, using register data covering the whole working population. Methods: Cross tabulations on gender by occupation were computed and comparisons made of numbers and proportions of women and men aged 20–64 years to illustrate occupational gender-segregation categories in 2003 and 2011, respectively. All of those in working ages, employed in 2003 and 2011 (4.2 resp 4.7 millions individuals), were included. Differences in the distribution of women and men in all occupations were summarized using two gender-segregation indexes from 2003 and 2011, separately. Results: The proportion of women increased in the gender-integrated (⩾40–<60% women) occupations. Also, the proportion of women in high-skilled professional occupations in the male-dominated category increased, as well as the proportion of men in mostly low-skilled female-dominated occupations, mainly in the service sector. The gender-segregation of occupations measured by the Index of Dissimilarly and the Karmel and MacLachlan Index was lower in 2011 than in 2003. Conclusions: The process of de-segregation has continued during our study period, from 2003 to 2011. The proportion of women increased in occupations that demand higher education, both in gender-integrated and in male-dominated occupations, which can contribute to a decrease in the level of sickness absence for women. Men increased their proportion in low-skilled, female-dominated occupations – a group with high levels of sickness absence or disability pension.
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Raj, Anita, Nicole E. Johns, and Rupa Jose. "Gender Parity at Work and Its Association With Workplace Sexual Harassment." Workplace Health & Safety 68, no. 6 (March 17, 2020): 279–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2165079919900793.
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Background: Gender parity in the workplace—and increased representation of women at work—may reduce workplace sexual harassment, but research on this is unclear. This study assessed the associations between gender parity at work and workplace sexual harassment. Methods: We analyzed data from an online sexual harassment survey conducted with a nationally representative sample of U.S. adults in 2018 ( N = 2,009; response rate 29%); current analyses were restricted to employed participants (women n = 610, men n = 690). Data on occupation and industry were each categorized as female-dominant (61%–100% female), male-dominant (0%–39% female), or at parity (40%–60% female). We used sex-stratified logistic regression models to assess associations between gender parity in industry and occupation and workplace sexual harassment. Findings: Our study of employed adults in the U.S. found that 42% women and 15% men had experienced workplace sexual harassment. Logistic regression analyses indicated that women employed in female-dominated industries (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 0.52; 95% confidence interval [CI] = [0.33, 0.81]) and men employed in male-dominated occupations (AOR = 0.55; 95% CI = [0.33, 0.91]) were less likely to have experienced workplace sexual harassment. Women in male-dominated occupations were more likely to report harassment or assault by a supervisor (AOR = 2.41, 95% CI = [1.00, 5.80]), and men in male-dominated occupations were less likely to report harassment or assault by a supervisor (AOR = 0.26, 95% CI = [0.08, 0.89]). Conclusion/Application to Practice: Women in female-dominated industries and men in male-dominated occupations, relative to those with workplace gender parity, are at lower risk for harassment. Women in male-dominated occupations are at greater risk for harassment from supervisors. Gender parity at work is not sufficient on its own to address workplace sexual harassment; normative changes are needed.
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Milner, A., A. J. Scovelle, and T. King. "Treatment-seeking differences for mental health problems in male- and non-male-dominated occupations: evidence from the HILDA cohort." Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences 28, no. 6 (July 23, 2018): 630–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s2045796018000367.
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AbstractBackgroundThere is a well-established gender divide among people who do and do not seek professional help from mental health professionals. Females are typically more likely to report, and seek help for, mental health problems. The current paper sought to examine the role of employment context on help-seeking for mental health issues. We hypothesised that men and women in male-dominated occupations would be less likely to seek help than those in non-male-dominated occupations.MethodsData from the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia survey were used. Help-seeking, measured in 2013, was defined as whether a person reported attending a mental health professional in the 12 months prior to the survey. The exposure, male- and non-male-dominated occupations (measured in 2012), was defined using census data based on self-reported occupation. Analyses were stratified by gender and controlled for relevant confounders (measured in 2012), including mental health and prior help-seeking. We conducted multivariate logistic and propensity score analyses to improve exchangeability of those exposed and unexposed.ResultsFor males, being in a male-dominated occupation was independently associated with reduced likelihood of help-seeking (OR 0.66, 95% CI 0.46–0.95) in the adjusted model, although this result fell just out of significance in the propensity score analysis. There was no independent effect of being in a male-/non-male-dominated occupation for help-seeking among women.ConclusionsResults suggest that male-dominated occupations may negatively influence help-seeking among males. There is a need for more research to understand this relationship and for workplace-based prevention initiatives.
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Torre, Margarita, and Jerry A. Jacobs. "The Gender Mobility Paradox: Gender Segregation and Women’s Mobility Across Gender-Type Boundaries, 1970–2018." Gender & Society 35, no. 6 (September 28, 2021): 853–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/08912432211046328.
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In this article, we examine trends in women’s mobility among male-dominated, gender-neutral, and female-dominated occupations. Earlier research, largely employing data from the 1970s and early 1980s, showed that along with significant net movement by women into male-dominated fields, there was also substantial attrition from male-dominated occupations. Here, we build on previous research by examining how “gender-type” mobility rates have changed in recent decades. The findings indicate that while still quite high, levels of women’s occupational mobility among female, gender-neutral, and male occupations have decreased considerably over time. We suggest that this is the result of increasing differentiation among women. In particular, many women, especially those in high-status occupations, plan to pursue employment in a male-dominated field, succeed in gaining entry, and tend to remain in these fields more often than their counterparts in previous decades. We interpret these findings as evidence that gender segregation is maintained by an enduring but imperfect system of social control that constrains women’s choices before, during, and after entry into the labor market. The evidence presented here underscores the importance of studying gender-type mobility as a distinct dimension of labor market inequality.
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Gomez‐Mejia, Luis R. "Women′s Adaptation to Male‐dominated Occupations." International Journal of Manpower 11, no. 4 (April 1990): 11–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/eum0000000000873.
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Lidwall, Ulrik. "Gender composition in occupations and branches and medically certified sick leave: a prospective population study." International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health 94, no. 7 (March 29, 2021): 1659–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00420-021-01672-4.
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Abstract Objective To investigate whether gender-segregated occupations and branches are associated with future medically certified sick leave for women and men. Methods All gainfully employed residents in Sweden in December 31st 2014 aged 16–69 years (n = 4 473 964) were identified in national registers. Subjects working in segregated (61–90%) and extremely segregated (> 90%) occupations and branches were evaluated v/s subjects in gender-integrated occupations and branches (40–60%). Combinations of segregation by occupation and branch were also investigated. Two-year prospective medically certified sick leaves (> 14 days) were evaluated using logistic regression with odds ratios recalculated to relative risks (RR), adjusted for work, demographic and health related factors. Results The sick leave risk was higher for those working in extremely female-dominated occupations (women RR 1.06 and men RR 1.13), and in extremely female-dominated branches (women RR 1.09 and men RR 1.12), and for men in extremely male-dominated branches (RR 1.04). The sick leave risk was also higher for both women and men in female-dominated occupations regardless of the gender segregation in the branch they were working in. However, the differences in sick leave risks associated with gender segregation were considerably smaller than the differences between occupations and branches in general. Conclusions Gender segregation in occupations and branches play a role for sick leave among women and men, especially within extremely female-dominated occupations and branches. However, gender segregation appears to be subordinate to particular occupational hazards faced in diverse occupations and branches.
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Arndt, Margarete, and Barbara Bigelow. "Professionalizing and Masculinizing a Female Occupation: The Reconceptualization of Hospital Administration in the Early 1900s." Administrative Science Quarterly 50, no. 2 (June 2005): 233–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.2189/asqu.2005.50.2.233.
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This paper examines the earliest boundary work for a female-dominated occupation that portrayed men rather than women as the appropriate practitioners. According to the concept of gender primacy, men would not enter a female-dominated occupation in large numbers because it is associated with gender essentialism. Hospital administration is one of the rare female occupations that did masculinize. Our analysis of archival texts on hospital administration in the early 1900s describes that in establishing a jurisdiction, body of knowledge, and educational requirements, the male-dominated professional association created a male sex boundary. Extracting and elaborating functions consistent with gender primacy and sloughing off functions associated with gender essentialism reframed the occupation as male. Rhetorical use of gender created a male image of the generic practitioner and the occupation, while an internal boundary segregated women within the occupation. The study points to differences in how occupations feminize and masculinize and suggests the latter does not occur solely in response to societal factors, as has been assumed, but can originate within the occupation.
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Gustafsson Sendén, Marie, Alice Eagly, and Sabine Sczesny. "Of Caring Nurses and Assertive Police Officers: Social Role Information Overrides Gender Stereotypes in Linguistic Behavior." Social Psychological and Personality Science 11, no. 6 (November 14, 2019): 743–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1948550619876636.
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Three studies demonstrated the expression of gender stereotypes in linguistic behavior. In Study 1, participants composed sentences describing a person by freely choosing from female- or male-dominated occupations, female or male pronouns, and communal or agentic traits. In Study 2a, participants chose traits to describe a person identified by a female- or male-dominated occupation and in Study 2b by a female or male pronoun and noun. In Study 3, participants chose traits for a person identified by both a female- or male-dominated occupation and a female or male pronoun. In general, participants chose more communal and fewer agentic traits for sentences containing a female- (vs. male-) dominated occupation and a female (vs. male) pronoun or noun. However, participants described women and men in the same occupation as similarly agentic or communal, demonstrating the primacy of role over sex information as predicted by social role theory.
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Ahmed, Ali, Mark Granberg, and Shantanu Khanna. "Gender discrimination in hiring: An experimental reexamination of the Swedish case." PLOS ONE 16, no. 1 (January 29, 2021): e0245513. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245513.
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We estimated the degree of gender discrimination in Sweden across occupations using a correspondence study design. Our analysis of employer responses to more than 3,200 fictitious job applications across 15 occupations revealed that overall positive employer response rates were higher for women than men by almost 5 percentage points. We found that this gap was driven by employer responses in female-dominated occupations. Male applicants were about half as likely as female applicants to receive a positive employer response in female-dominated occupations. For male-dominated and mixed occupations we found no significant differences in positive employer responses between male and female applicants.
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Yavorsky, Jill E. "Uneven Patterns of Inequality: An Audit Analysis of Hiring-Related Practices by Gendered and Classed Contexts." Social Forces 98, no. 2 (January 18, 2019): 461–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sf/soy123.
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Abstract Despite women’s uneven entrances into male-dominated occupations, limited scholarship has examined whether and how employers in different occupational classes unevenly discriminate against women during early hiring practices. This article argues that intersecting gendered and classed features of occupations simultaneously shape hiring-related practices and generate uneven patterns of inequality. Using data derived from comparative white-collar (N = 3,044 résumés) and working-class (N = 3,258 résumés) correspondence audits and content-coded analyses of more than 3,000 job advertisements, the author analyzes early hiring practices among employers across two gendered occupational dimensions: (1) sex composition (male- or female-dominated jobs) and (2) gender stereotyping (masculinized or feminized jobs, based on the attributes that employers emphasize in job advertisements). Broadly, findings suggest a polarization of early sorting mechanisms in which discrimination against female applicants is concentrated in male-dominated and masculinized working-class jobs, whereas discrimination against male applicants at early job-access points is more widespread, occurring in female-dominated and feminized jobs in both white-collar and working-class contexts. Interestingly, discrimination further compounds for male and female applicants—depending on the classed context—when these occupational dimensions align in the same gendered direction (e.g., male-dominated jobs that also have masculinized job advertisements). These findings have implications for the study of gender and work inequality and indicate the importance of a multidimensional approach to hiring-related inequality.
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Gonäs, Lena, Anders Wikman, Marjan Vaez, Kristina Alexanderson, and Klas Gustafsson. "Gender segregation of occupations and sustainable employment: A prospective population-based cohort study." Scandinavian Journal of Public Health 47, no. 3 (July 5, 2018): 348–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1403494818785255.
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Background: Although the labour market is characterized by a strong numerical gender segregation of occupations, there is little knowledge about the associations of this with the future labour market situation for an individual person. Objectives: This study aimed to elucidate whether working in a gender-segregated or gender-integrated occupation is associated with future labour market attachment and sickness absence or disability pensions among women and men. Methods: We used a population-based prospective cohort study with univariate and multiple logistic regression analyses stratified by gender, including all people living in Sweden aged 20–56 years and in paid work in 2003 ( n=3,239,989). They were followed up eight years later with regard to employment status, sickness absence and disability pension. Results: Women and men employed in extremely female-dominated occupations in 2003 had the highest employment levels and the lowest unemployment levels at follow up in 2011. When adjusting for age, level of education and sector of employment, the highest odds ratios (ORs) for not being employed in 2011 were found for women working in extremely male-dominated occupations in 2003 (OR 1.27; 95% CI 1.21–1.33) and for men in female-dominated occupations (OR 1.42; 95% CI 1.39–1.45) relative to those in gender-integrated occupations. Women in extremely male-dominated occupations had the highest ORs for sickness absence or the receipt of a disability pension at follow up (OR 1.26; 95% CI 1.17–1.36) and men in female-dominated occupations had the highest OR 1.15 (95% CI 1.11–1.20). Conclusions: For both women and men, the gender composition of the occupation they work in seems to be of importance for their future labour market attachment and sickness absence or receipt of a disability pension.
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Ostlin, P., L. Alfredsson, N. Hammar, and C. Reuterwall. "Myocardial infarction in male and female dominated occupations." Occupational and Environmental Medicine 55, no. 9 (September 1, 1998): 642–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/oem.55.9.642.
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Ethington, Corinna A., John C. Smart, and Ernest T. Pascarella. "Influences on women's entry into male-dominated occupations." Higher Education 17, no. 5 (1988): 545–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00130545.
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Bima, Nadia Revania, and Intan Primadini. "Perceived Femininity: Women Working in Male-Dominated Occupations." Jurnal Riset Komunikasi 6, no. 2 (August 26, 2023): 110–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.38194/jurkom.v6i2.831.
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Patriarchal society significantly affects how people interpret gender In the Indonesian, which leads to segregation and gender stereotypes in the workplace.Current development, women are entering fields like mining and construction that were formerly dominated by men. This study seeks to understand how women perceive their femininity when working in environments where men predominate. The research method is interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA), which uses a qualitative and explorative approach in line with the constructivist paradigm. The information gathered from interviews was analyzed using Smith, Flowers, and Larkin's (2009) data analysis techniques. The findings indicate that women who work in professions where men predominate regard their femininity as a combination of traditional femininity, new femininity, and adopted male traits as a means of adjusting to the workplace. This leads us to the conclusion that femininity is currently changing and that women today tend to express themselves more freely.
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Couppié, Thomas, Arnaud Dupray, and Stéphanie Moullet. "Education-based occupational segregation and the gender wage gap: evidence from France." International Journal of Manpower 35, no. 3 (May 27, 2014): 368–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijm-09-2012-0143.
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Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to test whether the gender wage gap at the beginning of the working life in France varies with the gender composition of occupations (male-dominated, female-dominated or mixed) and its main determinant (educational pre-sorting or labour market sorting). Design/methodology/approach – The first stage of the methodology is to decompose segregation indexes at occupation level into the two components of determination noted above. The occupations are then divided into five groups on the basis of their gender composition and the weight of the educational segregation. Oaxaca-Blinder decompositions are then applied to each group. Findings – Among 54 strongly gendered occupations, the segregation in 26 stems mainly from educational pre-sorting. This context is favourable to reduction of the gender wage gap. However, a modest wage differential is not proof of convergence towards equity, as it may conceal the existence of a significant discrimination component, as in male occupations. Research limitations/implications – The results relate to a cohort of French youth. The earnings-equalizing impact of education-based occupational segregation should be tested in other national contexts. Social implications – Public authorities should put in place incentives to encourage women's participation in a greater range of education and training courses and to improve the matching between education and the skill content of jobs. Originality/value – The originality lies in the suggestion that a strong connection between education and skill requirements helps to narrow the occupational gender wage gap.
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Bridges, Judith S. "Sex Differences in Occupational Performance Expectations." Psychology of Women Quarterly 12, no. 1 (March 1988): 75–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1988.tb00928.x.
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This study is an investigation of the effects of occupational sex-dominance on sex differences in occupational performance expectations. Female and male college students indicated their expectations for their own performance— self expectations—and that of either a “typical” male, female, or male and female person— comparison person expectations—for six occupations varying according to perceived sex-dominance. Additionally, the performance expectations were reported under anticipated private or public conditions. Results indicated that in contrast to males, females reported lower expectations for themselves alone and lower expectations for themselves in comparison to another person for male-dominated occupations. However, unlike males, females reported higher expectations for themselves and for themselves in comparison to others for female-dominated fields. Occupational sex dominance appeared to influence females' performance expectations, while males' expectations were similar across fields varying in sex-dominance. Neither the sex of the comparison person nor the anticipated privacy of the expectations were found to be related to the sex differences in performance expectations.
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Milner, Allison, Anne Kavanagh, Tania King, and Dianne Currier. "The Influence of Masculine Norms and Occupational Factors on Mental Health: Evidence From the Baseline of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Male Health." American Journal of Men's Health 12, no. 4 (January 16, 2018): 696–705. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1557988317752607.
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Men employed in male-dominated occupations are at elevated risk of work-related fatalities, injuries, and suicide. Prior research has focused on associations between psychosocial and physical exposures at work and health outcomes. However, masculine norms may also contribute to mental health. We used data from the baseline survey of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Male Health to examine whether: (a) men in male-dominated jobs report greater adherence to masculine norms; (b) being in a male-dominated occupation is associated with poorer mental health; and (c) being in a male-dominated occupation modifies the association between masculine norms and mental health. Masculine norms were measured using the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI-22). Mental health was assessed using the SF-12. Results of regression analysis (adjusted for covariates) suggest a linear relationship between the extent to which an occupation is male-dominated and endorsement of values on the CMNI-22. Many CMNI-22 subscales were related to poorer mental health. However, the need for self-reliance was identified as the strongest predictor of poorer mental health. The mental health scale did not appear to be patterned by occupational gender composition and we did not find an interaction between the gender ratio of an occupation and the CNMI-22 scale. These findings highlight the need to address harmful aspects of masculinity as a potential cause of mental health problems. More longitudinal research is needed on the social domains in which gender and health are experienced, such as in the workplace.
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Witte, Nils. "Have Changes in Gender Segregation and Occupational Closure Contributed to Increasing Wage Inequality in Germany, 1992–2012?" European Sociological Review 36, no. 2 (October 25, 2019): 236–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcz055.
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Abstract Wage inequality continued to increase through the 1990s and 2000s in post-industrial economies. This article contributes to the debate on occupations and inequality by assessing the role of occupational segregation and occupational closure for understanding the increase in inequality. Using employee data for West Germany in 1992 and 2012 and based on decompositions of unconditional quantile regressions the article investigates the contribution of changes in both occupational characteristics to changes in the wage structure. Our findings suggest that both the employment increase in more closed occupations and increased rewards in these occupations have contributed to wage increases across the distribution, especially in the lower half of the wage distribution. Our results further suggest disproportional wage increases in female-dominated occupations at the bottom of the distribution and disproportional wage decreases in male-dominated occupations at the top. If these occupational characteristics had remained at 1992 levels, then 90/10 wage inequality would have been 25 per cent higher in 2012. Thus, changes in occupational characteristics have contributed to wage compression in the observation period.
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Parashar, Sangeeta. "Marginalized by race and place." International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 34, no. 11/12 (October 7, 2014): 747–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijssp-01-2014-0003.
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Purpose – Given South Africa's apartheid history, studies have primarily focused on racial discrimination in employment outcomes, with lesser attention paid to gender and context. The purpose of this paper is to fill an important gap by examining the combined effect of macro- and micro-level factors on occupational sex segregation in post-apartheid South Africa. Intersections by race are also explored. Design/methodology/approach – A multilevel multinomial logistic regression is used to examine the influence of various supply and demand variables on women's placement in white- and blue-collar male-dominated occupations. Data from the 2001 Census and other published sources are used, with women nested in magisterial districts. Findings – Demand-side results indicate that service sector specialization augments differentiation by increasing women's opportunities in both white-collar male- and female-dominated occupations. Contrary to expectations, urban residence does not influence women's, particularly African women's, placement in any male-type positions, although Whites (white-collar) and Coloureds (blue-collar) fare better. Supply side human capital models are supported in general with African women receiving higher returns from education relative to others, although theories of “maternal incompatibility” are partially disproved. Finally, among all racial groups, African women are least likely to be employed in any male-dominated occupations, highlighting their marginalization and sustained discrimination in the labour market. Practical implications – An analysis of women's placement in white- and blue-collar male-dominated occupations by race provides practical information to design equitable work policies by gender and race. Social implications – Sex-typing of occupations has deleterious consequences such as lower security, wage differentials, and fewer prospects for promotion, that in turn increase labour market rigidity, reduce economic efficiency, and bar women from reaching their full potential. Originality/value – Very few empirical studies have examined occupational sex segregation (using detailed three-digit data) in developing countries, including South Africa. Methodologically, the paper uses multilevel techniques to correctly estimate ways in which context influences individual outcomes. Finally, it contributes to the literature on intersectionality by examining how gender and race sustain systems of inequality.
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Milner, Allison J., Marissa Shields, Dianne Currier, and Tania L. King. "Male-Dominated Occupations, Employment Status, and Suicidal Behaviors Among Australian Men." Crisis 41, no. 1 (January 2020): 54–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/0227-5910/a000610.
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Abstract. Background: Suicide rates are higher among unemployed men as well as those employed in male-dominated occupations such as construction. There has been less research on whether these patterns are similar for suicide ideation and attempt. Aims: In a cohort of 13,892 Australian males, this study examined the relationship between employment status and occupational gender ratio on reported thoughts of suicide and suicide attempts. Method: Men reporting suicide ideation or attempts at Wave 1 were removed from the sample. Logistic regression was used to examine Wave 1 employment status and occupational gender ratio and Wave 2 reported suicide ideation and attempts, controlling for confounders (measured in Wave 1). We conducted a sensitivity analysis controlling for mental health status. Results: Those who were unemployed or not in the labor force had elevated rates of suicide ideation (unemployed OR = 1.91, 95% CI [1.30, 2.82], p = .001; not in the labor force OR = 1.68, 95% CI [1.09, 2.60], p = .020). Those who were not in the labor force had greater odds of attempts ( OR = 2.32, 95% CI [1.05, 5.12], p = .037). There was no association between occupational gender ratio and suicide ideation or attempt. Limitations: We only had single item measures of ideation and attempts. Conclusion: There is a need for further investigation into risk factors for suicide among males, both when they are in and out of employment.
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Reid, Guynel Marie. "Children's Occupational Sex-Role Stereotyping in 1994." Psychological Reports 76, no. 3_suppl (June 1995): 1155–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1995.76.3c.1155.
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To update the basis of the explanation of how elementary children evaluate the capability of males versus females to perform occupations which are dominated by males, females, or are gender balanced (neutral) in the workforce 180 girls and 200 boys in Grades 1, 2, and 3 completed a questionnaire indicating which of 39 occupations were mostly done by women, by either, or by men on a 5-point scale. The most and least stereotyped occupations were very like gender-occupational data from 1972 and 1983 and reflected the actual sex-typing in the labor force. Sex and grade differences were noted for male occupations but not for female occupations. Some differences from 1977 data of Garrett, et al. were noted. The neutral status of some occupations appeared to assume a male worker.
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Simpson, Ruth. "Masculinity at Work." Work, Employment and Society 18, no. 2 (June 2004): 349–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/09500172004042773.
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This article presents the findings of a research project on the implications of men’s non-traditional career choices for their experiences within the organization and for gender identity. The research is based on 40 in-depth interviews with male workers from four occupational groups: librarians, cabin crew, nurses and primary school teachers. Results suggest a typology of male workers in female dominated occupations: seekers (who actively seek the career), finders (who find the occupation in the process of making general career decisions) and settlers (who settle into the career after periods of time in mainly male dominated occupations). Men benefit from their minority status through assumptions of enhanced leadership (the assumed authority effect), by being given differential treatment (the special consideration effect) and being associated with a more careerist attitude to work (the career effect). At the same time, they feel comfortable working with women (the zone of comfort effect). Despite this comfort, men adopt a variety of strategies to re-establish a masculinity that has been undermined by the ‘feminine‘ nature of their work. These include re-labelling, status enhancement and distancing from the feminine. The dynamics of maintaining and reproducing masculinities within the non-traditional work setting are discussed in the light of recent theorizing around gender, masculinity and work.
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Gattiker, Urs E., and Aaron Cohen. "Gender-Based Wage Differences: The Effects of Occupation and Job Segregation in Israel." Articles 52, no. 3 (April 12, 2005): 507–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/051184ar.
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This article reports on an analysis of gender differences in the process governing salary disparity between typically female occupations and typically male occupations. The research surveyed 771 white collar employees. The findings indicate that choice of occupation does affect income disparity. This study provides evidence of pay discrimination against men in predominantly female occupations and against women in female- and male-dominated positions. In contrast to North American studies, women did not experience a positive effect by being employed in the public sector, nor did either of the genders working in larger organizations. The implications of the findings for the generalizability of human capital, structural and institutional theories explaining wage disparity in a cross-national context are discussed.
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Matilla Santander, Nuria, Bianca Blazevska, Vladimir Carli, Gergö Hadlaczky, Anette Linnersjö, Theo Bodin, and Gun Johansson. "Relation between occupation, gender dominance in the occupation and workplace and suicide in Sweden: a longitudinal study." BMJ Open 12, no. 6 (June 2022): e060096. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-060096.
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ObjectivesTo describe the association between occupations and suicide, and to explore the effect of gender dominance in the occupation and in the workplace on the risk of suicide.DesignRegister-based cohort study.Participants3 318 050 workers in Sweden in 2005 and followed up until 2010. Exclusion criteria for the study were: missing information in the occupational codes, yearly income of <100 Swedish krona, missing information of the employer, death or migration, and registered occupational code reported from more than 5 years ago.OutcomeSuicides occurring during 2006–2010 identified in the cause of death register by the International Classification of Diagnoses-10 codes X60–84 and Y10–34.ResultsOccupations with increased suicide were life science and health professionals (OR: 2.8, 95% CI: 1.50 to 5.26) among women. In men, these were metal, machinery and related workers (OR: 1.5, 95% CI: 1.09 to 2.05) and personal and protective service workers (OR: 1.59, 95% CI: 1.14 to 2.22). In terms of gender dominance in the occupation, borderline associations with increased suicide risk were found for men in both male-dominated (OR: 1.32, 95% CI: 0.98 to 1.79) and female-dominated (OR: 1.37, 95% CI: 0.99 to 1.91) occupations. For women, borderline increased risk of suicide was found in female-dominated occupations (OR: 1.51, 95% CI: 0.95 to 2.40). Finally, men showed a borderline increased risk of suicide in female-dominated workplaces (OR: 1.31, 95% CI: 0.94 to 1.81).ConclusionsThis study found that women in the ‘life science and health professionals’ group and men in the ‘metal, machinery and related workers’ as well as ‘personal and protective service workers’ groups have increased incidence of suicide also when adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics, precariousness of the employment relationship, spells of unemployment, previous mental disorders and suicide attempts. Moreover, gender dominance at workplace and occupation seems to be associated with the risk of suicide among men. The results of our study are novel and are worth exploring in future qualitative studies.
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Chesters, Jenny. "Understanding the Persistence of Occupational Sex Segregation in German Labour Markets: How Gender Attitudes Shape Young Women’s Occupational Aspirations." Journal of Applied Youth Studies 5, no. 1 (February 17, 2022): 55–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s43151-021-00065-1.
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AbstractThe persistence of occupational sex segregation is a global phenomenon that relegates women into lower paid, lower status jobs. Understanding why young women apparently choose such jobs is integral to reversing decades of economic inequality related to employment. The strength of the association between the education system and labour market as well as high levels of occupational sex segregation makes Germany an interesting case to study. Using data from the National Education Panel Study (NEPS) Starting Cohort 4 data, I examine whether the occupational aspirations of female secondary school students are related to family characteristics and/or attitudes to gender roles. The results indicate that girls with fathers employed in male-dominated occupations hold more conservative gender attitudes than their peers with fathers employed in gender-neutral occupations. Girls with more conservative gender attitudes are more likely to hold aspirations for jobs in female-dominated occupations. These findings suggest that despite growth in gender-neutral knowledge-based industries, the socialisation of young women, particularly with regard to attitudes to appropriate roles for women, continues to influence occupational aspirations.
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Agota Giedrė Raišienė, Jolita Gečienė, and Renata Korsakienė. "Challenges of Women Leaders in Female and Male Dominated Occupations." International Journal of Business and Society 21, no. 3 (April 27, 2021): 1277–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.33736/ijbs.3349.2020.
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The article presents the results of research revealing the challenges faced by women leaders during their career in public administration and business organisations and highlighting the peculiarities of women's experience in female and male dominated occupation areas. The study has shown that that stereotypes still do not disappear despite legislative institutionalization of gender equality in professional career. In most cases, women face constraints such as widespread stereotypes in society, negative attitudes of colleagues and behaviour related to that, doubts of women-leaders themselves about their opportunities, and conflict between family and work roles.
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Mastekaasa, Arne. "Sickness absence in female- and male-dominated occupations and workplaces." Social Science & Medicine 60, no. 10 (May 2005): 2261–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.10.003.
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Dengler, Katharina, and Anita Tisch. "Examining the Relationship Between Digital Transformation and Work Quality: Substitution Potential and Work Exposure in Gender-Specific Occupations." KZfSS Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie 72, S1 (July 13, 2020): 427–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11577-020-00674-3.
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Abstract Computers can substitute for many tasks currently performed by humans and are likely to change occupations in the near future. However, it is not likely that entire occupations will disappear. In this context, little attention has been paid to possible impacts of digital transformation on aspects of work quality. It would be desirable for changes to ease occupations with high work exposure. In this article, we assume that digital technologies may replace physically demanding jobs mainly performed by men, but not psychosocially demanding jobs mainly performed by women. Thus, the question arises whether social inequality between men and women may increase in the course of digital transformation. Using large-scale administrative and survey data from Germany, we analyse the relationship between digital transformation and work exposure for male- and female-dominated occupations. We measure the degree of digital transformation by occupation-specific substitution potential, that is the extent to which occupational tasks can be replaced by computers or computer-controlled machines. The results imply that digital technologies could relieve men of physically demanding jobs. However, we cannot find any evidence that digital technologies have already caused employment to decline in occupations with physical work exposure.
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Dex, Shirley, and Erzsébet Bukodi. "The Effects of Part-Time Work on Women's Occupational Mobility in Britain: Evidence from the 1958 Birth Cohort Study." National Institute Economic Review 222 (October 2012): R20—R37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/002795011222200103.
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The effects of working part time on job downgrading and upgrading are examined over the life course of British women born in 1958. We use longitudinal data with complete work histories from a large-scale nationally representative cohort study. Occupations were ranked by their hourly average earnings. Analyses show a strong link between full-time/part-time transitions and downward and upward occupational mobility over the course of up to thirty years of employment. Probabilities of occupational mobility were affected by women's personal traits, occupational characteristics and demand-side factors. Downward mobility on moving from full-time to part-time work was more likely for women at the top levels of the occupational hierarchy working in male-dominated or mixed occupations and less likely in higher occupations with more part-time jobs available.
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Kidd, Michael P., and Michael Shannon. "Does the Level of Occupational Aggregation Affect Estimates of the Gender Wage Gap?" ILR Review 49, no. 2 (January 1996): 317–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/001979399604900209.
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The traditional decomposition of the gender wage gap distinguishes between a component attributable to gender differences in productivity-related characteristics and a residual component that is often taken as a measure of discrimination. This study of data from the 1989 Canadian Labour Market Activity Survey shows that when occupation is treated as a productivity-related characteristic, the proportion of the gender wage gap labeled explained increases with the number of occupational classifications distinguished. However, on the basis of evidence that occupational differences reflect the presence of barriers faced by women attempting to enter male-dominated occupations, the authors conclude that occupation should not be treated as a productivity-related characteristic; and in a decomposition of the gender wage gap that treats occupation as endogenously determined, they find that the level of occupational aggregation has little effect on the size of the “explained” component of the gap.
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Strawinski, Pawel, Aleksandra Majchrowska, and Paulina Broniatowska. "Occupational segregation and wage differences: the case of Poland." International Journal of Manpower 39, no. 3 (June 4, 2018): 378–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijm-07-2016-0141.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to analyse the relation between occupational segregation and the gender wage differences using data on three-digit occupational level of classification. The authors examine whether a statistically significant relation between the share of men in employment and the size of the unexplained part of the gender wage gap exists. Design/methodology/approach Traditional Oaxaca (1973) – Blinder (1973) decomposition is performed to examine the differences in the gender wage gaps among minor occupational groups. Two types of reweighted decomposition – based on the parametric estimate of the propensity score and non-parametric proposition presented by Barsky et al. (2002) – are used as the robustness check. The analysis is based on individual data available from Poland. Findings The results indicate no strong relation between occupational segregation and the size of unexplained differences in wages. The unexplained wage differences are the smallest in strongly female-dominated and mixed occupations; the highest are observed in male-dominated occupations. However, they are probably to a large extent the result of other, difficult to include in the econometric model, factors rather than the effects of wage discrimination: differences in the psychophysical conditions of men and women, cultural background, tradition or habits. The failure to take them into account may result in over-interpreting the unexplained parts as gender discrimination. Research limitations/implications The highest accuracy of the estimated gender wage gap is obtained for the occupational groups with a similar proportion of men and women in employment. In other male- or female-dominated groups, the size of the estimated gender wage gaps depends on the estimation method used. Practical implications The results suggest that decreasing the degree of segregation of men and women in different occupations could reduce the wage differences between them, as the wage discrimination in gender balanced occupations is the smallest. Originality/value To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this study is one of the few conducted at such a disaggregated level of occupations, and one of few studies focused on Central and Eastern European countries and the first one for Poland.
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Konrad, Alison M., Mateo Cruz, Regina Dutz, Amy Randel, Mihwa Seong, Carol Woodhams, Thais C. L. Alves, et al. "Storming the Last Bastions: Women Entering High Prestige Male-Dominated Occupations." Academy of Management Proceedings 2020, no. 1 (August 2020): 12409. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.2020.12409symposium.
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Sang, Katherine J. C., James Richards, and Abigail Marks. "Gender and Disability in Male-Dominated Occupations: A Social Relational Model." Gender, Work & Organization 23, no. 6 (August 9, 2016): 566–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/gwao.12143.
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Lewis, Gregory B. "Gender Integration of Occupations in the Federal Civil Service: Extent and Effects on Male-Female Earnings." ILR Review 49, no. 3 (April 1996): 472–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/001979399604900306.
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Using the U.S. Office of Personnel Management's Central Personnel Data File, the author shows that from 1976 through 1992 gender integration of occupations proceeded more rapidly and steadily in the federal civil service than in the general economy. During that period, increasing numbers of women moved into traditionally male occupations, especially in professional and administrative work. Little of that progress, the author finds, was attributable to changes in women's education or seniority. Although average grades (indicating levels of responsibility) in male-dominated occupations declined as women entered them, gender integration of occupations helped to narrow male-female pay disparities in the federal service more than in the general economy.
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Schmid, Flurina. "The Gender Wage Gap in Switzerland over Time." Swiss Journal of Sociology 42, no. 3 (November 1, 2016): 442–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/sjs-2016-0020.
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Abstracts This article analyzes the gender wage gap in Switzerland, using data from the Swiss Household Panel. The results show that women in Switzerland earn still less than men with the same endowments. One of the main reasons for this gap is occupational segregation: women and men working in femaledominated occupations have lower wages than those in integrated and male-dominated occupations. In order to have equally distributed job categories, 40% of the male or female employees would need to change jobs. But the “preferences” for jobs between genders seem to have been frozen for decades. The gender wage gap is particularly large within part-time employees working below 50%. Younger cohorts, however, seem less exposed to gender wage differentials.
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Baah-Boateng, William. "Empirical analysis of the changing pattern of sex segregation of occupation in Ghana." International Journal of Social Economics 41, no. 8 (August 5, 2014): 650–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijse-04-2013-0099.
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Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to assess the changing pattern and direction of sex segregation of occupation as a measure of unbalanced distribution of occupation by sex in Ghana between 1960 and 2010, identify the sources of the changes and show whether female-male earnings difference has changed in line with the changes in occupational segregation. Design/methodology/approach – The paper applies two segregation indices to data from population censuses and household surveys in the empirical analysis Findings – The outcome of the segregation measure indicates a generally modest to high but declining occupational sex segregation in Ghana over a period of five decades. Sex composition and occupational mix effects are found to be the underlying drivers of the declining segregation with the former coming up strongly during the initial 40 years. This has, however, not translated into narrowing female-male earnings gap. Practical implications – The paper recommends measures towards economic transformation for a change in occupational structure backed by implementation of education policy to enhance female access to male-dominated science and engineering programmes and employment in high-skill occupations. Originality/value – The strength of the paper is seen from its originality as it is the first attempt to assess changing pattern of occupational segregation over a long period of five decades with consistent and comparable data sources.
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Drydakis, Nick, Katerina Sidiropoulou, Vasiliki Bozani, Sandra Selmanovic, and Swetketu Patnaik. "Masculine vs feminine personality traits and women’s employment outcomes in Britain." International Journal of Manpower 39, no. 4 (July 2, 2018): 621–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijm-09-2017-0255.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine whether masculine personality traits in women generate better job market prospects, as compared to feminine personality traits. Design/methodology/approach The authors utilized a field experiment (correspondent test) to capture the way in which firms respond to women who exhibit masculine and feminine personality traits. In doing so, the authors minimized the potential for reverse causality bias and unobserved heterogeneities to occur. Findings Women who exhibit masculine personality traits have a 4.3 percentage points greater likelihood of gaining access to occupations than those displaying feminine personality traits. In both male- and female-dominated occupations, women with masculine personality traits have an occupational access advantage, as compared to those exhibiting feminine personality traits. Moreover, women with masculine personality traits take up positions which offer 10 percentage points higher wages, in comparison with those displaying feminine personality traits. Furthermore, wage premiums are higher for those exhibiting masculine personality traits in male-dominated occupations than for female-dominated positions. Practical implications Within the labor market, masculine personality traits may increase competency levels and leadership capability. Social implications As feminine personality traits are stereotypically attributed to women, and these characteristics appear to yield fewer rewards within the market, they may offer one of many plausible explanations as to why women experience higher unemployment rates, while also receiving lower earnings, as compared to men. Originality/value Masculine and feminine personality traits may be a probable outcome of wage-related differentials. The experimental study isolates spurious relationships and offers clear evaluations of the effect of masculine and feminine personality traits on occupational access and wage distribution. To the best of the authors knowledge, this is the first-field experiment to examine the effect of masculine and feminine personality traits on entry-level pay scales.
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Limiñana-Gras, Rosa M., M. Pilar Sánchez-López, Ana I. Saavedra-San Román, and F. Javier Corbalán-Berná. "Health and Gender in Female-Dominated Occupations: The Case of Male Nurses." Journal of Men's Studies 21, no. 2 (April 1, 2013): 135–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.3149/jms.2102.135.
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Kricheli-Katz, Tamar. "Us versus Them: The Responses of Managers to the Feminization of High-Status Occupations." Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World 5 (January 2019): 237802311987830. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2378023119878301.
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What happens when more and more women enter high-status occupations that were previously male-dominated occupations? This article explores how the processes by which the entrance of women into high-status occupations has affected the hiring, income, and perceived competence of women. I present the results of a general population experiment conducted on a large, random sample of the U.S. population. The experiment was designed to explore the hiring, income, and perceived competence of all women when high-status occupations become predominantly female. I show that when male managers are exposed to information about high-status occupations’ becoming predominantly female, they evaluate women who work in other high-status occupations as less competent, tend to hire them less frequently, and offer them lower salaries. Female managers, however, tend to respond to such changes in the labor force by valuing women more highly.
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Dämmrich, Johanna, and Hans-Peter Blossfeld. "Women’s disadvantage in holding supervisory positions. Variations among European countries and the role of horizontal gender segregation." Acta Sociologica 60, no. 3 (November 2, 2016): 262–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0001699316675022.
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Using the Labour Force Survey 2013, this paper examines gender differences in holding supervisory positions in 26 European countries and relates these differences to horizontal gender segregation, i.e. women and men working in different jobs. First, we confirm the findings of previous studies that women are still disadvantaged in holding supervisory positions in almost all countries. Second, by examining how women’s disadvantage varies when working in male-dominated, gender-mixed, and female-dominated occupations, we observe women’s lowest disadvantage in male-dominated occupations in most countries. Third, applying a two-stage multilevel analysis, we explore at the macro level how the country variation in women’s disadvantage in holding supervisory positions is related to horizontal gender segregation, selection of women in the labour market, and conditions facilitating the combination of work and family, and whether women’s disadvantage significantly differs among welfare regimes. We provide evidence that differences among welfare regimes capture much better country variation than single macro indicators.
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Dill, Janette, and Adrianne Frech. "Providing for a Family in the Working Class: Gender and Employment After the Birth of a Child." Social Forces 98, no. 1 (December 12, 2018): 183–210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sf/soy106.
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AbstractNavigating the labor market in today’s economy has become increasingly difficult for those without a college degree. In this study, we ask whether and how working-class men and women in the United States are able to secure gains in wages and/or earnings as they transition to parenthood or increase family size. We look closely at child parity, employment behavior (e.g., switching employers, taking on multiple jobs, increasing hours), and occupation in the year after the birth of a child. Using the 2004 and 2008 panels of the Survey for Income and Program Participation (SIPP), we employ fixed-effects models to examine the impact of changing labor market behavior or occupation on wages and earnings after the birth of a child. We find limited evidence that low- and middle-skill men experience a “fatherhood premium” after the birth of a child, conditional on child parity and occupation. For men, nearly all occupations were associated with a “wage penalty” after the birth of a child (parity varies) compared to the service sector. However, overall higher wages in many male-dominated and white-collar occupations make these better options for fathers. For women, we see clear evidence of a “motherhood penalty,” which is partly accounted for by employment behaviors, such as switching to a salaried job or making an occupational change.
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Valet, Peter. "Social Structure and the Paradox of the Contented Female Worker: How Occupational Gender Segregation Biases Justice Perceptions of Wages." Work and Occupations 45, no. 2 (January 15, 2018): 168–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0730888417753048.
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This article provides a structural explanation for the paradox of the contented female worker. Although they are generally aware that they earn less than men, women usually perceive their wages as more just. This article argues that men and women do not differ in how they perceive their wages, yet the gendered segregation of the labor market will constrain the availability of preferred same-gender referent standards in some occupations. Random- and fixed-effects analyses of longitudinal data of the German Socio-Economic Panel covering the years 2009 to 2015 ( N = 26,362) reveal that the paradox is only detectable in occupations with a considerable number of female referents. However, as soon as women move into a male-dominated occupation, the paradox vanishes. These results contradict the view that men and women generally differ in how they perceive their wages and indicate that gender differences in justice perceptions can be explained by the structural embeddedness of employees in certain occupations.
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Jacobs, Jerry A. "Detours on the Road to Equality: Women, Work and Higher Education." Contexts 2, no. 1 (February 2003): 32–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/ctx.2003.2.1.32.
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Women are earning college degrees in increasing numbers, but entering male-dominated occupations at a decreasing pace. These two developments are linked. Work barriers may be leading women to take a detour to college.
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Gee, Seo-Yeong, and Ji-Woong Yang. "Narrative Inquiry on the Career Decision Process of Females in Male-dominated Occupations." 내러티브와 교육연구 5, no. 1 (April 30, 2017): 25–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.25051/jner050102.
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Reid, Erin M., Olivia Amanda O'Neill, and Mary Blair-Loy. "Masculinity in Male-Dominated Occupations: How Teams, Time, and Tasks Shape Masculinity Contests." Journal of Social Issues 74, no. 3 (September 2018): 579–606. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/josi.12285.
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