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Relevant bibliographies by topics / Maritime law – Germany

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Academic literature on the topic 'Maritime law – Germany'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 15 February 2022

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Journal articles on the topic "Maritime law – Germany"

1

Zhang, Pengfei, and Lukas Drumm. "The German Shipping Foundation: Has it been effective in maintaining maritime expertise in Germany?" Marine Policy 115 (May 2020): 103871. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.103871.

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Cogan, Jacob Katz. "The 2012 Judicial Activity of the International Court of Justice." American Journal of International Law 107, no. 3 (July 2013): 587–600. http://dx.doi.org/10.5305/amerjintelaw.107.3.0587.

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The International Court of Justice rendered four judgments in 2012: on February 3, a ruling on the merits inJurisdictional Immunities of the State(Germany v. Italy; Greece intervening), finding that Italy had violated its obligations under customary international law and requiring Italy to ensure that the decisions of its judicial authorities that infringed Germany’s immunities would cease to have effect; on June 19, a ruling on the compensation owed by the respondent inDiallo(Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), awarding Guinea $85,000 for non material injury to Diallo and $10,000 for material injury to his personal property;on July 20, a ruling on jurisdiction, admissibility, and the merits inQuestions Relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite(Belgium v. Senegal), finding jurisdiction and admissibility, and holding that Senegal had breached its obligations under Articles 6 and 7 the UN Convention Against Torture (CAT); and on November 19, a ruling on admissibility and the merits inTerritorial and Maritime Dispute(Nicaragua v. Colombia), finding admissible one of Nicaragua’s final submissions(which Colombia had challenged as a new claim), deciding that Colombia has sovereignty over a number of contested maritime features, and establishing a single maritime boundary delimiting the continental shelf and exclusive economic zones of the two countries.

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Jenssen, Bruno. "Changing policies in Eastern Europe and their impact on the maritime field: experiences from Eastern Germany." Maritime Policy & Management 20, no. 4 (January 1993): 309–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03088839300000033.

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Kuznetsova, Elena, and Dmitri Loshchakov. "Actual legal situation and international controversy concerning the continental shelf in the arctic zone." LAPLAGE EM REVISTA 7, Extra-E (August 6, 2021): 584–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.24115/s2446-622020217extra-e1238p.584-590.

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The proposed article briefly presents the prehistory of these problems, the established approaches to determining the legal status of the Arctic continental shelf, so the importance of resolving existing differences between the Arctic states The authors of the article note that the motivation of the Russian Federation according to determination and legal protection of their external borders of the continental shelf in the Arctic is inspired by the growth of the scientific researches and the conduction of various kinds of expeditions, not only by the Arctic states, but also by leading European and Asian countries (Germany, China, etc.), to search for evidence in order to review the existing maritime borders. In conclusion, the article notes that only the peaceful settlement of disputes, compliance with the rules of International Law and observation of the concluded interstate agreements are the key to global stability, because the clash of interests in the Arctic can lead to unpredictable consequences for many states and doesn't exclude the occurrence of military conflicts.

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Rehhausen, Anke, Johann Köppel, Frank Scholles, Boris Stemmer, Ralf-Uwe Syrbe, Ina Magel, Gesa Geißler, and Wolfgang Wende. "Quality of federal level strategic environmental assessment – A case study analysis for transport, transmission grid and maritime spatial planning in Germany." Environmental Impact Assessment Review 73 (November 2018): 41–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2018.07.002.

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Lielbarde, Sandra. "The concept of “shipowner” under new maritime labor law (MLC, 2006): does the shipowner own the ship? (comparative analysis of national law of Denmark, Finland, Germany, Norway, and the United Kingdom)." WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs 17, no. 2 (March 26, 2018): 229–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13437-018-0141-8.

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Weczerka, Hugo. "Beiträge zu den Beziehungen zwischen dem Hansischen Geschichtsverein und der Hansischen Arbeitsgemeinschaft in der DDR (1955-1990)." Hansische Geschichtsblätter 134 (April 18, 2020): 287–324. http://dx.doi.org/10.21248/hgbll.2016.41.

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Contributions to the relations between the “Hansischer Geschichtsverein” and “Hansische Arbeitsgemeinschaft” in the German Democratic Republic (1955–1990)In 2011 Eckhard Müller-Mertens published a book about the Hanseatic association in the German Democratic Republic (“Hansische Arbeitsgemeinschaft”=AG). This association had been founded in 1955 as a part of the Association for Hanseatic History (“Hansischer Geschichtsverein” = HGV, seat: Lübeck), responsible for the HGV-members living in East Germany. All activities of the AG were meticulously watched by the relevant authorities of the GDR. Against the background of the GDR’s efforts to gain recognition as a state according to international law, the AG was pressed to dissociate itself from the HGV and to try to become an independent member of an international association for hanseatic studies. The anniversary of the foundation of the HGV one hundred years before was used as an opportunity to break off the connection to the HGV. The anniversary was to be celebrated in Stralsund (East Germany), where the HGV had been founded in 1870. Although the mayor’s invitation to come to Stralsund was limited by authorities, the HGV accepted it. Nevertheless, the AG was compelled to cancel the conference in Stralsund and to dissolve the connection to the HGV. As a pretext for the cancellation controversial formalities in the program papers for the conference were put forward. The author of these contributions was in close contact with the HGV since the late 1950s, he was an assistant professor affiliated to the chair of Hanseatic (and East European) history at the university of Hamburg, he took part in editing the review “Hansische Geschichtsblätter” and was a member of the HGV-committee since 1965. Therefore he also had contacts with the AG and is now able to describe the connections between HGV and AG in crucial years, based on private papers and his own memories, as a useful addition to the statements of Müller-Mertens. After a general introduction to the relations between the HGV and the AG the author comments on the participation of students from Hamburg University in conferences of the AG in East Germany, arranged by him 1960 –1966. While the Berlin wall was being built, he took part in a conference of the AG in Naumburg in 1961 and was able to impart news of the AG-committee to Lübeck. Difficulties in using western credits in East Germany are verified. The impending separation of the AG from the HGV could already be seen when the author was preparing an anniversary volume of the “Hansische Geschichtsblätter”. After the AG had left the HGV in 1970 historians outside Germany, above all in the Netherlands (Johanna van Winter) and in Poland (Maria Bogucka, Henryk Samsonowicz) tried to renew co-operation between historians of West and East Germany by founding an international organization for hanseatic studies, which could contain national commissions and associations in Western and Eastern countries, as the HGV and the AG. These efforts culminated in the Warsaw conference in December 1971 concerning the history of the Baltic area, arranged by the Polish Historical Society, followed by important discussions about an international society; under the leadership of Michel Mollat, chairman of the “Commission Internationale d’Histoire Maritime”, a “Committee for Organizing a Commission of the History of Europe’s Northern seas” was appointed. – In order to maintain direct connections between HGV und AG in East Germany, the author sometimes met the chairman of the AG in East Berlin (1970/71).

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8

Cogan, Jacob Katz. "The 2011 Judicial Activity of the International Court of Justice." American Journal of International Law 106, no. 3 (July 2012): 586–608. http://dx.doi.org/10.5305/amerjintelaw.106.3.0586.

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The International Court of Justice rendered four judgments in 2011: on April 1, a ruling on the respondent’s preliminary objections in Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), upholding one objection and finding that the Court had no jurisdiction to entertain the application; on May 4, two rulings on Costa Rica’s and Honduras’s applications for permission to intervene in Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), rejecting both; and on December 5, a final decision on jurisdiction, admissibility, and the merits in Application of the Interim Accord of 13 September 1995 (Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia v. Greece), finding for the applicant. The Court also issued three orders in incidental proceedings: on March 8, one on Costa Rica’s request for the indication of provisional measures in Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua); on July 4, one on Greece’s application for permission to intervene as a nonparty in Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy); and on July 18, one on Cambodia’s request for the indication of provisional measures in Request for Interpretation of the Judgment of 15 June 1962 in the Case Concerning the Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand) (Cambodia v. Thailand). The Court indicated provisional measures in response to both requests, and granted Greece permission to intervene.

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JORAEV, MEDET TECHMURATOVICH. "SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH OF THE RUSSIAN MARITIME UNION." CASPIAN REGION: Politics, Economics, Culture 66, no. 1 (2021): 38–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.21672/1818-510x-2021-66-1-038-042.

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The article is devoted to the aspects of scientific activity of the Russian Maritime Union. This public organization in the early twentieth century set itself the task of reviving the Russian imperial navy after the defeat in the russo - japanese war of 1904-1905. Meetings of a public organization where scientific problems were discussed are considered. Special attention is paid to the existing rules for publishing a collection of scientific papers by the leaders of the Russian Maritime Union. Information is given on issues related to the colonization of remote areas of Siberia and the Far East. The reasons for the lag of Russian commercial shipping from Western European countries are investigated. The prerequisites for the successful development of German commercial shipbuilding and shipping in the early twentieth century are analyzed. The relationship between the problems of development of Siberian rivers and the unsatisfactory economic condition of remote Russian territories is traced. The history of domestic public organizations and naval affairs in the early twentieth century is studied. In addition, the organization of the Russian maritime union for the promotion of naval knowledge is being considered. The public organization subscribed specialized foreign and domestic literature and created libraries on these issues, open to the public. Then the Russian maritime union attracted such technical innovations as cinematog- raphy and filmstrips to promote naval knowledge among the Russian population.

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Van Der Linden, Jan A. "The economic impact study of maritime policy issues: application to the German case." Maritime Policy & Management 28, no. 1 (January 2001): 33–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03088830120336.

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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Maritime law – Germany"

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Kirchner, Andree. "Maritime Arrest: Legal Reflections on the International Arrest Conventions and on Domestic Law in Germany and Sweden." Thesis, Bremen : A. Kirchner, 2001. http://www.andreekirchner.de/pub/arrest.pdf.

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Kirchner, Andree. "Maritime arrest : a legal reflection on the international arrest conventions and on domestic law in Germany and Sweden." Thesis, Stockholm University, Department of Law, 2001. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:su:diva-739.

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Schlichting, Mathias Peter. "The Arrest of ships in German and South African law." Thesis, 1988. http://hdl.handle.net/10413/5186.

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This thesis compares the arrest-of-ship proceedings of the Republic of South Africa and the Federal Republic of Germany. In German law the more than a century old provisions of the Code of Civil Procedure (as amended) are applicable, in South Africa the major statute is the Admiralty Jurisdiction Regulation Act of 1 November 1983. South Africa has special Admiralty Courts having jurisdiction in arrest matters. When issuing the arrest in Germany, jurisdiction is vested in the court dealing with the principal matters, as well as in the Magistrate Court (Amtsgericht) in which district the property (such as the ship which is to be arrested) is located. Both German and South African law provide that a creditor who wishes to arrest a ship must have a "claim for an arrest." In South African law such a claim is called a "maritime claim." South African admiralty law contains some special and even unique provisions such as those regarding the arrest of an "associated ship." These provisions attempt to defeat the strategy against sister-ship-arrests and enable the courts to arrest ships owned by the person who was the owner of the ship concerned at the time the maritime claim arose. The court can also arrest a ship owned by a company in which the shares were controlled or owned by a person who then controlled or owned the shares in the company which owned the ship concerned. Ships will be deemed to be owned by the same Persons if all the shares in the ship are owned by the same persons. A person furthermore will be deemed to control a company if he has the power to control the company directly or indirectly. Deviating from common law principles which require the physical presence of the property to be arrested, the South African courts can order anticipated arrests of a ship not yet within the area of jurisdiction of the court at the time of application. Such an order may be brought into effect when the property (in this case, the ship) comes within the area of jurisdiction of the court. The same principle is applicable in German law and does not contravene para 482 HGB because this provision only prohibits placing a ship under distraint and not the order for an arrest. In German law an action in personam is only directed against a person whereas in south African law a res, eg a ship or her bunkers, is the object of the admiralty action in personam. The Admiralty Jurisdiction Regulation Act of 1983 attempts at uniformity with international law as it is based on several existing laws and international conventions, for example the International Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules Relating to Arrest of Seagoing Ships of 1952. Unlike Germany, South Africa is not, however, a signatory to the International Arrest Convention of 1952. When applying German law, it has to be noted that Germany has ratified the Convention on Jurisdiction and the Enforcement of Judgments in CiviI and Commercial Matters of 1968 (the EEC-Convention) - this is particularly so when trying to enforce the arrest of ships. Regulations Concerning the limitation of liability in South Africa can be found in ss 261 to 263 of the Merchant Shipping Act of 1951. In German law limitation of liability is codified in paras 486 to 487e of the Commercial Code (HGB) with reference to the International Convention on Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims of 1976 (the 1976 Convention). This thesis shows that in certain fields South African and German provisions do not deviate or are at least substantially similar. This fact makes the application of both laws easier for litigants and lawyers, either for South Africans in Germany or Germans in South Africa.
Thesis (LL.M.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1988.

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Books on the topic "Maritime law – Germany"

1

Hilger, Thorsten. Besteuerung der internationalen Seeschifffahrt. Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang, 2007.

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Canada. Dept. of External Affairs. Law of the sea: Memorandum of understanding on the avoidance of overlaps and conflicts relating to deep sea-bed areas between the governments of Canada, Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, on the one hand, and the Governments of Bulgaria, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Poland and the U.S.S.R., on the other hand (with annexes) done at New York, August 20, 1991. Ottawa, Ont: Queen's Printer for Canada = Imprimeur de la Reine pour le Canada, 1993.

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Affairs, Canada Dept of External. Law of the sea: Memorandum of understanding on the avoidance of overlaps and conflicts relating to deep sea-bed areas between the Governments of Canada, Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States of America, on the one hand, and the Governments of Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and the U.S.S.R., as the certifying States of the Interoceanmetal Joint Organization, on the other hand (with annexes) done at New York, August 20, 1991. Ottawa, Ont: Queen's Printer for Canada = Imprimeur de la Reine pour le Canada, 1993.

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Trésoret, Michael. Seepiraterie: Völkerrechtliche, europarechtliche und verfassungsrechtliche Rahmenbedingungen der Auslandsentsendung deutscher Streitkräfte zur Bekämpfung der Seeräuberei. Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2011.

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5

The arrest of ships in German and South African law. Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang, 1991.

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6

B, Wessels, and Splinter van Kan, H. A. G., eds. Burgerlijk wetboek: Boek 1 t/m 8. Lelystsd: Koninklijke Vermande, 1994.

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Netherlands. Burgerlijk wetboek: Met Overgangswet Nieuw B.W. Lelystad: Koninklijke Vermande, 1986.

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Netherlands. Niederländisches Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch. München: C.H. Beck, 1997.

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B, Wessels, and Netherlands, eds. Burgerlijk Wetboek en Nieuw Burgerlijk Wetboek. 4th ed. Lelystad: Vermande, 1985.

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Netherlands. Burgerlijk Wetboek: Boeken 3, 5, 6 en 7. 2nd ed. Nijmegen: Ars Aequi Libri, 1993.

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Book chapters on the topic "Maritime law – Germany"

1

Richter-Hannes, Dolly. "Democratic Republic of Germany." In Yearbook Maritime Law, 187–91. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1986. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-3707-4_11.

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Herber, Rolf. "Federal Republic of Germany." In Yearbook Maritime Law, 193–97. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1986. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-3707-4_12.

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Czerwenka, Beate. "The Proposal for a Reform of German Maritime Law." In The Hamburg Lectures on Maritime Affairs 2009 & 2010, 55–67. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-27419-0_3.

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Frei, Gabriela A. "International Law and the Theory of War." In Great Britain, International Law, and the Evolution of Maritime Strategic Thought, 1856–1914, 171–200. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198859932.003.0008.

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Chapter 7 explores the question of the immunity of private property from capture at sea, examining the views of its opponents and supporters. The immunity of private property at sea posed a serious challenge to sea powers—it was feared that this step would result in a further curtailment of belligerent rights. The chapter analyses the positions of the United States, Great Britain, and Germany in the first and second Hague peace conferences. The naval thinkers Alfred T. Mahan and Julian S. Corbett saw the proposal as an existential danger to waging economic warfare. Their reflection on the impact of international law on maritime strategy illustrated the limitation of the adoption of such a far-reaching proposal. The question also demanded a theoretical reflection on warfare and the chapter compares how international lawyers and strategists understood warfare and international law.

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"Prussia, Germany and Maritime Law from Armed Neutrality to Unlimited Submarine Warfare, 1780–1917." In Navies in Northern Waters, 109–28. Routledge, 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203005866-12.

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Jessen, Henning. "German maritime safety laws." In Maritime Safety in Europe, 105–21. Informa Law from Routledge, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003030775-9.

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Schwampe, Prof Dr Dieter. "Actual Carriers in Civil Law – The German Example." In Commercial Maritime Law. Hart Publishing, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781474202954.ch-004.

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Israel, Jonathan. "Conclusion." In European Jewry in the Age of Mercantilism, 1550-1750, 216–25. Liverpool University Press, 1997. http://dx.doi.org/10.3828/liverpool/9781874774426.003.0012.

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This concluding chapter assesses what the contribution of the Jews was to seventeenth-century European civilization. It is reasonably clear that the general significance of the Jews has to be assessed under two main heads — the economic and the cultural. The problem is to specify the exact nature of the Jewish role. The techniques of Jewish commerce and finance did not differ from other commerce and finance except in that a vast array of restrictions cut the Jews out of most guilds, most retail trade, and the ownership of land and buildings. The key factor which imparted a certain importance to the post-1570 Jewish role was the simultaneous penetration during the sixteenth century of both Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews, as well as of the Marranos living in Portugal and the Portuguese Empire, into maritime and overland long-distance transit trades linking the Levant with Italy, Poland with the Levant, Poland with Germany, and Portugal and the Portuguese Empire with northern Europe. The commercial importance gained by the Jews in the Levant and Poland, largely as a result of the previous expulsion from the West, in other words, formed the basis of the Jewish revival in Italy, Germany, Bohemia–Moravia, and the Low Countries after 1570. This entrenched position in so many crucial but distant markets proved a factor of great potency, especially in view of the close correspondence and intimate cultural contact between western Jewry and the Jews of the Levant and Poland.

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Beinart, William, and Lotte Hughes. "Imperial Travellers." In Environment and Empire. Oxford University Press, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199260317.003.0010.

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In a global maritime empire, travel was intrinsic. As sailors and slavers, traders and hunters, Europeans traversed colonized space and literacy gave them the power to record what they saw and found. In their mapping and classification of lands and peoples, many of these travellers helped to commodify and package the resources of empire. In their fulsome descriptions of the riches of overseas territories, they made these lands and all that they contained desirable to prospective hunters, settlers, speculators, and administrators. The direct uses that imperial powers made of traveller’s accounts were hinted at in 1887 by British explorer and geologist Joseph Thomson, in a note to the second edition of his best-selling Through Masai Land. “Then [1885] Masai land was for the first time made known to the world; now it has come within the “sphere of British influence”—a delicate way, I suppose, of saying that it now practically forms a part of our imperial possessions.’ In fact British East Africa, of which Maasailand formed a large part, was not established for another eight years, in 1895. But Thomson anticipated accurately: having ‘discovered’ and mapped a direct route from the coast to Lake Victoria, which cut right across Maasailand to Uganda, and described the rich pickings (including fertile land, valuable pastures, water sources, timber, and game animals) that lay along the route, he had paved the way for European trade and takeover. Sir John Kirk, British agent and consul at Zanzibar, wrote that Thomson’s ‘admirable description is the only reliable one we yet possess of the region thus secured to us, if we choose to avail ourselves of the opportunity’. Britain, anxious about Germany’s competitive ambitions, duly took it. From the mid-eighteenth century a particular kind of traveller did more than most to promote the natural potential of empire: those who combined touring with botany and other scientific, or quasi-scientific, enquiries. The avid collection of specimens—from fauna and flora through, in some cases, to human body parts—had become an adjunct to the European adventurer’s taxonomy of the natural world. Since European expansion coincided with the development of print, as illustrated in our chapter on hunting, the production and publication of texts became a by-product of travel.

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Conference papers on the topic "Maritime law – Germany"

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Abdel-Maksoud, Moustafa, Volker Müller, Tao Xing, Serge Toxopeus, Frederick Stern, Kristian Petterson, Magnus Tormalm, et al. "Experimental and Numerical Investigations on Flow Characteristics of the KVLCC2 at 30° Drift Angl." In SNAME 5th World Maritime Technology Conference. SNAME, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.5957/wmtc-2015-158.

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Investigations of flow characteristics around ship hulls at large drift angle are very important for understanding the motion behavior of ships during maneuvers. At large drift angles, the flow is dominated by strong vortical structures and complex three-dimensional separations. An accurate prediction of these flow structures is still a challenge for modern computational fluid dynamics (CFD) solvers. Hull forms with high block coefficients are blunt and have strong curvatures, which leads to large area flow separations over smooth surfaces. These areas are sensitive to the relative angle between the flow and the ship motion direction. The paper is concerned with a collaborative computational study of the flow behavior around a double model of KVLCC2 at 30 degrees drift angle and Fr=0 condition, including analysis of numerical methods, turbulence modeling and grid resolution, and their effects on the mean flow and separation onset as well as formation of the vortical structures. This research is an outcome of a multi-year collaboration of five research partners from four countries. The overall approach adopted for the present study combines the advantages of CFD and EFD with the ultimate goal of capturing the salient details of the flow around the bluff hull form. The experiments were performed at the low - speed wind tunnel of the Hamburg University of Technology (TUHH). The main features of the global and local flow were captured in the experimental study. To determine the global flow characteristics, two different flow visualization techniques were used. The first one is a smoke test, which allows the visualization of vortex structures in vicinity of the ship model. The second test is a classic oil film method, which yields the direction of the limiting wall streamlines on the surface of the model. The analysis of the experimental results helped identify the separation zones on the ship model. To resolve the local flow-fields, LDA and PIV measurements were carried out in a selected number of measuring sections. Subsequently, the EFD and CFD results for the global and local flow structures were compared and analyzed. The numerical simulations were carried out by 5 institutions: Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research of the University of Iowa (IIHR), USA, Maritime Research Institute Netherlands (MARIN), The Netherlands, Hamburg University of Technology (TUHH), Germany, Naval Surface Warfare Center, Carderock Division (NSWCCD) West Bethesda, USA and Swedish Defense Research Agency (FOI), Sweden. For the comparison with the experimental results, seven submissions of steady and unsteady CFD results are included in the present study. The participating codes include CFDShip-Iowa, ReFRESCO, FreSCo+, Edge, OpenFOAM (FOI) and NavyFoam. The size of the computational grids varies between 11 and 202 million control volumes or nodes. The influence of turbulence modeling on the predicted flow is studied by a wide variety of models such as isotropic eddy viscosity models of k-w family, Explicit Algebraic Reynolds Stress Model (EARSM), hybrid RANS-LES (DES), and LES. Despite notable differences in the grid resolutions, numerical methods, and turbulence models, the global features of the flow are closely captured by the computations. Noticeable differences among the computations are found in the details of the local flow such as the vortex strength and the location and extent of the flow separations.

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