Journal articles on the topic 'Margi language'

Within the theoretical framework of nonlinear phonology, this paper proposes an account of tone sandhi and vowel deletion in Margi, a Chadic language spoken in Northern Nigeria. The database is Hoffman's Grammar of the Margi Language. Language-specific tonal processes in Margi are shown to originate in tone trapping, i.e., the impossibility for a tone to anchor to a skeletal slot by a universal mechanism. The paper identifies the circumstances leading to tone trapping (e.g., Vowel Elision) and formalizes the various tone-rescue processes available both word-internally and across words. Whereas trapped high tones are always saved (either taking over low-tone vowel positions or giving rise to contour tones), trapped low tones may remain trapped throughout a derivation and thus receive no phonetic realization (by universal convention).

Labiodental flaps exist in several African languages, and were first described by Doke (1931) in a study of Shona. Westermann and Ward (1933: 76) quote data from Tucker, who notes labiodental flaps in Kreish, a Central Sudanic language of the Sara-Bongo-Baguirmi group. In the same group of languages, Thomas (1981: 262) claims to find them in Bongo-Gberi and in Binga-Kara. Thomas defines these sounds as “vibrantes labiodentales” (see also Caprile 1981: 238). Hoffman (1963) and Ladefoged (1964) both identify these sounds in Margi. Cloarec-Heiss (1981: 225) reports such sounds in Banda, but describes them as “labiodentales lâches”, transcribed [ǔ]. Maddieson (1984) quotes two sounds of this type in the UPSID data base, one in Margi and the other in Gbeya.

AbstractIn recent years, the typological and geographic range of languages subjected to sociophonetic study has been expanding, though until now Australian Aboriginal languages have been absent from this subdiscipline. This first sociophonetic study of an Australian language, Murrinh Patha, shows a type of consonant lenition that is notably distinct from the better known examples in Standard Average European languages, effecting /p/ and /k/ primarily in the onset of stressed, usually word-initial syllables. Young men lenite more frequently than older men do, and paternal heritage from the neighboring Marri language group also predicts more frequent lenition. The latter influence may be the result of intense language contact brought about by recent settlement of diverse language groups at the Catholic Mission of Port Keats.

Recently, neural methods have achieved state-of-the-art (SOTA) results in Named Entity Recognition (NER) tasks for many languages without the need for manually crafted features. However, these models still require manually annotated training data, which is not available for many languages. In this paper, we propose an unsupervised cross-lingual NER model that can transfer NER knowledge from one language to another in a completely unsupervised way without relying on any bilingual dictionary or parallel data. Our model achieves this through word-level adversarial learning and augmented fine-tuning with parameter sharing and feature augmentation. Experiments on five different languages demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach, outperforming existing models by a good margin and setting a new SOTA for each language pair.

According to estimates, Africa hosts about 2,000 of the approximately 6,000 languages of the world. This number makes the continent one of the hotspots of linguistic diversity. Essential description (i.e. grammars, dictionaries) and documentation (i.e. audio and video speech data and their annotations) is not even available for some of the largest among them. The overwhelming majority of African languages, irrespective of their endangerment status, have received only very little or no linguistic attention to date, despite the fact that many of them are spoken by millions as a first or second language. In addition, a large number of African languages are spoken by small-scale rural communities and can be classified as endangered on diverse grounds, ranging from displacement due to wars or climate change to rural exodus for socioeconomic reasons.

While Bactrian and Persic languages differ in terms of knowledge based on historical, geographical, and comparative-historical linguistics, Pamir languages occupy a prominent position among Bactrian languages. Pamir languages are known to have originated in the mountainous region of Aryan land. Since then, these languages have prospered in this area and come to maintain their stronghold in Pamir and its immediate vicinity. In terms of linguistic relationship and intercourse, the gathering of all Pamir languages in a single group is one expression. It is still unclear if all the Pamir languages ​​originated from an ancient source and then branched out into different groups or were left untouched by the Aryan languages, with each one maintaining its stability as a separate branch. Margin Stern, a specialist in Pamir languages do not consider one center of origin for Pamir languages: He says, “Finding a single phonologic system for all Pamir languages is impossible since they have similarities only in a few phonetics characters”. Despite these similarities, sometimes they are separated and stacked with other languages such as Pashtu. Here, it is noteworthy to mention that it has been a long time since Mr. Margin Stern gave this idea and as such, this is not a recent theory. During those times, fewer studies on Pamir languages were carried out, and that too with poor materials. For instance, the Yazgolyami language was almost not investigated while phonological borders among Pamir languages were not identified and the specifically voiced items were not even differentiated. The later linguists and researchers collected many items and consequently, voice borders were selected. Such profound and in-depth studies and classification assure the researchers that these languages originated from one tree and later developed into different branches. Keywords: Pashtu, Pamir, Language

<!--[if gte mso 10]> <mce:style><! /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Vanlig tabell"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} > <! [endif] > <p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">In this paper, I investigate the syntactic structure underlying expressions of the three main types of Paths: Goal Path, Source Path and Route Path. I suggest that they are structurally different and propose a fine-grained syntactic structure for each of them, which is able to account for their morphological make-up. I explore how this structure is spelled out in various languages and show that a nanosyntactic approach to lexicalization captures the facts in an elegant way. In discussing the spell-out of the structure by prepositions and case affixes, I reach the conclusion that sometimes the verb has to &lsquo;reach down&rsquo; and lexicalize heads which belong to the spatial domain (cf. Svenonius and Son 2008). I provide evidence from languages where I argue that this is the case.</span><-->

The article puts forwards the thesis that the language in most of Maria Dąbrowska’s diaries was a conscious creation on the part of the writer and was not the result of a spontaneous recording of events and the author’s experiences. It should also be assumed that Dąbrowska wrote the diaries with the view that they would later (probably posthumously) be published and that she consciously used that style and linguistic tricks. The diaries include not only the author’s narrative but also direct and indirect speech, as well as seemingly reported speech. One can only admire Dąbrowska’s mastery of language, whereby she was able to combine various linguistic and stylistic elements in order to create a cohesive whole in specific entries in the diaries. The article also shows the evolution of the style of Maria Dąbrowska’s diaries from the relatively unoriginal, youthful style of the diaries of the 1920s to the mature, original style of the diaries of the 1950s and 1960s. It also shows that the author – depending on the subject and its importance – used vocabularies for various registers of the Polish language: from academic and officialese, through careful standard Polish (most frequently), to colloquial and even vulgar language. Some attention is paid to the author’s awareness of language, as well as her general attitude to both the language of her own works as well as to linguists. This article is only a preliminary study – the language of Maria Dąbrowska’s diaries deserves detailed study.

Recent progress in cross-lingual relation and event extraction use graph convolutional networks (GCNs) with universal dependency parses to learn language-agnostic sentence representations such that models trained on one language can be applied to other languages. However, GCNs struggle to model words with long-range dependencies or are not directly connected in the dependency tree. To address these challenges, we propose to utilize the self-attention mechanism where we explicitly fuse structural information to learn the dependencies between words with different syntactic distances. We introduce GATE, a Graph Attention Transformer Encoder, and test its cross-lingual transferability on relation and event extraction tasks. We perform experiments on the ACE05 dataset that includes three typologically different languages: English, Chinese, and Arabic. The evaluation results show that GATE outperforms three recently proposed methods by a large margin. Our detailed analysis reveals that due to the reliance on syntactic dependencies, GATE produces robust representations that facilitate transfer across languages.

Transformer-based architectures brought a breeze of change to Word Sense Disambiguation (WSD), improving models' performances by a large margin. The fast development of new approaches has been further encouraged by a well-framed evaluation suite for English, which has allowed their performances to be kept track of and compared fairly. However, other languages have remained largely unexplored, as testing data are available for a few languages only and the evaluation setting is rather matted. In this paper, we untangle this situation by proposing XL-WSD, a cross-lingual evaluation benchmark for the WSD task featuring sense-annotated development and test sets in 18 languages from six different linguistic families, together with language-specific silver training data. We leverage XL-WSD datasets to conduct an extensive evaluation of neural and knowledge-based approaches, including the most recent multilingual language models. Results show that the zero-shot knowledge transfer across languages is a promising research direction within the WSD field, especially when considering low-resourced languages where large pre-trained multilingual models still perform poorly. We make the evaluation suite and the code for performing the experiments available at https://sapienzanlp.github.io/xl-wsd/.

This study aims to: 1) describe the existence of Lampung language on Marga Sekampung community in Gunung Raya 2) analyze the factors that influence the Lampung language degradation on Marga Sekampung community in Gunung Raya. This study is a qualitative research. This study was carried out in Gunung Raya, Marga Sekampung, East Lampung. The findings of this study are 1) the existence of Lampung language on Marga Sekampung community in Gunung Raya in the cultural and social environment so far is still well maintained. However, there is a language shifting in the existence of Lampung language of Marga Sekampung community in family environment, especially the use of the Lampung language between parents and children as well as the use of Lampung Language between children and children. 2) The factors that influence the Lampung language degradation on Marga Sekampung community in Gunung Raya especially on children or teenangers are their own selves factors, lack of socialization in the family environment, and interaction with their friends. Based on the results of this study, it should be for children and parents of Marga Sekampung community in Gunung Raya get used to using Lampung language in their daily life so that it does not become extinct.

This research investigates metacognitive awareness, students reading strategies preferences and their correlation to independent demographic and educational variables. Data were gathered through the MARSI-2fGR inventory administered to a random sample of 632 students aged 12-24 from 68 schools in various urban, semi-urban and rural regions in Greece. The alternative factorial structure of the MARSI-2fGR inventory comprised of two factors, namely textor and textout, standing for text-oriented and beyond text reading strategies that Greek secondary students use. Results showed significant differences in favour of the textor reading strategies compared to the textout. It seems that other parameters affect the reading strategies preferences more than the family's socioeconomic status. Both variables of foreign language knowledge and computer literacy showed statistically significant differences. Therefore, it appeared that the more literate someone is in foreign languages and computers, the more reading strategies he/she declared to use. This research sheds new light on the way that Greek students read academic or school-related material.

As the amount of content that is created on social media is constantly increasing, more and more opinions and sentiments are expressed by people in various subjects. In this respect, sentiment analysis and opinion mining techniques can be valuable for the automatic analysis of huge textual corpora (comments, reviews, tweets etc.). Despite the advances in text mining algorithms, deep learning techniques, and text representation models, the results in such tasks are very good for only a few high-density languages (e.g., English) that possess large training corpora and rich linguistic resources; nevertheless, there is still room for improvement for the other lower-density languages as well. In this direction, the current work employs various language models for representing social media texts and text classifiers in the Greek language, for detecting the polarity of opinions expressed on social media. The experimental results on a related dataset collected by the authors of the current work are promising, since various classifiers based on the language models (naive bayesian, random forests, support vector machines, logistic regression, deep feed-forward neural networks) outperform those of word or sentence-based embeddings (word2vec, GloVe), achieving a classification accuracy of more than 80%. Additionally, a new language model for Greek social media has also been trained on the aforementioned dataset, proving that language models based on domain specific corpora can improve the performance of generic language models by a margin of 2%. Finally, the resulting models are made freely available to the research community.

Since its emergence in the 1980s, Taiwanese Indigenous writing has constituted a case of minor literature that mostly uses the culturally dominant language of Chinese, rather than indigenous languages, for literary creation. Framed conventionally as cultural traditions without writing in spite of the existence of Romanized script systems for Taiwan’s indigenous languages, the literary expressions of Taiwan’s first cultures face a situation of linguistic diglossia accompanied by that of bigraphism, one of profound inequality between two languages as well as between their script systems. This essay analyzes two recent texts by Taiwanese indigenous authors, Badai’s Diguwan: Damalagaw during the Taisho Years (2007) and Rahic Talif’s Turbidity (2006), for their textual strategies of linguistic and script mixing, in order to explore the complex politics of translation at Taiwan’s cultural margin and beyond.

The research paper addresses the unresolved linguistic vacuum that accounts for the authorial and fictional abrogation and appropriation of language in Lessing’s works. This research paper attempts to take a holistic view of these implications. Lessing has used a number of methods to overcome this inadequacy and the abrogation and appropriation of language thus seen is clearly evident in her novel The Grass is Singing. The concepts of hegemony of language by the colonizers and their control over the means of communications as well as the attempts to liberate the language by the blacks were seen in the novel. In order to analyze the post-colonial aspects of the novel, one has to keep in mind the colonial features that were seen in The Grass is Singing. Thus, the process of abrogation and appropriation will be seen through the fictional characters of Mary and Moses. With these characters Lessing highlights the larger reality of the center-margin, colonizer-colonized relation in the novel. Natives on acquiring control over the Language and the ability to control the means of communication then reveal the hollowness of the colonial ideas based on oppression and exploitation of the indigenous people.

AbstractThis paper presents a novel neural architecture capable of outperforming state-of-the-art systems on the task of language variety classification. The architecture is a hybrid that combines character-based convolutional neural network (CNN) features with weighted bag-of-n-grams (BON) features and is therefore capable of leveraging both character-level and document/corpus-level information. We tested the system on the Discriminating between Similar Languages (DSL) language variety benchmark data set from the VarDial 2017 DSL shared task, which contains data from six different language groups, as well as on two smaller data sets (the Arabic Dialect Identification (ADI) Corpus and the German Dialect Identification (GDI) Corpus, from the VarDial 2016 ADI and VarDial 2018 GDI shared tasks, respectively). We managed to outperform the winning system in the DSL shared task by a margin of about 0.4 percentage points and the winning system in the ADI shared task by a margin of about 0.2 percentage points in terms of weighted F1 score without conducting any language group-specific parameter tweaking. An ablation study suggests that weighted BON features contribute more to the overall performance of the system than the CNN-based features, which partially explains the uncompetitiveness of deep learning approaches in the past VarDial DSL shared tasks. Finally, we have implemented our system in a workflow, available in the ClowdFlows platform, in order to make it easily available also to the non-programming members of the research community.

Recent work on Natural Language Interfaces to Databases (NLIDB) has attracted considerable attention. NLIDB allow users to search databases using natural language instead of SQL-like query languages. While saving the users from having to learn query languages, multi-turn interaction with NLIDB usually involves multiple queries where contextual information is vital to understand the users’ query intents. In this paper, we address a typical contextual understanding problem, termed as follow-up query analysis. In spite of its ubiquity, follow-up query analysis has not been well studied due to two primary obstacles: the multifarious nature of follow-up query scenarios and the lack of high-quality datasets. Our work summarizes typical follow-up query scenarios and provides a new FollowUp dataset with 1000 query triples on 120 tables. Moreover, we propose a novel approach FANDA, which takes into account the structures of queries and employs a ranking model with weakly supervised max-margin learning. The experimental results on FollowUp demonstrate the superiority of FANDA over multiple baselines across multiple metrics.

All versions of EU legal documents in all official EU languages are considered identical and authentic. From the theoretical point of view this may lead to interpretational arguments as each language has different grammar, word order, pragmatic and vocabulary. Potentially the greatest problems when comparing a document in two different languages may be caused by modal verbs (as have to, want, must etc.) which in different languages have different, overlapping meanings. However, as the analysis of English and Spanish versions of the services directive of the EU proves, the translation practice of EU aims at eliminating potential discrepancies in interpretation. The increase in regularity in different linguistic versions of the same EU documents is helped by three factors. First, legal parlance is much more systematic and meanings are more standardized than in common language. Second, most European legal systems share common legal tradition. Third, EU managed to create a sort of „new speak” based on many neologisms characteristic of EU institutions which are introduced at the same time into legal systems of all member-states. On the margin of the technical question, how to deal with potential discrepancies between different linguistic versions of EU law, there is also a political question: should we really consider all versions as equally identical? The papers tries to answer that question on a case study of Spanish as one of national languages of EU.

Natural language inference (NLI) is an essential subtask in many natural language processing applications. It is a directional relationship from premise to hypothesis. A pair of texts is defined as entailed if a text infers its meaning from the other text. The NLI is also known as textual entailment recognition, and it recognizes entailed and contradictory sentences in various NLP systems like Question Answering, Summarization and Information retrieval systems. This paper describes the NLI problem attempted for a low resource Indian language Malayalam, the regional language of Kerala. More than 30 million people speak this language. The paper is about the Malayalam NLI dataset, named MaNLI dataset, and its application of NLI in Malayalam language using different models, namely Doc2Vec (paragraph vector), fastText, BERT (Bidirectional Encoder Representation from Transformers), and LASER (Language Agnostic Sentence Representation). Our work attempts NLI in two ways, as binary classification and as multiclass classification. For both the classifications, LASER outperformed the other techniques. For multiclass classification, NLI using LASER based sentence embedding technique outperformed the other techniques by a significant margin of 12% accuracy. There was also an accuracy improvement of 9% for LASER based NLI system for binary classification over the other techniques.

This paper addresses language use in Alobwed’epie’s the Death Certificate from a postmodernist perspective. It seeks to show that the author of the selected novel, like many postcolonial African writers, attempts to assert his culture through some sort of indigenisation and intentional flouting of old canons of literature. Given that the present paper is anchored on postmodernism, the postmodernist theory the author’s is used to explain Alobwed’Epie’s perception of life and literature to assert his cultural identity through some sort of linguistic revolution. As a matter of fact, language is used in a very carefree and innovative way in order to escape the idealistic dictum of literary norms. Indigenisation is then regarded as a postmodernist technique, which aims at valorising the African identity and rejecting all the metanarratives of how a work of art should be produced. Obviously, in the present article postmodernism are both a theoretical framework and an object of study. The use of local languages and other languages like Pidgin in the novel under study has demonstrated that the then marginalised languages have moved from the margin towards the Centre and become established languages of African literature. The paper briefly discusses the emergence of postmodernism and shows how the traditional conventions have been deconstructed and substituted for new ideologies that have revolutionised the African literary landscape. It equally reviews selected previous works on language in African novels as well as on postmodernism that came up in the late 1950s as revolutionary responses to preceding movements. The paper ends with an account of the linguistic features of postmodernism used in the novel.

This review analyzes the ways in which the Concise Cheremis-Russian Dictionary differs from the literary Mari language in order to answer the following question: was the dictionary compiled in the Pizhan subdialect of the Yaransk dialect of Northwestern Mari, which was spoken at that time in the Kukarskaya Sloboda, where the dictionary was created, or, as O. A. Sergeev claims, “words belonging to all the main dialects of the modern Mari language can be found in the Concise Cheremis-Russian Dictionary” [Сергеев 2020: 17]? To answer this question, a comprehensive graphic-phonetic analysis of the dictionary has been carried out. Three innovative features inherent in the Yaransk dialect have been identified (PMari *ć > ц, PMari *-j > 0, PMari *ńč́, *ńʒ́, *nǯ > нз) together with five more features that are characteristic of other first books: the preservation of the PMari *i, the reflection of PMari *ӧ as o and PMari *w as b, and the retention of vowel harmony. The only feature that occurs neither in the nineteenth-century books, nor in the modern dialects is the PMari *ӧ > е/э, which may indicate a later origin of Mari ӧ < Finno-Ugric *е than previously thought. Thus, the review shows that the dictionary could have been written in the Pizhan subdialect of the Yaransk dialect, which differed significantly from its modern state in the 18th century as it retained many archaic features characteristic of other first books. The analysis of the dictionary allows one to refine the history of the Yaransk dialect and the dating of certain sound changes.

Abstract This paper revisits the projection-based approach to dependency grammar induction task. Traditional cross-lingual dependency induction tasks one way or the other, depend on the existence of bitexts or target language tools such as part-of-speech (POS) taggers to obtain reasonable parsing accuracy. In this paper, we transfer dependency parsers using only approximate resources, i.e., machine translated bitexts instead of manually created bitexts. We do this by obtaining the the source side of the text from a machine translation (MT) system and then apply transfer approaches to induce parser for the target languages. We further reduce the need for the availability of labeled target language resources by using unsupervised target tagger. We show that our approach consistently outperforms unsupervised parsers by a bigger margin (8.2% absolute), and results in similar performance when compared with delexicalized transfer parsers.

We show how to predict the basic word-order facts of a novel language given only a corpus of part-of-speech (POS) sequences. We predict how often direct objects follow their verbs, how often adjectives follow their nouns, and in general the directionalities of all dependency relations. Such typological properties could be helpful in grammar induction. While such a problem is usually regarded as unsupervised learning, our innovation is to treat it as supervised learning, using a large collection of realistic synthetic languages as training data. The supervised learner must identify surface features of a language’s POS sequence (hand-engineered or neural features) that correlate with the language’s deeper structure (latent trees). In the experiment, we show: 1) Given a small set of real languages, it helps to add many synthetic languages to the training data. 2) Our system is robust even when the POS sequences include noise. 3) Our system on this task outperforms a grammar induction baseline by a large margin.

<p class="western" style="margin-top: 0.21cm; margin-bottom: 0cm;" align="justify"><span>Speech, is the most powerful way of communication with which human beings express their thoughts and feelings through different languages. The features of speech differs with each language. However, even while communicating in the same language, the pace and the dialect varies with each person. This creates difficulty in understanding the conveyed message for some people. Sometimes lengthy speeches are also quite difficult to follow due to reasons such as different pronunciation, pace and so on. Speech recognition which is an inter disciplinary field of computational linguistics aids in developing technologies that empowers the recognition and translation of speech into text. Text summarization extracts the utmost important information from a source which is a text and provides the adequate summary of the same. The research work presented in this paper describes an easy and effective method for speech recognition. The speech is converted to the corresponding text and produces summarized text. This has various applications like lecture notes creation, summarizing catalogues for lengthy documents and so on. Extensive experimentation is performed to validate the efficiency of the proposed method</span></p>

This paper describes the discourse functions of the 3rd singular possessive marker in Hill Mari. Many previous works indicated that POSS.3SG markers in the Uralic languages express the semantics of definiteness; contrastive uses were also mentioned for Mari and Permic languages. Indeed, in Hill Mari, POSS.3SG primarily marks contrast (selection from a set) rather than definiteness. The acceptability of this marker depends on the status of NPs in the information structure. It can mark a topic, and it also has a contrastive use — both in topic and in focus. This use is typical of specific NPs. However, if this NP is a contrastive topic or, less often, a contrastive focus, the possessive marker is also possible in non-specific NPs. Using Hawkins’ terms: in definite contexts (anaphoric use, associative anaphoric use, immediate situation use, larger situation use), it is felicitous only in a (contrastive) topic, but not in focus. The influence of the information structure is only absent in the context of the selection from a set. It is the idea of the selection from a set that unites the functions of the POSS.3SG marker in its discourse uses. At the NP level, this is the choice of a referent from a set of participants. Contrastive topic and focus are also analyzed as a selection from several alternatives. As for the topic shift, a new topic is similarly selected from a variety of possible options in discourse, activated in the minds of the speaker and the hearer, and when marking the protagonist, the choice occurs from the set of all protagonists acting in various fragments of the discourse. Thus, the same marker encodes similar semantics in Hill Mari at the levels of NP, local, and global discourse structure.

This work studies the task of glossification, of which the aim is to em transcribe natural spoken language sentences for the Deaf (hard-of-hearing) community to ordered sign language glosses. Previous sequence-to-sequence language models trained with paired sentence-gloss data often fail to capture the rich connections between the two distinct languages, leading to unsatisfactory transcriptions. We observe that despite different grammars, glosses effectively simplify sentences for the ease of deaf communication, while sharing a large portion of vocabulary with sentences. This has motivated us to implement glossification by executing a collection of editing actions, e.g. word addition, deletion, and copying, called editing programs, on their natural spoken language counterparts. Specifically, we design a new neural agent that learns to synthesize and execute editing programs, conditioned on sentence contexts and partial editing results. The agent is trained to imitate minimal editing programs, while exploring more widely the program space via policy gradients to optimize sequence-wise transcription quality. Results show that our approach outperforms previous glossification models by a large margin, improving the BLEU-4 score from 16.45 to 18.89 on RWTH-PHOENIX-WEATHER-2014T and from 18.38 to 21.30 on CSL-Daily.

The Book of Daniel is characterized by a change of language, from Hebrew to Aramaic to Hebrew (in Dan 2:4b to Aramaic and in Dan 8:1 to Hebrew). What caused the change from the ‘sacred’ to a ‘heathen’ language and back? Does the change of language implicate something about the date of origin of the tales (Dan 1-6) and visions (Dan 7-12)? The rabbinical answer to the question and the results of modern research into the book are being investigated. The words “in Aramaic” (in Dan 2:4a) was probably a mistake made by a later scribe when he incorporated a note from the margin into the Biblical text that was used to warn the reader that the language changes at this point. The result is that the text now reads as if the wise men answer the king, who speaks Hebrew, in Aramaic. This leaves the necessary room to speculate that the use of the two languages may have something to do with the process in which the tradition was handed down to the second century writer or redactor of the book.

The subject matter of this paper is the language and stylistics of selected fragments of „Serce” (“Heart”), a children’s novel by Edmondo de Amicisa in the 19th-century translation into Polish by Maria Konopnicka. With reference to selected translation theories, the conducted analysis covers the strategy adopted by the translator, that is one consisting in familiarising the Polish reader with foreign realities while preserving their originality and “foreignness” (i.e. the simultaneous “domestication” and “foreignisation”). This determines the faithfulness and up-to-dateness of her translation, re-editions of which have been published to this day as it is appreciated for its rich language and accurate rendition of the original style. Due to the similarity to her own writing technique, the translator appropriately refl ects the nature of the work, enriching it with elements of school jargon and colloquial language. Despite the presence of archaisms, Konopnicka’s language has remained comprehensible to the contemporary reader. Keywords: artistic language – language of translation – translation studies – Edmondo de Amicis

The purpose of this study was to determine the anxiety of adolescents, especially in Mardi Yuana Junior High School students, Serang City, and their achievements in the process of learning English as a foreign language in foreign language classes. This research is qualitative research with a descriptive approach through questionnaire observations, interviews, and documentation. The results of this study indicate that 2 students feel anxious with a percentage of 5.88%, 20 students feel mildly anxious with a percentage of 58.82%, 12 students feel relaxed with a percentage of 35.29%, 0 students feel relaxed/very relaxed with a percentage of 0%. So it could be concluded that the factors that could affect the students' anxiety in learning English as a foreign language are internal and external. Internal factors include perception, personality, and intelligence. While external factors include motivation, classroom environment, and cognitive. As for what affects students' achievement in learning English as a foreign language, they are afraid of being given a negative evaluation, when they make mistakes and are afraid of being laughed at by their classmates, it makes them afraid to explore themselves further about foreign language learning. Therefore, anxiety in learning English should at least motivate students, especially in their teens so that they can learn foreign languages well.

This research is entitled "Vocabulary of Mother Language Variations in Acquiring Toddler Language in Marga Dauh Puri Village, Tabanan Regency: Psycholinguistic Study." The purpose of this study was to find out vocabulary categories, word variations, and factors that influence mastery and acquisition of language variations given his mother to a toddler in Marga Dauh Puri Village, Tabanan Regency. The theory used is the theory of language acquisition proposed by Chaer, the theory of language teaching proposed by Simanjuntak, and the theory of child development proposed by Chaer. To achieve these objectives, several methods and techniques are used. The source of the data for analysis was the family that had a five-year-old child in the Village of Marga Dauh Puri, Tabanan Regency. Furthermore, it was chosen by quota sampling technique. The results of this study are in the form of vocabulary taught by mothers to children including vocabulary categories such as noun categories, verbs, and adjective categories. The use of the dominant language taught is Balinese. Vocabulary variations include repetition and word variations. The dominant vocabulary variation used by mothers is word variation. Factors that influence the mastery and acquisition of vocabulary by children under five, are environmental factors, formal teaching factors, and age factors. The dominant factor influencing the mastery and acquisition of vocabulary by children under five in Marga Dauh Puri Village, Tabanan Regency is an age factor.

Code retrieval is to find the code snippet from a large corpus of source code repositories that highly matches the query of natural language description. Recent work mainly uses natural language processing techniques to process both query texts (i.e., human natural language) and code snippets (i.e., machine programming language), however, neglecting the deep structured features of query texts and source codes, both of which contain rich semantic information. In this article, we propose an end-to-end deep graph matching and searching (DGMS) model based on graph neural networks for the task of semantic code retrieval. To this end, we first represent both natural language query texts and programming language code snippets with the unified graph-structured data, and then use the proposed graph matching and searching model to retrieve the best matching code snippet. In particular, DGMS not only captures more structural information for individual query texts or code snippets, but also learns the fine-grained similarity between them by cross-attention based semantic matching operations. We evaluate the proposed DGMS model on two public code retrieval datasets with two representative programming languages (i.e., Java and Python). Experiment results demonstrate that DGMS significantly outperforms state-of-the-art baseline models by a large margin on both datasets. Moreover, our extensive ablation studies systematically investigate and illustrate the impact of each part of DGMS.

The purpose of this study describes the use of language variations found in the novel Bumi Manusia by Pramoedya Ananta Toer. The approach used in this study is a qualitative approach and the method used is a content analysis method that aims to provide an objective picture of language variations in accordance with the data contained in the novel Bumi Manusia by Pramoedya Ananta Toer. The data used in this study are written data in the form of novel texts containing language variations in the novel Bumi Manusia by Pramoedya Ananta Toer published by Mardi Yuana Printing Graphic Printing in 2015. Based on the analysis, there are variations in language in the novel Bumi Manusia by Pramoedya Ananta Toer namely: Dutch, Japanese, Javanese and English. In the novel Bumi Manusia, Dutch is a variation of language that dominates from other languages ​​because in this novel it is told that there was a Dutchman in the Dutch East Indies. In the novel Bumi Manusia, Japanese is not very visible because Japanese is only a distraction in just one part. Javanese language can be said as a variation of language that dominates the two because in this novel tells the life of a genuine Javanese who falls in love with a Netherland. Same thing with the Javanese language in the novel Bumi Manusia, English is no less in existence with other language variations found in this novel. The significance of the study is to give useful information about the language variation and useful contribution for linguistic and education

><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 28.8pt; mso-para-margin-bottom: 2.4gd; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: ES-CO;">Antecedentes.</span></strong></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 28.8pt; mso-para-margin-bottom: 2.4gd; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: ES-CO;">Este artículo es<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>resultado de un proceso investigativo de dos años y que hace parte de la tesis: <span class="Cursiva">Del escenario teatral al escenario social: teatro, discapacidad e inclusión social.</span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;"> <span lang="ES-MX">Se realizó un estudio exploratorio en torno a las prácticas teatrales de la población con discapacidad visual y comunidad de sordos identificados en México hasta el año 2013; centrándose en dos experiencias: Compañía de teatro de sordos <span style="color: #00b0f0;">S</span>eña y <span style="color: #00b0f0;">V</span>erbo y la puesta en escena de </span></span><span class="Cursiva"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-ansi-language: ES-CO;">La casa de los deseos. </span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: ES-CO;">El presente escrito aborda las implicaciones sociales <span style="color: #00b0f0;">de esta</span> puesta en escena.</span><em style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"></em></p><p class="MsoBodyText2" style="margin-bottom: 28.8pt; mso-para-margin-bottom: 2.4gd; text-align: justify;"><strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: ES-CO;">Objetivo.</span></strong></p><p class="MsoBodyText2" style="margin-bottom: 28.8pt; mso-para-margin-bottom: 2.4gd; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: ES-CO;">Identificar los ámbitos en los que tiene impacto el teatro producido desde la población con discapacidad visual, o para esta, a partir del análisis de la obra teatral <span class="Cursiva">La casa de los deseos</span><em style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">, </em><span style="color: #00b0f0;">obra </span>realizada con la técnica de teatro ciego y presentada en México desde hace 15 años. </span></p><p class="MsoBodyText2" style="margin-bottom: 28.8pt; mso-para-margin-bottom: 2.4gd; text-align: justify;"><strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: ES-CO;">Material y métodos</span></strong><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: ES-CO;">. </span></p><p class="MsoBodyText2" style="margin-bottom: 28.8pt; mso-para-margin-bottom: 2.4gd; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: ES-CO;">Estudio exploratorio con método cualitativo a través de entrevistas semiestructuradas y semidirigidas, así como observación <span style="color: #00b0f0;">directa. </span></span></p><p class="MsoBodyText2" style="margin-bottom: 28.8pt; mso-para-margin-bottom: 2.4gd; text-align: justify;"><strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: ES-CO;">Resultados.</span></strong></p><p class="MsoBodyText2" style="margin-bottom: 28.8pt; mso-para-margin-bottom: 2.4gd; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: ES-CO;">Tras el trabajo de campo realizado y las entrevistas con actores clave de <span class="Cursiva">La casa de los deseos,</span> se encontraron constantes en cuanto al impacto de esta experiencia en la vida de los actores ciegos y el acceso a sus derechos económicos, sociales y culturales, agrupándose en las siguientes categorías: inclusión laboral y económica, desarrollo profesional y capital cultural.</span></p><p class="MsoBodyText2" style="margin-bottom: 28.8pt; mso-para-margin-bottom: 2.4gd; text-align: justify;"><strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: ES-CO;">Conclusión.</span></strong></p><p class="MsoBodyText2" style="margin-bottom: 28.8pt; mso-para-margin-bottom: 2.4gd; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: ES-CO;">Las propuestas estéticas y artísticas desde la discapacidad aportan e impactan positivamente en las vidas de quienes las crean o participan de ellas, así como en la comunidad a la que pertenecen y por ende en la cultura. La perspectiva latinoamericana sobre teatro y la discapacidad consiste en que cada vez se amplían las propuestas interesadas en este tema, haciendo teatro con personas ciegas o para ellas donde es frecuente el uso de la técnica de teatro ciego o teatro a oscuras. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 28.8pt; mso-para-margin-bottom: 2.4gd; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: ES-CO;">Palabras clave: </span></strong><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: ES-CO;">Arte; Distancia social; Personas con discapacidad </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: ES-CO;">(DeCS).</span><strong id="tinymce" class="mceContentBody " dir="ltr"></strong></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 28.8pt; mso-para-margin-bottom: 2.4gd; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><strong id="tinymce" class="mceContentBody " dir="ltr"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US">Abstract</span></strong></p><p class="MsoBodyText2" style="margin-bottom: 28.8pt; mso-para-margin-bottom: 2.4gd; text-align: justify;"><strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US">Background. </span></strong></p><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; color: #212121; mso-ansi-language: EN;" lang="EN">This article is the result of a two year research process and is part of the thesis "From the theatrical stage to the social scene: theater, disability and social inclusion", An exploratory study was conducted around the theatrical practices of people with visual disabilities and the deaf community identified in Mexico up till 2013; focusing on two experiences: Deaf Theatre Company Seña y Verbo and the staging of </span><span class="Cursiva"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US">The Wish House</span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; color: #212121; mso-ansi-language: EN;" lang="EN">. This paper discusses the social implications of this staging.</span><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; line-height: normal; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; background: white;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #212121; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-fareast-language: ES-MX;" lang="EN"> </span></p><p class="MsoBodyText2" style="margin-bottom: 28.8pt; mso-para-margin-bottom: 2.4gd; text-align: justify;"><strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"> </span></strong></p><p class="MsoBodyText2" style="margin-bottom: 28.8pt; mso-para-margin-bottom: 2.4gd; text-align: justify;"><strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US">Objective.</span></strong><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"> To identify areas in which theater produced by or for people with visual disability has an impact, from the analysis of the play <span class="Cursiva">The Wish House</span>, play of blind theater that has been presented in Mexico for 15 years. </span></p><p class="MsoBodyText2" style="margin-bottom: 28.8pt; mso-para-margin-bottom: 2.4gd; text-align: justify;"><strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US">Material and methods.</span></strong><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"> Exploratory study with a qualitative approach using semi-structured and semi-</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US">directed interviews, as well as non-participant observation.</span></p><p class="MsoBodyText2" style="margin-bottom: 28.8pt; mso-para-margin-bottom: 2.4gd; text-align: justify;"><strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US">Results.</span></strong><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"> After the fieldwork and interviews were done with key actors of the play <span class="Cursiva">The Wish House</span><em style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">, </em>constants about the areas of impact of this theatrical experience on the lives of blind actors and their access to economic, social and cultural rights were found. These constants can be classified in the following categories: economic and labor inclusion, professional development, and cultural capital.</span></p><p class="MsoBodyText2" style="margin-bottom: 28.8pt; mso-para-margin-bottom: 2.4gd; text-align: justify;"><strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US">Conclusion</span></strong><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US">. The aesthetic and artistic proposals from a disability perspective contribute and have a positive impact in the lives of those who create or participate in such proposal, as well as in the community to which they belong and, therefore, in their culture. The Latin-American perspective about theatre and disability shows that proposals interested on this topic are wider, producing theatre plays by or for blind people, where the use of blind theater or theatre in darkness techniques is frequent.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 28.8pt; mso-para-margin-bottom: 2.4gd; line-height: 200%;"><strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US">Key words: </span></strong><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US">Art; </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: ES-MX; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;" lang="EN-US">Disabled Persons</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-ansi-language: ES-CO;" lang="EN-US">; Social Distance (MeSH).</span></p><

<span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Georgia; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-language: ES; mso-ansi-language: ES; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: #000000; font-family: Georgia; mso-fareast-language: ES; mso-ansi-language: ES;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: #000000;"><p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: #000000;">Hacia fines del siglo XIX, y a raíz de la masiva presencia de inmigrantes, en la República Argentina –y en particular en algunas provincias, como en Santa Fe– se procuró utilizar a la educación como un medio de nacionalización, confiriéndose dentro de ese proceso un rol significativo a la enseñanza de la Historia.</span></p><font style="font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-language: ES; mso-ansi-language: ES; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;" face="Georgia"><font style="font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-language: ES; mso-ansi-language: ES;" face="Georgia" color="#000000"><font style="font-size: 10pt;" color="#000000"><p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; color: #000000;">En este artículo se analizan los textos de historia producidos en ese contexto por tres intelectuales santafesinos, estrechamente vinculados al sistema educativo, y se consideran los objetivos que persiguieron al emprender la escritura de la memoria en tres niveles diferentes: la nación, la provincia y la ciudad.</span></p></font></font></font></span><font style="font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-language: ES; mso-ansi-language: ES; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;" face="Georgia"><font style="font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-language: ES; mso-ansi-language: ES;" face="Georgia" color="#000000"><p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"> </p></font></font></span><font style="font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-language: ES; mso-ansi-language: ES; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;" face="Georgia"><p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"> </p></font></span><p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify;"> </p>

This paper discusses the classical Talmyan proposal (Talmy 1985, 2000) on events of motion and lexicalization patterns, which classifies languages as verb-framed and satellite-framed. The research is based on corpus data of European Portuguese (ep) and Brazilian Portuguese (bp), and focuses on costa-motion events, which imply movement along/ towards an area of land bordering on a water basin. It is shown that these motion patterns may be encoded by: a) denominal lexicalized verbs such as (a)beirar, margear, acostar, and b) satellite-framed patterns of the type [V + preposition + costa Noun], in which the noun may be instantiated by costa ‘coast’, margem ‘margin’ or beira ‘edge’. Our analysis challenges the assumption that Portuguese is a(n) (exclusively) verb-framed language by showing that while the verb-framed pattern is stronger in bp, ep seems to be moving toward satellite-framing. These results indicate different typological tendencies in the development of Portuguese as a pluricentric language.

Maria Nagajowa’s works in the field of methodics of the linguistic efficiency cultivation and exercises in speaking and writing is especially important for the Polish language teaching practice. The author created an alphabet of the Polish language teaching metodics: the detailed and pattern-creating description of didactic procedures concerning statement genres at school. Among them, the concept of “the knowledge about a man” inscribed in the work on figure’s characteristics, deserves special emphasis. The article is an attempt to synthesize the author’s views connected with the “analysis of a human” in Polish lessons. In Nagajowa’s conception characterizing the figure becomes the process and the characteristics escalates to the rank of department on the Polish language teaching, entitled b the author as “The Knowledge about a Human”.

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%; -ms-text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span style="line-height: 150%; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US">It has been demonstrated that the ability to repeat non-words is a good marker of lexical development in a number of languages, including Spanish. In addition, the ability to repeat nonwords has been used as a good discriminator between typically developing children and children with language delays or other language difficulties. However, despite its potential usefulness for clinical and research purposes, there is no validated scale in Spanish. To address this situation, we present a scale based on a sample of 342 monolingual Spanish-speaking children aged from four to seven years. After data analysis, a scale was elaborated to provide populational references for colleagues working in educational, clinical and research fields. The results show a ceiling effect for six years olds, as well as for monomorphemic and bisyllabic items. Implications of these scores are discussed in the corresponding section. </span></p>

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 35.45pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Cambria;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;" lang="EN-AU">Long-distance reflexives (LDRs) in Faroese are often compared to those in Icelandic, and are even considered to have the same distribution </span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;" lang="EN-AU">(Thr&aacute;insson et al., 2004)</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;" lang="EN-AU">. In this paper I evaluate the extent to which this is true. The results from recent fieldwork show that there are clear differences between the LDR in the two closely related languages, in particular that Faroese speakers often reject LDR sentences that contain a non-third person, and that Faroese LDR is often completely acceptable out of a non-complement clause. In addition, initial findings suggest that there may be dialectal variation with respect to at least these two aspects of LDR in Faroese.</span></span></span></p>

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'MS Mincho'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;" lang="EN-US"><em>Penelitian ini dilatarbelakangi oleh keinginan penulis untuk mengetahui makna mantra yang digunakan oleh masyarakat Tionghoa, khususnya marga Lay yang berada di Kota Singkawang. Masalah dalam penelitian ini adalah “Bagaimanakah makna dalam Mantra Pengobatan Etnis Tionghoa Marga Lay di Kota Singkawang?” Tujuan penelitian ini untuk mendeskripsikan makna dalam mantra pengobatan etnis Tionghoa Marga Lay di Kota Singkawang. Manfaat penelitian ini ialah untuk menambah ilmu pengetahuan yang berkaitan dengan bidang semantik karya sastra khususnya pada mantra. Metode penelitian yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini, yakni metode deskriptif. Bentuk penelitian yang digunakan yakni bentuk kualitatif. Data dalam penelitian ini adalah semua kutipan mantra yang terdapat dalam mantra pengobatan etnis Tionghoa marga Lay di Kota Singkawang. Sumber data dalam penelitian ini adalah mantra pengobatan etnis Tionghoa Marga Lay di Kota Singkawang. Teknik yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah teknik wawancara dan perekaman. Instrument utama dalam penelitian ini adalah peneliti sendiri dengan alat bantu yakni kartu pencatat data dari hasil perekaman data yang dilakukan. Teknik pengecekan keabsahan data menggunakan ketekunan pembacaan, kecukupan referensi, dan teknik triangulasi</em></span>

<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; font-family: Verdana; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EL; mso-fareast-language: EL; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Δεν παρατίθεται περίληψη.</span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" LatentStyleCount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]-->