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Journal articles on the topic 'Marine fouling organisms Marine biotechnology'

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Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 8 February 2022

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1

Rao, Dhana, Jeremy S. Webb, Carola Holmström, Rebecca Case, Adrian Low, Peter Steinberg, and Staffan Kjelleberg. "Low Densities of Epiphytic Bacteria from the Marine Alga Ulva australis Inhibit Settlement of Fouling Organisms." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 73, no. 24 (October 26, 2007): 7844–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.01543-07.

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ABSTRACT Bacteria that produce inhibitory compounds on the surface of marine algae are thought to contribute to the defense of the host plant against colonization of fouling organisms. However, the number of bacterial cells necessary to defend against fouling on the plant surface is not known. Pseudoalteromonas tunicata and Phaeobacter sp. strain 2.10 (formerly Roseobacter gallaeciensis) are marine bacteria often found in association with the alga Ulva australis and produce a range of extracellular inhibitory compounds against common fouling organisms. P. tunicata and Phaeobacter sp. strain 2.10 biofilms with cell densities ranging from 102 to 108 cells cm−2 were established on polystyrene petri dishes. Attachment and settlement assays were performed with marine fungi (uncharacterized isolates from U. australis), marine bacteria (Pseudoalteromonas gracilis, Alteromonas sp., and Cellulophaga fucicola), invertebrate larvae (Bugula neritina), and algal spores (Polysiphonia sp.) and gametes (U. australis). Remarkably low cell densities (102 to 103 cells cm−2) of P. tunicata were effective in preventing settlement of algal spores and marine fungi in petri dishes. P. tunicata also prevented settlement of invertebrate larvae at densities of 104 to 105 cells cm−2. Similarly, low cell densities (103 to 104cells cm−2) of Phaeobacter sp. strain 2.10 had antilarval and antibacterial activity. Previously, it has been shown that abundance of P. tunicata on marine eukaryotic hosts is low (<1 × 103 cells cm−2) (T. L. Skovhus et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70:2373-2382, 2004). Despite such low numbers of P. tunicata on U. australis in situ, our data suggest that P. tunicata and Phaeobacter sp. strain 2.10 are present in sufficient quantities on the plant to inhibit fouling organisms. This strongly supports the hypothesis that P. tunicata and Phaeobacter sp. strain 2.10 can play a role in defense against fouling on U. australis at cell densities that commonly occur in situ.

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2

Egan, Suhelen, Sally James, and Staffan Kjelleberg. "Identification and Characterization of a Putative Transcriptional Regulator Controlling the Expression of Fouling Inhibitors in Pseudoalteromonas tunicata." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 68, no. 1 (January 2002): 372–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.68.1.372-378.2002.

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ABSTRACT The dark green pigmented marine bacterium Pseudoalteromonas tunicata colonizes living surfaces and produces a range of extracellular compounds that inhibit common fouling organisms, including marine invertebrate larvae, algae, bacteria, and fungi. We have observed a positive correlation between the antifouling activity of P. tunicata strain D2 and the expression of pigmentation. To address the hypothesis that pigmentation and antifouling may be jointly regulated in this organism and to begin to identify potential regulatory elements, we used transposon mutagenesis to generate a strain of P. tunicata deficient in antifouling activity. The data presented here describe the phenotypic and molecular characterization of a nonpigmented transposon mutant strain of P. tunicata (D2W2). Analyses of the antifouling capabilities of D2W2 demonstrate that this strain is deficient in the ability to inhibit each of the target fouling organisms. Genetic analysis of D2W2 identified a gene, designated wmpR (white mutant phenotype), with high sequence similarity to transcriptional regulators ToxR from Vibrio cholerae and CadC from Escherichia coli. Two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis revealed that WmpR is essential for the expression of a significant subset of stationary-phase-induced proteins likely to be important for the synthesis of fouling inhibitors. The identification of a gene involved in the regulation of expression of antifouling phenotypes will contribute to the understanding of the interactions between bacteria and other surface-colonizing organisms in the marine environment.

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3

Petersen, Dennis S., Thomas Kleinteich, Stanislav N. Gorb, and Lars Heepe. "Competing with barnacle cement: wetting resistance of a re-entrant surface reduces underwater adhesion of barnacles." Journal of The Royal Society Interface 15, no. 145 (August 2018): 20180396. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2018.0396.

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Surfaces with re-entrant topographies can repel liquids even of extremely low surface tension, almost independently of the material's inherent wettability. We show that this topography-based wetting resistance can also be applied to underwater applications, reducing the permanent adhesion of marine hardfouling organisms. Having combined a biofouling assay in the marine environment with microscopic analyses, we demonstrate how a synergistic effect of a soft silicone-based material with a re-entrant mushroom-shaped surface topography strongly increases the fouling release ability of such coatings compared with a smooth control made from the same material. Our coating inhibited the complete wetting of the solidifying glues produced by marine organisms, which resulted in a decreased contact area and, consequently, low adhesion. Our work suggests that topography-induced wetting resistance of surfaces may become a viable approach in preventing permanent adhesion of marine hardfouling organisms.

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4

Ista, Linnea K., Víctor H. Pérez-Luna, and Gabriel P. López. "Surface-Grafted, Environmentally Sensitive Polymers for Biofilm Release." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 65, no. 4 (April 1, 1999): 1603–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.65.4.1603-1609.1999.

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ABSTRACT Controlling bacterial biofouling is desirable for almost every human enterprise in which solid surfaces are introduced into nonsterile aqueous environments. One approach that is used to decrease contamination of manufactured devices by microorganisms is using materials that easily slough off accumulated material (i.e., fouling release surfaces). The compounds currently used for this purpose rely on low surface energy to inhibit strong attachment of organisms. In this study, we examined the possible use of environmentally responsive (or “smart”) polymers as a new class of fouling release agents; a surface-grafted thermally responsive polymer, poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAM), was used as a model compound. PNIPAAM is known to have a lower critical solubility temperature of ∼32°C (i.e., it is insoluble in water at temperatures above 32°C and is soluble at temperatures below 32°C). Under experimental conditions, >90% of cultured microorganisms (Staphylococcus epidermidis, Halomonas marina) and naturally occurring marine microorganisms that attached to grafted PNIPAAM surfaces during 2-, 18-, 36-, and 72-h incubations were removed when the hydration state of the polymer was changed from a wettability that was favorable for attachment to a wettability that was less favorable. Of particular significance is the observation that an organism known to attach in the greatest numbers to hydrophobic substrata (i.e., H. marina) was removed when transition of PNIPAAM to a more hydrated state occurred, whereas an organism that attaches in the greatest numbers to hydrophilic substrata (i.e., S. epidermidis) was removed when the opposite transition occurred. Neither solvated nor desolvated PNIPAAM exhibited intrinsic fouling release properties, indicating that the phase transition was the important factor in removal of organisms. Based on our observations of the behavior of this model system, we suggest that environmentally responsive polymers represent a new approach for controlling biofouling release.

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Pennati, Roberta, and Ute Rothbächer. "Bioadhesion in ascidians: a developmental and functional genomics perspective." Interface Focus 5, no. 1 (February 6, 2015): 20140061. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsfs.2014.0061.

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The development of bioadhesives inspired from marine animals is a promising approach to generate new tissue-compatible medical components. A number of marine species, through their adhesive properties, also represent significant foulers that become increasingly problematic to aquaculture, shipping or local biodiversity. In order to develop more sophisticated man-made glues and/or efficient fouling resistant surfaces, it is important to understand the mechanical, structural and molecular properties of adhesive organs in selected species. Ascidians are marine invertebrates with larvae that opportunistically attach to almost any type of submerged surface to undergo metamorphosis into permanently sessile adults. Not only do they represent a globally important fouling organism, but they are becoming increasingly popular as model organisms for developmental biology. The latter is due to their phylogenetic position as the sister group to the vertebrates and their cellular and molecular accessibility for experimentation. In this paper, we review the mechanisms of larval adhesion in ascidians and draw conclusions from comparative analyses of selected species. We further discuss how knowledge from a developmental and functional genomics point of view can advance our understanding of cellular and molecular signatures and their hierarchical usage in animal adhesive organs.

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6

Eashwar, M., S. Maruthamuthu, and S. T. Manickam. "An assessment of preference for coupon positions by tropical marine fouling organisms." Biofouling 3, no. 4 (July 1991): 277–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08927019109378182.

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7

Vucko, M. J., A. J. Poole, C. Carl, B. A. Sexton, F. L. Glenn, S. Whalan, and R. de Nys. "Using textured PDMS to prevent settlement and enhance release of marine fouling organisms." Biofouling 30, no. 1 (October 10, 2013): 1–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08927014.2013.836507.

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8

Rao, Dhana, Jeremy S. Webb, and Staffan Kjelleberg. "Microbial Colonization and Competition on the Marine Alga Ulva australis." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 72, no. 8 (August 2006): 5547–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.00449-06.

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ABSTRACT Pseudalteromonas tunicata and Roseobacter gallaeciensis are biofilm-forming marine bacteria that are often found in association with the surface of the green alga Ulva australis. They are thought to benefit the plant host by producing inhibitory compounds that are active against common fouling organisms. We investigated factors that influence the ability of P. tunicata and R. gallaeciensis to attach to and colonize the plant surface and also the competitive interactions that occur between these organisms and other isolates from U. australis during biofilm formation on the plant surface. A surprisingly high number of P. tunicata cells, at least 108 cells ml−1, were required for colonization and establishment of a population of cells that persists on axenic surfaces of U. australis. Factors that enhanced colonization of P. tunicata included inoculation in the dark and pregrowth of inocula in medium containing cellobiose as the sole carbon source (cellulose is a major surface polymer of U. australis). It was also found that P. tunicata requires the presence of a mixed microbial community to colonize effectively. In contrast, R. gallaeciensis effectively colonized the plant surface under all conditions tested. Studies of competitive interactions on the plant surface revealed that P. tunicata was numerically dominant compared with all other bacterial isolates tested (except R. gallaeciensis), and this dominance was linked to production of the antibacterial protein AlpP. Generally, P. tunicata was able to coexist with competing strains, and each strain existed as microcolonies in spatially segregated regions of the plant. R. gallaeciensis was numerically dominant compared with all strains tested and was able to invade and disperse preestablished biofilms. This study highlighted the fact that microbial colonization of U. australis surfaces is a dynamic process and demonstrated the differences in colonization strategies exhibited by the epiphytic bacteria P. tunicata and R. gallaeciensis.

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9

Franks, A., S. Egan, C. Holmstrï¿½m, S. James, H. Lappin-Scott, and S. Kjelleberg. "Inhibition of Fungal Colonization by Pseudoalteromonas tunicata Provides a Competitive Advantage during Surface Colonization." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 72, no. 9 (September 2006): 6079–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.00559-06.

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ABSTRACT The marine epiphytic bacterium Pseudoalteromonas tunicata produces a range of extracellular secondary metabolites that inhibit an array of common fouling organisms, including fungi. In this study, we test the hypothesis that the ability to inhibit fungi provides P. tunicata with an advantage during colonization of a surface. Studies on a transposon-generated antifungal-deficient mutant of P. tunicata, FM3, indicated that a long-chain fatty acid-coenzyme A ligase is involved in the production of a broad-range antifungal compound by P. tunicata. Flow cell experiments demonstrated that production of an antifungal compound provided P. tunicata with a competitive advantage against a marine yeast isolate during surface colonization. This compound enabled P. tunicata to disrupt an already established fungal biofilm by decreasing the number of yeast cells attached to the surface by 66% ï¿½ 9%. For in vivo experiments, the wild-type and FM3 strains of P. tunicata were used to inoculate the surface of the green alga Ulva australis. Double-gradient denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis revealed that after 48 h, the wild-type P. tunicata had outcompeted the surface-associated fungal community, whereas the antifungal-deficient mutant had no effect on the fungal community. Our data suggest that P. tunicata is an effective competitor against fungal surface communities in the marine environment.

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10

Holmström, C., S. James, S. Egan, and S. Kjelleberg. "Inhibition of common fouling organisms by marine bacterial isolates ith special reference to the role of pigmented bacteria." Biofouling 10, no. 1-3 (September 1996): 251–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08927019609386284.

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11

Ushivtsev, Vladimir B., Sergey V. Vostokov, Nikita B. Vodovsky, Maya L. Galaktionova, and Gulnara А. Akhmedova. "DEVELOPMENT OF LOCAL COMMUNITIES ON THE BASIS OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTTOM STATIONS IN DIFFERENT ZONES OF THE NORTH-CASPIAN SHELF." South of Russia: ecology, development 13, no. 3 (October 9, 2018): 13–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.18470/1992-1098-2018-3-13-30.

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Aim.On the basis of four experimental bottom stations installed at various depths of the North Caspian shelf, the local communities of marine organisms were formed, on various constructions and in close proximity to them were investigated. The aim of the work is to study the features of community development on the basis of bottom biological stations, to measure their quantitative characteristics, to assess the informative character of the structural and functional characteristics of local communities for analyzing the state of the marine environment. Methods. Experimental bottom stations were installed in various regions of the North Caspian shelf using diving equipment to study their impact on the environment. Control over the development of associated fauna was carried out with the help of traps and the method of direct accounting for the materials of photo-video surveys. Sampling of fouling was carried out by the method of registration sites. Based on the number of species of flora and fauna of local communities, a ballroom information system has been suggested, that can be used for monitoring. Results. Research materials indicate a significant difference in the species composition, biomass and the structure of communities of local cenoses formed at the bottom stations with the same design and ecological capacity at various depths of the North Caspian shelf. In the shallow shelf zone at depths of 6-8 m in the local community of the bottom station, the vegetation component is dominant. At great depths, the total biomass increases in local cenoses and animal communities, including filter-feeders, make significant contribution to the self-purification of the marine environment. Conclusions. The results indicate the possibility of using complex observations of the structure and functional characteristics of local communities formed on the base of bottom stations, as well as the development of species of indicators and objects of accumulation of toxicants for assessing the state of the marine environment. The development of this approach involves the experiments with different station costructioons and materials and use of biotechnology implantation of test organisms on the design of bottom stations.

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12

Zhang, Minglu, Sunny Jiang, Dian Tanuwidjaja, Nikolay Voutchkov, Eric M. V. Hoek, and Baoli Cai. "Composition and Variability of Biofouling Organisms in Seawater Reverse Osmosis Desalination Plants." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 77, no. 13 (May 6, 2011): 4390–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.00122-11.

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ABSTRACTSeawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) membrane biofouling remains a common challenge in the desalination industry, but the marine bacterial community that causes membrane fouling is poorly understood. Microbial communities at different stages of treatment processes (intake, cartridge filtration, and SWRO) of a desalination pilot plant were examined by both culture-based and culture-independent approaches. Bacterial isolates were identified to match the generaShewanella,Alteromonas,Vibrio, andCellulophagabased on 16S rRNA gene sequencing analysis. The 16S rRNA gene clone library of the SWRO membrane biofilm showed that a filamentous bacterium,Leucothrix mucor, which belongs to the gammaproteobacteria, accounted for nearly 30% of the clone library, while the rest of the microorganisms (61.2% of the total clones) were related to the alphaproteobacteria. 16S rRNA gene terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) analysis indicated that bacteria colonizing the SWRO membrane represented a subportion of microbes in the source seawater; however, they were quite different from those colonizing the cartridge filter. The examination of five SWRO membranes from desalination plants located in different parts of the world showed that although the bacterial communities from the membranes were not identical to each other, some dominant bacteria were commonly observed. In contrast, bacterial communities in source seawater were significantly different based on location and season. Microbial profiles from 14 cartridge filters collected from different plants also revealed spatial trends.

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13

Alsaab, Ahmad, Nick Aldred, and Anthony S. Clare. "Automated tracking and classification of the settlement behaviour of barnacle cyprids." Journal of The Royal Society Interface 14, no. 128 (March 2017): 20160957. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2016.0957.

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A focus on the development of nontoxic coatings to control marine biofouling has led to increasing interest in the settlement behaviour of fouling organisms. Barnacles pose a significant fouling challenge and accordingly the behaviour of their settlement-stage cypris larva (cyprid) has attracted much attention, yet remains poorly understood. Tracking technologies have been developed that quantify cyprid movement, but none have successfully automated data acquisition over the prolonged periods necessary to capture and identify the full repertoire of behaviours, from alighting on a surface to permanent attachment. Here we outline a new tracking system and a novel classification system for identifying and quantifying the exploratory behaviour of cyprids. The combined system enables, for the first time, tracking of multiple larvae, simultaneously, over long periods (hours), followed by automatic classification of typical cyprid behaviours into swimming, wide search, close search and inspection events. The system has been evaluated by comparing settlement behaviour in the light and dark (infrared illumination) and tracking one of a group of 25 cyprids from the water column to settlement over the course of 5 h. Having removed a significant technical barrier to progress in the field, it is anticipated that the system will accelerate our understanding of the process of surface selection and settlement by barnacles.

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14

Sell, David. "Marine fouling." Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Section B. Biological Sciences 100 (1992): 169–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s026972700001112x.

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SynopsisA comparison of macrofouling assemblages on offshore structures in the North Sea has revealed some similarity in their general characteristics, with a predominance in climax communities of relatively few species, such as the plumose anemone Metridium senile (L.) and the soft coral Alcyonium digitatum L., covering large proportions of the substratum. Specific geographical differences in community composition, diversity and successional development have been identified, however, and these are discussed in relation to environmental conditions and larval dispersal. In practical terms, the conservation of offshore fouling communities depends upon the fates of structures supporting these assemblages. Since the U.K.'s approach to platform decommissioning could ultimately involve the in situ toppling of structures in sea depths greater than 100 m, there would appear to be little threat to the long-term existence of offshore habitats for deep-water fouling assemblages. Moreover, an abundance of largely uninvestigated habitats for fouling organisms exists on submerged wrecks and other man-made structures. Thus, there appears to be no basis for a conservation requirement in relation to the fouling communities on fixed structures in the North Sea.

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15

NAITO, Masanobu. "Functional Materials that Mimic Marine Fouling Organisms." Journal of the Japan Society of Colour Material 87, no. 1 (2014): 13–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.4011/shikizai.87.13.

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16

Bauer, S., M. Alles, M. P. Arpa-Sancet, E. Ralston, G. W. Swain, N. Aldred, A. S. Clare, et al. "Resistance of Amphiphilic Polysaccharides against Marine Fouling Organisms." Biomacromolecules 17, no. 3 (February 2016): 897–904. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.biomac.5b01590.

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17

Tadros, A. B. "The role of marine organisms in fouling control." Pigment & Resin Technology 18, no. 7 (July 1989): 4–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/eb042623.

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18

Picken, Gordon B. "Moray Firth marine fouling communities." Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Section B. Biological Sciences 91 (1986): 213–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0269727000009313.

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SynopsisFouling communities typical of shallow water inshore sites were found at three locations in the Moray Firth. At each, an initial background cover of solitary tubeworms and barnacles was overgrown by secondary fouling organisms. On the piles of Nigg jetty, overgrowth consisted of mussels in the depth range 0–6 m and hydroids, sponges, soft corals and anemones from 6–26 m. Buoys in the approaches to Cromarty Firth were completely covered by a mixture of algae and mussels. Sunlit areas of the float cleaned annually bore a diverse algal cover, whereas uncleaned shaded areas and the freely hanging chain had three-year-old mussels up to 7 cm long. Mussel fouling extended down the chain to within 1 m of the seabed at 26 m depth. Concrete anchor blocks on the seabed were covered with solitary tubeworms and hydroids. Steel piled platforms in the Beatrice Field were completely fouled after four years. Mussels and seaweeds were abundant from 0–5 m. In the depth range 8–35 m the background calcareous layer was overgrown by soft corals up to 10 cm long and hydroids. From 35 m to the seabed at 46 m, soft overgrowth was provided mainly by hydroids and ascidians, with only a few small corals.

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RAMADAN, SH E., A. M. KHEIRALLAH, and KH M. ABDEL-SALAM. "Factors controlling marine fouling in some Alexandria Harbours, Egypt." Mediterranean Marine Science 7, no. 2 (December 1, 2006): 31. http://dx.doi.org/10.12681/mms.168.

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The present work aims to relate the settlement of marine fouling organisms in three different harbours in Alexandria city which present a wide range of ecological/environmental variations. Theses are the Abu Qir, Eastern and El-Dekheila harbours. Monthly samples of marine fouling were collected from the three harbours by using white roughened polystyrene test panels (12.5x12.5 cm), as well as physicochemical, chemical and other biological data. Results were treated with multivariate statistical analysis (PCA). At the Abu Qir harbour, it was found that water temperature and salinity are the most important environmental factors controlling the temporal distribution of total fouling density, whereas water temperature and chlorophyll a are the most significant environmental factors controlling the total biomass. At the Eastern harbour it was demonstrated that ammonia and phosphate are the most significant environmental factors controlling the temporal distribution and total biomass of fouling organisms. Concerning El-Dekheila harbour, the total density and total biomass of fouling organisms were inversely correlated with the total zooplankton.

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20

G. Petitbois, Julie, and Tatsufumi Okino. "Anti-fouling Effects of Natural Compounds from Marine Organisms." Marine Engineering 52, no. 1 (2017): 33–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.5988/jime.52.33.

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21

Ohba, Tadahiko, Hidetoshi Wusui, Takahiro Kajiyama, Satoshi Iwata, and Morihiko Kuwa. "Anti-fouling of Marine Organisms Adhesion by Zinc Anode." Zairyo-to-Kankyo 50, no. 6 (2001): 279–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.3323/jcorr1991.50.279.

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22

Low, Koh Lip, Hong Woo Khoo, and Lip Lin Koh. "Ecology of marine fouling organisms at Eastern Johore Strait." Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 19, no. 1-3 (1991): 319–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00401321.

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23

Rastogi, Rajesh P., Richa, Rajeshwar P. Sinha, Shailendra P. Singh, and Donat-P. Häder. "Photoprotective compounds from marine organisms." Journal of Industrial Microbiology & Biotechnology 37, no. 6 (April 18, 2010): 537–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10295-010-0718-5.

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Bauer, Stella, Maria Pilar Arpa-Sancet, John A. Finlay, Maureen E. Callow, James A. Callow, and Axel Rosenhahn. "Adhesion of Marine Fouling Organisms on Hydrophilic and Amphiphilic Polysaccharides." Langmuir 29, no. 12 (March 15, 2013): 4039–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/la3038022.

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Iwanami, Mitsuyasu, Hiroshi Yokota, Hidenori Hamada, Toru Yamaji, and Hiroko Watanabe. "Can Marine Fouling Organisms Extend the Life of Concrete Structures?" IABSE Symposium Report 86, no. 6 (January 1, 2002): 84–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.2749/222137802796337062.

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Thompson, T. E. "Acidic allomones in marine organisms." Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 68, no. 3 (August 1988): 499–517. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0025315400043368.

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The phenomenon of acid secretion has arisen independently many times, for feeding, for penetrating calcareous material to make a shelter or to pursue prey, or for defence. This last category contains examples from many groups of marine organisms, in which acidic allomones may serve to deter fouling by epibionts or predation by teleost fish. Histochemical and histophysical methods have increased the precision with which acidic allomones can be identified within acid vacuoles, cells, glands, sacs or capsules. Acidic allomones are produced in pleurobranch molluscs by unicellular epidermal glands, by multicellular subepidermal sacs, or by an arborescent internal acid gland, connected to the buccal mass by a thick medio-dorsal duct. Some species have all three types. In the case of the epidermis, discharge is probably triggered directly by the trauma of attack by a predator (effectively, holocrine discharge), but the other types of gland are discharged by contraction of a strong muscle sheath, without tissue damage. Cypraeid molluscs have extensive, mobile mantle lobes which can ensheath the massive shell temporarily. The epidermal acid glands are orientated within the mantle so as to discharge away from the shell. The lamellariid and philinid molluscs have internal shells, well protected from chemical attack, and the multicellular, subepidermal acid glands are situated over all the surfaces of the body. In the tunicates investigated, both blood and tunic were neutral in Ciona intestinalis, but they were both acid (pH 1) in Ascidiella aspersa. In Ascidiella scabra and Ascidia mentula the blood was neutral, and the tunic alone was acid. The acid tunics contained abundant blind lacunae. It is unlikely that these acid-filled lacunae correspond to the blind-ending arterial ampullae described by other workers. Discharge is probably brought about directly through the trauma of attack. The perennial species of the alga Desmarestia, D. aculeata, exhibited a pH near to neutrality. Two annual species, D. dresnayi and D. ligulata, contained acid of pH 1–2, and showed strong precipitation of BaSO4 after BaCl2 treatment. Sections confirmed that the acid is normally held within the swollen parenchymatous cells which pack the sporophyte frond. The cuticle is comparatively thin in the acidic species. In conclusion, it is argued that acid secretion may be the allelochemical analogue of warning or aposematic coloration.

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PEREIRA, R. C., A. G. V. CARVALHO, B. A. P. GAMA, and R. COUTINHO. "Field experimental evaluation of secondary metabolites from marine invertebrates as antifoulants." Brazilian Journal of Biology 62, no. 2 (May 2002): 311–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s1519-69842002000200015.

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The crude organic extracts of the endemic gorgonian Phyllogorgia dilatata and two sponge species Aplysina fulva and Mycale microsigmatosa were evaluated for anti-fouling properties through field experiments. To investigate this property in ecologically meaningful conditions, crude extracts from these invertebrates were incorporated at concentrations naturally found in these marine organisms into a stable gel used as a substratum for fouling settlement. Crude extract from A. fulva showed no significant anti-fouling property at the natural concentrations used in the field experiments. In fact, fouling organisms settled significantly more on gels treated with A. fulva extract than on the control gel. On the other hand, both M. microsigmatosa and P. dilatata yielded crude extracts that exhibited a selective action inhibiting only the settlement of barnacles. The evidences obtained here by means of field experiments can provide a basis for future development of one kind of natural antifoulant technology to prevent marine biofouling.

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Chen, Rongrong, Yakun Li, Liang Tang, Haocheng Yang, Zetong Lu, Jun Wang, Lianhe Liu, and Kazunobu Takahashi. "Synthesis of zinc-based acrylate copolymers and their marine antifouling application." RSC Advances 7, no. 63 (2017): 40020–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c7ra04840h.

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Nacorda, Hildie M. E., Nero M. Austero, Cesar R. Pagdilao, Koh Siang Tan, and Rhodora V. Azanza. "Marine Biofouling Communities of Manila South Harbor, Philippines." ASEAN Journal on Science and Technology for Development 35, no. 1-2 (July 17, 2020): 115–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.29037/ajstd.481.

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An immersion experiment was conducted in the Manila South Harbor to document the development of sessile biofouling communities. Test panels were submerged below the sea surface in April 2012 for short- (one and three months) and long-term (one year) exposures in seawater, then foauling types and occurrences were scored based on digital images of panel surfaces. The short-term immersed panels were found with significant cover of soft fouling (undet.), slime, and the invasive Balanus (=Amphibalanus) amphitrite. These also filled the long-term immersed panels, although some fell off due to mortality from crude oil smothering. Perna viridis, native but also invasive, successfully established and then dominated the fouling cover by the 12th month (April 2013). Oysters, bryozoans (Watersipora sp.), colonial tunicates, polychaetes (Hydroides sp.), and green algae contributed minor to fouling cover. These fouling communities in the Manila South Harbor consisted of organisms that were cosmopolitan in port waters of SE Asia. A similar study must be carried out in other major ports of the country and then compared.

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Puentes, C., K. Carreño, M. Santos-Acevedo, J. Gómez-León, M. García, M. Pérez, M. Stupak, and G. Blustein. "Anti-fouling Paints Based on Extracts of Marine Organisms from The Colombian Caribbean." Ciencia y tecnología de buques 8, no. 15 (July 20, 2014): 75. http://dx.doi.org/10.25043/19098642.105.

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Habitually, control of biological fouling includes application of paints containing toxic substances that end upcontaminating marine ecosystem. Many organisms prevent settlement of other species synthesizing secondarymetabolites that could be used in the elaboration of environmentally friendly anti-fouling paints. This work evaluated the behavior of anti-fouling paints based on extracts from marine invertebrates in the ColombianCaribbean: Agelas tubulata, Myrmekioderma gyroderma, Oceanapia peltata, Aplysina lacunosa, Neopetrosia próxima,and Holothuria glaberrima. The painted panels were submerged in the port of Mar del Plata (Argentina); after 90 days in the sea signi!cant differences were registered in the total coverage between the painted panels andthe controls (p<0.05). The results obtained represent important progress toward using natural compounds incontrolling encrustations.

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Pistone, Alessandro, Cristina Scolaro, and Annamaria Visco. "Mechanical Properties of Protective Coatings against Marine Fouling: A Review." Polymers 13, no. 2 (January 6, 2021): 173. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym13020173.

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The accumulation of marine organisms on ship hulls, such as microorganisms, barnacles, and seaweeds, represents a global problem for maritime industries, with both economic and environmental costs. The use of biocide-containing paints poses a serious threat to marine ecosystems, affecting both target and non-target organisms driving science and technology towards non-biocidal solutions based on physico-chemical and materials properties of coatings. The review reports recent development of hydrophobic protective coatings in terms of mechanical properties, correlated with the wet ability features. The attention is focused mainly on coatings based on siloxane and epoxy resin due to the wide application fields of such systems in the marine industry. Polyurethane and other systems have been considered as well. These coatings for anti-fouling applications needs to be both long-term mechanically stable, perfectly adherent with the metallic/composite substrate, and capable to detach/destroy the fouling organism. Prospects should focus on developing even “greener” antifouling coatings solutions. These coatings should also be readily addressable to industrial scale-up for large-scale product distribution, possibly at a reasonable cost.

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Angulo-Preckler, C., E. García-Lopez, B. Figuerola, C. Avila, and C. Cid. "Natural chemical control of marine associated microbial communities by sessile Antarctic invertebrates." Aquatic Microbial Ecology 85 (December 3, 2020): 197–210. http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/ame01948.

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Organisms living in the sea are exposed to fouling by other organisms. Many benthic marine invertebrates, including sponges and bryozoans, contain natural products with antimicrobial properties, since microbes usually constitute the first stages of fouling. Extracts from 4 Antarctic sponges (Myxilla (Myxilla) mollis, Mycale tylotornota, Rossella nuda, and Anoxycalyx (Scolymastra) joubini) and 2 bryozoan species (Cornucopina pectogemma and Nematoflustra flagellata) were tested separately for antifouling properties in field experiments. The different crude extracts from these invertebrates were incorporated into a substratum gel at natural concentrations for an ecological approach. Treatments were tested by submerging plates covered by these substratum gels under water in situ during 1 lunar cycle (28 d) at Deception Island (South Shetland Islands, Antarctica). Remarkably, the butanolic extracts of M. tylotornota and C. pectogemma showed complete growth inhibition of microscopic eukaryotic organisms, one of the succession stages involved in biofouling. Our results suggest that different chemical strategies may exist to avoid fouling, although the role of chemical defenses is often species-specific. Thus, the high specificity of the microbial community attached to the coated plates seems to be modulated by the chemical cues of the crude extracts of the invertebrates tested.

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Skindersoe, Mette Elena, Piers Ettinger-Epstein, Thomas Bovbjerg Rasmussen, Thomas Bjarnsholt, Rocky de Nys, and Michael Givskov. "Quorum Sensing Antagonism from Marine Organisms." Marine Biotechnology 10, no. 1 (October 20, 2007): 56–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10126-007-9036-y.

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MURATA, Michio. "Polyether Compounds from Marine Organisms." Journal of the agricultural chemical society of Japan 65, no. 12 (1991): 1743–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1271/nogeikagaku1924.65.1743.

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35

NAKAMURA, Hideshi. "Bioactive Substances from Marine Organisms." Journal of the agricultural chemical society of Japan 67, no. 1 (1993): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1271/nogeikagaku1924.67.1.

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36

Yang, Jian Xin, Cheng Hang You, Xiang Hui Wang, and Qiang Lin. "The Synthesis and Bioactivities of 2-Hydroxyethyl Benzo[d] Isothiazole-3(2H)-One Marine Antifouling Paints." Advanced Materials Research 646 (January 2013): 24–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.646.24.

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Twenty-one novel compounds were synthesized from the benzo[d]isothiazole-3(2H)-one and aromatic acid, the structures were identified by means of 1H NMR, IR, EA. The intro antibacterial experiment was carried out to evaluate the activities against antibacterial and the marine hanging plate experiment was also carried out to evaluate the activities against marine fouling organism. The results showed that all the compounds were active against the six bacterials, with an inhibiting rate of 90% at the concentration of 32 µg/ml against Gram-positive bacterials, and the antifouling paints couldn’t be attached by marine fouling organisms in the marine environment for more than 3 months.

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Wang, Gen Li, Zheng Mao Ye, and Bin Wu. "The Change of Stress on Marine Concrete Covered with Barnacles." Applied Mechanics and Materials 584-586 (July 2014): 1031–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.584-586.1031.

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Barnacle is a major creature in marine fouling organisms, it increases static load and dynamic load of marine structures. In this paper, the change of stress on marine concrete surface covered with barnacles is studied. Moreover, a simplified model is established. The result shows that the stress of seawater increases by 0.53 times on the concrete surface, which is covered with barnacles.

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38

Blunden, Gerald. "Biologically active compounds from marine organisms." Pesticide Science 51, no. 4 (December 1997): 483–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1096-9063(199712)51:4<483::aid-ps665>3.0.co;2-e.

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39

Gu, Yunqing, Lingzhi Yu, Jiegang Mou, Denghao Wu, Maosen Xu, Peijian Zhou, and Yun Ren. "Research Strategies to Develop Environmentally Friendly Marine Antifouling Coatings." Marine Drugs 18, no. 7 (July 18, 2020): 371. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/md18070371.

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There are a large number of fouling organisms in the ocean, which easily attach to the surface of ships, oil platforms and breeding facilities, corrode the surface of equipment, accelerate the aging of equipment, affect the stability and safety of marine facilities and cause serious economic losses. Antifouling coating is an effective method to prevent marine biological fouling. Traditional organic tin and copper oxide coatings are toxic and will contaminate seawater and destroy marine ecology and have been banned or restricted. Environmentally friendly antifouling coatings have become a research hotspot. Among them, the use of natural biological products with antifouling activity as antifouling agents is an important research direction. In addition, some fouling release coatings without antifoulants, biomimetic coatings, photocatalytic coatings and other novel antifouling coatings have also developed rapidly. On the basis of revealing the mechanism of marine biofouling, this paper reviews the latest research strategies to develop environmentally friendly marine antifouling coatings. The composition, antifouling characteristics, antifouling mechanism and effects of various coatings were analyzed emphatically. Finally, the development prospects and future development directions of marine antifouling coatings are forecasted.

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Rastogi, Rajesh P., Richa, Rajeshwar P. Sinha, Shailendra P. Singh, and Donat-P. Häder. "Erratum to: Photoprotective compounds from marine organisms." Journal of Industrial Microbiology & Biotechnology 37, no. 9 (July 24, 2010): 991. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10295-010-0779-5.

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Gangadharan, Sathya N. "Experimental Investigation of Enteromorpha clathrata Biofouling on Lifting Surfaces of Marine Vehicles." Marine Technology and SNAME News 38, no. 01 (January 1, 2001): 31–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.5957/mt1.2001.38.1.31.

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Biological fouling can adversely affect the hydrodynamic performance characteristics of hydrofoil surfaces and lead to deterioration in the vehicle performance and maneuvering abilities and higher fuel and maintenance costs. Much attention has been drawn to the frictional resistance caused by large organisms, such as barnacles, bryozoa, and tubeworms in the past. Resistance to adhesion of many of these large organisms has been demonstrated by the use of antifouling paints. This paper describes the experimental results for fouling of Enteromorpha clathrata on marine surfaces and its impact on hydrodynamic performance characteristics, in conjunction with the design, construction, and operation of a water tunnel. It includes a description of the force balance system, laser Dopplervelocimeter(LDV) system, and the data acquisition system used to conduct the experimental study. Results of the experiments with Enteromorpha clathrata fouling are presented, and the effects of biofilms on turbulent boundary layer structure are outlined. The experimental results of the force balance experiment showed a constant increase in zero-lift angle of attack by 10 deg for as little as 10% fouling, and a reduction in maximum lift by as much as 70%. Similarly, the LDV experiment found an increase in the skin friction coefficient for all fouled surfaces, and an average increase of 187% for a surface dominated by an Enteromorpha species.

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Ederth, Thomas, Tobias Ekblad, Michala E. Pettitt, Sheelagh L. Conlan, Chun-Xia Du, Maureen E. Callow, James A. Callow, et al. "Resistance of Galactoside-Terminated Alkanethiol Self-Assembled Monolayers to Marine Fouling Organisms." ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 3, no. 10 (October 7, 2011): 3890–901. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/am200726a.

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43

Feng, Hua, Wenhao Cao, Xiaoyang Tian, Zhiqiang Cheng, and Tao Yan. "Design and development of a data management system for marine fouling organisms." Biodiversity Science 24, no. 7 (2016): 838–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.17520/biods.2015344.

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44

Baier, Robert E., and Anne E. Meyer. "Surface analysis of fouling‐resistant marine coatings." Biofouling 6, no. 2 (November 1992): 165–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08927019209386220.

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45

Cheung, Randy Chi Fai, Jack Ho Wong, Wen Liang Pan, Yau Sang Chan, Cui Ming Yin, Xiu Li Dan, He Xiang Wang, et al. "Antifungal and antiviral products of marine organisms." Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 98, no. 8 (February 23, 2014): 3475–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00253-014-5575-0.

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46

Narkowicz, C., A. J. Blackman, E. Lacey, J. Gill, and K. Heiland. "Screening Tasmanian marine organisms for antiparasitic activity." Phytochemistry Reviews 3, no. 3 (January 2004): 333–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11101-004-2882-6.

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47

Leonardi, Amanda K., and Christopher K. Ober. "Polymer-Based Marine Antifouling and Fouling Release Surfaces: Strategies for Synthesis and Modification." Annual Review of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering 10, no. 1 (June 7, 2019): 241–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-060718-030401.

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In marine industries, the accumulation of organic matter and marine organisms on ship hulls and instruments limits performance, requiring frequent maintenance and increasing fuel costs. Current coatings technology to combat this biofouling relies heavily on the use of toxic, biocide-containing paints. These pose a serious threat to marine ecosystems, affecting both target and nontarget organisms. Innovation in the design of polymers offers an excellent platform for the development of alternatives, but the creation of a broad-spectrum, nontoxic material still poses quite a hurdle for researchers. Surface chemistry, physical properties, durability, and attachment scheme have been shown to play a vital role in the construction of a successful coating. This review explores why these characteristics are important and how recent research accounts for them in the design and synthesis of new environmentally benign antifouling and fouling release materials.

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48

INA, Kazuo. "Behavioral Control of Marine Attaching Organisms." Journal of the agricultural chemical society of Japan 67, no. 11 (1993): 1599. http://dx.doi.org/10.1271/nogeikagaku1924.67.1599.

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49

Lim, Chin Sing, Zuliza Haji Jolkifli, Alina Jair, Noorizan Karim, Ranimah A. Wahab, Dattesh V. Desai, Venkat Krishnamurthy, et al. "An inter-site study of biofouling recruitment on static immersion panels in major ports of South East Asia and India." ASEAN Journal on Science and Technology for Development 35, no. 1-2 (September 15, 2018): 167–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.29037/ajstd.496.

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Limited knowledge of native marine biodiversity hinders effective biodiversity management to safeguard South and Southeast Asia’s marine coastal environment against the threat of invasive species transfer through shipping. In particular, sessile marine biofouling organisms in South East Asian ports are poorly known. Through the support of the ASEAN-India Cooperation Project on the Extent of Transfer of Alien Invasive Organisms in South/South East Asia Region by Shipping, a coordinated effort to examine diversity of biofouling organisms in major port areas in Southeast Asia and India was made using polyvinylchloride (PVC) panels as recruitment surfaces in a static immersion study for a period of 12 months. Not surprisingly, the study revealed that fouling patterns differed between ports possibly as a result of dissimilar hydrographic conditions. However, there were also underlying similarities that reflected a regional uniformity in the composition of fouling communities. At the same time, the alien Caribbean bivalve Mytilopsis sallei was detected in Manila Bay (Philippines), Songkhla Port (Thailand) and Singapore. This is a first simultaneous biofouling survey involving scientists and government stakeholders from India and ASEAN nations of Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand, Philippines and Vietnam.

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Valliappan, Karuppiah, Wei Sun, and Zhiyong Li. "Marine actinobacteria associated with marine organisms and their potentials in producing pharmaceutical natural products." Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 98, no. 17 (July 27, 2014): 7365–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00253-014-5954-6.

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