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1
Shumilina, Vera, Vadim Kleptsov, Viktoria Grushina, Galina Krohicheva, Anastasia Popova, Liubov Ovchinnikova, Ekaterina Boguslav, et al. Business security management in modern conditions. au: AUS PUBLISHERS, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.26526/978-0-6487435-9-0.
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The modern economy is characterized by a high level of dynamism of the factors of the external and internal environment of enterprises, influencing the possibility of their stable development.
With the transition of the Russian economy to market methods of doing business, in which enterprise management must take into account various scenarios, risk becomes an integral element of socio-economic relations. Risk is present in all spheres of life, regardless of whether its presence is taken into account in the situation of choosing an alternative method of managing a business entity or not. The presence of risk is a significant factor in the development of business and the economy as a whole. To minimize and neutralize risks, the enterprise must constantly ensure its safety.
In modern conditions, due to the pandemic and economic downturn, enterprises are forced to revise their methods of safety management and risk neutralization.
This monograph, dedicated to modern problems of business security management, is the result of the joint work of teachers and students of the Department of Economic Security, Accounting and Law of the Don State Technical University.
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Nagimova, Al'mira. Islamic Finance in the CIS countries. ru: INFRA-M Academic Publishing LLC., 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/1182772.
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Over the past decades, Islamic finance has expanded its presence to many countries, including the former Soviet Union. It is not surprising that their expansion has become a subject of great interest for scientists, politicians, practitioners and the general public. How big is the market for Islamic finance in the post-Soviet region? Who are the main market players? What are their investment strategies here? Finally, what limits the development of the Islamic finance industry in the CIS countries? In this monograph, we try to answer these questions by examining a broad empirical base consisting of more than 1,000 transactions for the period from 1991 to 2020, as well as using a sociological approach. In addition, we assess the total volume of Islamic capital and identify the problems and prospects of this market in the CIS countries. It will be of interest to the management of banks, investment companies, funds, ministries, as well as to anyone interested in the world economy, international relations and the religious factor in the economy of post-Soviet countries.
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Nagimova, Al'mira. ISLAMIC FINANCE IN THE CIS COUNTRIES. xxu: Academus Publishing, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.31519/0021-8.
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Over the past decades, Islamic Finance has expanded its presence to many countries, including the former Soviet Union. It is not surprising that its expansion has become a subject of great interest to scholars, politicians, practitioners, and the general public. How big is the market for Islamic Finance in the post-Soviet region? Who are the key market players? What are their investment strategies on this territory? Finally, what are the limits for the development of the Islamic Finance industry in the CIS countries? This book attempts to find the answers to these questions by examining a broad empirical base of more than 1,000 deals from 1991 to 2020, as well as using a sociological approach. Another attempt has been made to assess the total volume of Islamic capital and determine the problems and prospects of this market in the CIS countries.
The book will be of interest to the management of banks, investment companies, funds, ministries, as well as anyone interested in the world economy, international relations and the religious factor in the economy of post-Soviet countries.
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Haynes, Richard W. Alternative simulations of forestry scenarios involving carbon sequestration options: Investigation of impacts on regional and national timber markets. Portland, Or. (333 S.W. First Ave., P.O. Box 3890, Portland 97208-3890): U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, 1994.
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Haynes, Richard W. Alternative simulations of forestry scenarios involving carbon sequestration options: Investigation of impacts on regional and national timber markets. Portland, Or: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, 1994.
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6
Randelli, Filippo, and Francesco Dini, eds. Oltre la globalizzazione: le proposte della Geografia economica. Florence: Firenze University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.36253/978-88-6655-307-6.
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In 1980 Froebel, Heinrichs and Kreye published the English-language The New International Division of Labour, trying to highlight the consequences of market reorganization after the crisis of the mid 1970s, which was soon to transform into so-called globalization. A third of a century later, the "fantastic adventure" of market integration seems to have been crystallized by the 2007-2008 crisis, opening a further period of great instability. But the geography of wealth production has transformed radically and appears unrecognizable to the early-80s scholar. In a framework of great social, political and cultural change, China, a country at the time defined as an "economic dwarf", is the second largest economy on the planet and has become its "factory". The standardizing concept of "Third World" having vanished, some former colonial economies have undertaken rapid growth processes, while others have ruinously accentuated their underdevelopment. The traditionally advanced regions, then defined as "industrial", have opened out into trajectories defined, vice versa, as "post-industrial", some consolidating their competitive edge and others sparking lengthy declines.
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Garofalo, Giuseppe, ed. Capitalismo distrettuale, localismi d'impresa, globalizzazione. Florence: Firenze University Press, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.36253/978-88-8453-605-1.
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From the late Sixties on, industrial development in Italy evolved through the spread of small and medium sized firms, aggregated in district networks, with an elevated propensity to enterprise and the marked presence of owner-families. Installed within the local systems, the industrial districts tended to simulate large-scale industry exploiting lower costs generated by factors that were not only economic. The districts are characterised in terms of territorial location (above all the thriving areas of the North-east and Centre) and sector, since they are concentrated in the "4 As" (clothing-fashion, home-decor, agri-foodstuffs, automation-mechanics), with some overlapping with "Made in Italy". How can this model be assessed? This is the crucial question in the debate on the condition and prospects of the Italian productive system between the supporters of its capacity to adapt and the critics of economic dwarfism. A dispassionate judgement suggests that the prospects of "small is beautiful" have been superseded, but that the "declinist" view, that sees only the dangers of globalisation and the IT revolution for our SMEs is risky. The concept of irreversible crisis that prevails at present is limiting, both because it is not easy either to "invent", or to copy, a model of industrialisation, and because there is space for a strategic repositioning of the district enterprises. The book develops considerations in this direction, showing how an evolution of the district model is possible, focusing on: gains in productivity, scope economies (through diversification and expansion of the range of products), flexibility of organisation, capacity to meld tradition and innovation aiming at product quality, dimensional growth of the enterprises, new forms of financing, active presence on the international markets and valorisation of the resources of the territory. It is hence necessary to reactivate the behavioural functions of the entrepreneurs.
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Traviglia, Arianna, Lucio Milano, Cristina Tonghini, and Riccardo Giovanelli. Stolen Heritage Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Illicit Trafficking of Cultural Heritage in the EU and the MENA Region. Venice: Fondazione Università Ca’ Foscari, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.30687/978-88-6969-517-9.
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It is a well-known fact that organized crime has developed into an international network that, spanning from the simple ‘grave diggers’ up to powerful and wealthy white-collar professionals, makes use of money laundering, fraud and forgery. This criminal chain, ultimately, damages and dissipates our cultural identity and, in some cases, even fosters terrorism or civil unrest through the illicit trafficking of cultural property.The forms of ‘possession’ of Cultural Heritage are often blurred; depending on the national legislation of reference, the ownership and trade of historical and artistic assets of value may be legitimate or not. Criminals have always exploited these ambiguities and managed to place on the Art and Antiquities market items resulting from destruction or looting of museums, monuments and archaeological areas. Thus, over the years, even the most renowned museum institutions have - more or less consciously - hosted in their showcases cultural objects of illicit origin. Looting, thefts, illicit trade, and clandestine exports are phenomena that affect especially those countries rich in historical and artistic assets. That includes Italy, which has seen its cultural heritage plundered over the centuries ending up in public and private collections worldwide.This edited volume features ten papers authored by international experts and professionals actively involved in Cultural Heritage protection. Drawing from the experience of the Conference Stolen Heritage (Venice, December 2019), held in the framework of the NETCHER project, the book focuses on illicit trafficking in Cultural Property under a multidisciplinary perspective.The articles look at this serious issue and at connected crimes delving into a variety of fields. The essays especially expand on European legislation regulating import, export, trade and restitution of cultural objects; conflict antiquities and cultural heritage at risk in the Near and Middle East; looting activities and illicit excavations in Italy; the use of technologies to counter looting practices.The volume closes with two papers specifically dedicated to the thorny ethical issues arising from the publication of unprovenanced archaeological objects, and the relevance of accurate communication and openness about such topics.
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Bacha, Carlos José Caetano. The Agricultural Sector. Edited by Edmund Amann, Carlos R. Azzoni, and Werner Baer. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190499983.013.13.
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This chapter analyzes the evolution of agriculture in Brazil from the early sixteenth century until the second decade of the twenty-first century. It focuses on seven domestic and external conditioning factors that have stimulated and supported the sector’s expansion in Brazil. These factors and the way that they have impacted agricultural expansion and will continue to drive Brazil’s agricultural sector for at least the next two decades. Given the availability of fallow arable land, at current productivity levels, this idle area could be used to double crop production. The transference of road operation to the regulated private sector will lead to improved road surfaces and maintenance, thereby facilitating the transportation of agricultural production to exporting ports. The reduction of agricultural sector subsidies and the increased forest conservation efforts by the European Union should improve Brazilian agriculture’s competitive position in many foreign markets currently served by EU farmers. The increasing share of Brazil’s agricultural production sold in world markets makes the country’s agricultural sector more vulnerable than ever to uncontrollable outside forces. World economic growth, especially that of China and the European countries, is a necessity if the Brazilian agricultural sector is to continue expanding and improving efficiencies. Most Brazilian agricultural inputs continue to be produced by foreign companies or their Brazilian subsidiaries. These overseas entities are a very strong force in the domestic inputs market and represent another uncontrollable factor that affects local farmers’ earnings and Brazil’s balance of trade.
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Distributors in the '90s: An analysis of the forces and factors shaping distribution in the professional salon industry : an American Salon market report. New York, NY (747 Third Ave., 7th Floor, New York 10017): American Salon, 1989.
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Jacobi, Corinna, Kristian Hütter, and Eike Fittig. Psychosocial Risk Factors for Eating Disorders. Edited by W. Stewart Agras and Athena Robinson. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190620998.013.6.
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This chapter provides an updated overview of risk factors for eating disorders, on the basis of the risk factor taxonomy described by (Kraemer et al., 1997). It summarizes risk factors identified in longitudinal studies and markers and retrospective correlates from cross-sectional studies through April 2002 for anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder, identifies new studies published between May 2002 and June 2015, and integrates them into the earlier review. The updated review confirms that longitudinal evidence on risk factors is strongest for nonspecific eating disorder diagnoses including subclinical forms and weakest for participants with diagnoses of anorexia nervosa. When strict criteria for caseness are applied, the majority of risk factors were not able to predict distinct diagnoses and only very few risk factors were confirmed in more than one sample. Case prediction, specificity, and replication therefore remain the biggest challenges in risk factor research for eating disorders.
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Kerstenetzky, Celia Lessa, and Danielle Carusi Machado. Labor Market Development in Brazil. Edited by Edmund Amann, Carlos R. Azzoni, and Werner Baer. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190499983.013.28.
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After presenting general facts concerning the evolution of the labor market in Brazil over the 2004–2014 decade, this chapter documents the outstanding formalization process that took place, as well as its main consequences and driving forces. In this period, the Brazilian economy achieved sizable GDP growth rates. Although far below Chinese or Indian performances, in contrast to the experiences of the latter, Brazilian growth was notable for being (re)distributive (i.e. associated with important reductions in inequality). In particular, the new growth path was accompanied by a sustained expansion in formal employment, an increase in labor incomes, particularly of earnings at the bottom end of wage distribution, and a consistent decline in wage inequality. Thus, the chapter discusses some of the interventions that led to these achievements and the challenges now faced if these achievements are to be preserved or built upon.
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Mouelhi, Rim Ben Ayed, and Mohamed Goaied. Women in the Tunisian Labor Market. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198799863.003.0005.
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This chapter aims at analyzing the characteristics of female employment and unemployment in Tunisia and at identifying the main incentives and constraints to female labor participation and choice of employment status. After the 2000s, female participation stagnated at around 25 percent in Tunisia—higher than the average in the MENA countries but half the world rate. Several socio-cultural factors with economic implications shape the participation of women in the labor market. Marital status is considered a constraint for labor force participation for woman. Women’s educational attainment also influences both their participation decision and the type of employment they choose. The services sectors provide the majority of female jobs, especially in the public sector, which is considered “family friendly.” Women are poorly represented in positions of responsibility and leadership, and the rate of self-employment among Tunisian women is low. The female unemployment rate is above that of men.
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Leirisalo-Repo, Marjatta, and John D. Carter. Infection and spondyloarthritis. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198734444.003.0009.
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Spondyloarthritis (SpA) is the designation encompassing a group of inflammatory diseases with several features in common. The patients have mono- or oligoarthritis with or without inflammatory back symptoms. Distinctive extra-articular inflammatory symptoms also characterize the diseases. The diagnostic subgroups in the SpA family include reactive arthritis (ReA), ankylosing spondylitis (AS), arthritis associated with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), psoriasis arthritis (PsA), and some forms of juvenile-onset arthritis. These diseases share a strong association with a genetic marker, HLA-B27, absence of rheumatoid factor, tendency to family aggregation, and frequently occurring extra-articular manifestations. This chapter discusses the role of infections, either as triggering of the disease, most evident in the case of ReA, or as possibly contributing factors in the development of chronic forms of SpA and AS.
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Yamamoto, Koji. Consuming Projects. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198739173.003.0007.
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This chapter demonstrates that the mobilization of private desire for consumption and emulation was taken to new heights during the financial revolution. Patenting activities boomed in the early 1690s. The lapse of the Licensing Act gave rise to a deluge of pamphlets promoting joint-stock companies and public subscription schemes; new periodicals reported and commented on them. Equally important was the language of charity and piety that often intersected with the language of empire. Although forms of projecting became more closely aligned with incipient modern stock markets, the moral ambiguity of projectors continued to loom large. Satirical remarks painting as deceitful businessmen sold well, but often masked complex factors behind business failure. Public consumption of shares, news, rumours, and moralizing remarks became integral parts of the all-consuming market. In Defoe’s ‘Projecting Age’, even efforts at taming capitalism became an integral part of its operation.
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Roy, Tirthankar. The Economic History of India, 1857-2010. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190128296.001.0001.
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From the end of the eighteenth century, two global processes began to transform livelihoods and living conditions in the South Asia region. These were the rise of British colonial rule, and the integration of the region in the emerging world markets for goods, capital, and labour services, or globalization. Two hundred years later, India was the home to many of the world’s poorest people. India was also one of the fastest-growing emerging market economies of the world. Does a study of the past help to explain the paradox of growth amidst poverty? The book claims that the roots of the paradox did go back to India’s colonial past, when internal factors like geography and external forces like globalization and imperial rule created prosperity in some areas and poverty in others. This revised edition of a popular textbook sets out the key questions that a study of long-run economic change in India should begin with, shows how historians have answered these questions, and where the gaps remain. An essential guide for students of economics, history, and development studies, and a profitable read for anyone interested in India’s economic past.
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Grassiani, Erella. Commercialised occupation skills: Israeli security experience as an international brand. Manchester University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.7228/manchester/9781526107459.003.0004.
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This chapter demonstrates how knowledge about security becomes a commodity that can be marketed, sold, and, in fact, moved. Engaging the reputation of the Israeli Defence Forces as not only experts in security, but notably practitioners of security, the chapter shows how private security firms in the United States construct their business model around precisely this reputation. The chapter highlights the capacities of markets to render things mobile and relocate the abstract notion of Israeli security to another country where it manifests itself and transcends boundaries from the military sector to private service provisions for the civil sector. These companies do so by transforming the ‘Israeli Security Experience’ into a brand that symbolises not only security and safety but also values such as discretion and toughness.
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Hanmer, Lucia, Edinaldo Tebaldi, and Dorte Verner. Gender and Labor Markets in Tunisia’s Lagging Regions. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198799863.003.0006.
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There are significant differences in labor market outcomes by gender in Tunisia. These gender differences differ substantially in the richer coastal and eastern regions and the poorer southern and western regions. This chapter uses the 2014 Tunisia Labor Market Panel Survey (TLMPS) to examine the characteristics of male and female labor market participants in the lagging southern, western, and central regions, and in the leading regions. The chapter also discusses results from an econometric analysis of the factors that influence monthly wages and the probability of employment for men and women respectively. Our results show that gender plays a huge role in labor market outcomes: women are less likely to participate in the labor force, are more likely to be unemployed, and receive lower wages. In addition, youth and educated women in lagging regions are particularly disadvantaged because they are less likely to find a job and may not have the option of moving to places where employment prospects are better. Moreover, our results suggest that wage discrimination against women is prevalent outside the leading region in Tunisia.
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Ludlow, N. Piers. 9. From Deadlock to Dynamism. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/hepl/9780199570829.003.0010.
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This chapter examines the origins of the European Community's (EC) transformation, arguing that the most important factor was the emergence of a new degree of consensus among economic and political leaders about what ‘Europe’ should do. In the course of the mid-1980s, the EC went from being a seemingly moribund entity to a rapidly developing success story. The launch of the single market programme revitalized the EC, helped it overcome long-standing institutional paralyses, created onward pressure for yet more integration, and forced the rest of the world to pay heed to the European integration process once more. The chapter explains how the apparently narrow target of establishing an internal market within the EC encouraged multiple other efforts to integrate Western Europe more closely. It also considers the important role played by national governments and the European Council in shaping the direction of European integration.
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Bidisha, Sayema Haque, Tanveer Mahmood, and Mahir A. Rahman. Earnings inequality and the changing nature of work: Evidence from Labour Force Survey data of Bangladesh. 7th ed. UNU-WIDER, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.35188/unu-wider/2021/941-9.
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With structural changes in production coupled with technological progress, there have been shifts in modes of production and patterns of employment, with important consequences on task composition of occupations. This paper has utilized different rounds of Labour Force Survey data of Bangladesh and combined it with occupation network data of the United States along with its country-specific database and analysed the role of such factors on labour market outcomes. Our analysis shows a fall in the average routine intensity of tasks with no evidence of job polarization. We find a decline in earnings inequality where the decomposition analysis shows that earnings structure effect rather than characteristics effect plays a key role, with routine-task intensity of jobs and education explaining the majority of differences in earnings. Our analysis suggests that investing in education should be the highest priority, with greater emphasis on skill-biased training programmes, particularly those involving cognitive skill.
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Reardon, Thomas, and C. Peter Timmer. Transformation of the Agrifood Industry in Developing Countries. Edited by Ronald J. Herring. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195397772.013.026.
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Over the past 30 years, the agrifood industry in developing countries has been undergoing rapid transformation in structure and behavior. These changes have been driven by both market forces and government policy, particularly foreign direct investment, and have the potential to affect farmers and consumers; the former via increased incomes and modernized technologies, and the latter via cheaper and safer food. This article examines the transformation of the agrifood industry in developing countries, focusing on the sector’s three segments: retail, wholesale, and processing. It first looks at the factors that drive the transformation of the industry and its procurement systems/supply chains that are shared across the segments. It then considers the “symbioses” among the three segments, highlighting how they reinforce each other and enter preferred supplier relations with one another. It also discusses emerging impacts of the above transformations on farmers as well as small and medium enterprises. Finally, it describes programs that promote linkages for a faster, more integrated, and more inclusive growth path for these transformations over the next decade.
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Collis, David, Bharat Anand, and J. Yo-Jud Cheng. The United States in Contemporary Perspectives. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198717973.003.0015.
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While classic business groups are not common in the US today, the phenomenon of unrelated diversification remains prevalent, accounting for about 15 percent of corporate assets. Given the presumed efficiency of markets and the absence of institutional voids in the US, the continuing presence of this organizational form is perhaps a surprise. We document that although certain types of diversified entities—notably, the conglomerate—have declined in importance over time in the US, they have given way to different organizational forms—particularly private equity. We establish that there exists considerable systematic heterogeneity in returns across both types of unrelated diversified firms, which can be masked when focusing only on the average performance of diversified firms. We offer a simple theoretical framework to explain the first two facts: why unrelated diversification continues to persist in the US, and how certain unrelated diversifiers continue to create economic value even as market efficiency improves.
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Casson, Catherine, Mark Casson, John Lee, and Katie Phillips. Compassionate Capitalism. Policy Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1332/policypress/9781529209259.001.0001.
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This book examines the evolution of compassionate capitalism in medieval England, using a unique and comprehensive source of information, the Cambridge Hundred Rolls. It demonstrates how compassionate capitalism developed through the bequest of rental income on property to charitable and religious institutions, such as hospitals, abbeys and friaries. This rental income was generated by the dramatic growth of an urban property market, through which wealthy merchants invested the profits of trade in property development. Compassionate capitalism was a driving force in the medieval economy from the mid-1200s to the Black Death of 1348. The Cambridge Hundred Rolls record a comprehensive survey of the town in 1279, profiling property location, ownership and use, the gifting of rents and the transmission of property between generations. It identifies over 30 leading family dynasties and the factors behind their rise and decline. By synthesising this information it is possible to reconstruct the economic topography of the town and to compare the occupational structure of different parishes. This leads to a fundamental revaluation of the topography of medieval Cambridge and the role of property markets in urban development. It also reveals the influence of religious teaching on the management of economic assets by family dynasties.
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Polinsky, Maria, Nina Radkevich, and Marina Chumakina. Agreement between arguments? Not really. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198767886.003.0003.
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This chapter presents novel data from the Nakh-Dagestanian language Archi illustrating a typologically unusual phenomenon of apparent agreement between first person pronouns and absolutive-marked arguments. Apart from their typological significance, these facts challenge current approaches to agreement, which hold that Agree relations can be established only between heads and phrases. The chapter shows that Archi agreeing pronouns do not constitute a uniform class, but subdivide into simple weak pronouns and complex forms composed of a pronoun and a focus marker. Weak pronouns lack [CL] feature specification ([øCL]), and must therefore copy a class feature from the closest v to avoid violating the constraint that all DPs must be specified for [CL]. As a result, the apparent agreement between arguments can be reduced to the unsurprising agreement between the absolutive DP and a series of verbal heads, some of them morphologically null.
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Stoneman, Paul, Eleonora Bartoloni, and Maurizio Baussola. The Incentives to, and Constraints upon, Product Innovation. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198816676.003.0007.
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This chapter explores the factors that affect the firm’s decision to undertake product innovation. The discussion encompasses the driving forces that encourage product innovation, for example innovation by others or the ageing of an existing product line; however, the basic rationale is the search for profits. The chapter also addresses decisions about: the extent of innovation in general; horizontal and vertical product innovations separately; and the location of innovations in product space. The role of market structures in the product innovation decision, uncertainty in the innovating environment, and issues relating to emulation and copying are also addressed. Constraints to product innovation that survey data indicate are most important—innovation costs, risk and finance, and the availability of qualified labour—are also addressed.
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Poplack, Shana. Dealing with variability in loanword integration. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190256388.003.0005.
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This chapter tests a strong loanword integration hypothesis: that donor-language material that has been borrowed will display variability in morphosyntactic integration paralleling that of the recipient language. This requires explicitly marshalling the recipient language as the benchmark for comparison, an innovation implemented here for the first time. Illustrating with the typologically different Tamil-English language pair, word order and case-marking of English-origin objects of Tamil verbs are analyzed. English indirect objects are overwhelmingly inflected with Tamil dative markers, but direct objects tend not to be marked for the accusative. Comparison reveals that this patterning reflects the case-marking variability inherent in the recipient-language benchmark, compelling us to recognize even these apparently bare forms as borrowed, and supporting the Nonce Borrowing Hypothesis. This demonstrates that the facts of variability must be taken into account to identify which forms have been borrowed and which have been code-switched.
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Djurfeldt, Agnes Andersson. Gender and Rural Livelihoods: Agricultural Commercialization and Farm/Non-Farm Diversification. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198799283.003.0004.
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This chapter examines possible discrimination against female farm managers with respect to prices or market segmentation. Patterns of commercialization are fluid. Particular countries stand out with respect to certain crops, however: for maize, a growing bias against female farm managers can be noted in Zambia. Mozambique, Malawi, and to a lesser extent Tanzania stand out in terms of non-grain food crops, where market participation by male farm managers had increased relative to female-headed households. Poorer commercial possibilities are tied strongly to production factors, where lack of labour and land prevent the generation of a marketable surplus. An important distinction is that between women who manage their own farms and women who live in households headed by men: for the former the lack of access to agrarian resources prevents generation of a marketable surplus for the latter the outcomes from sales are controlled by their husbands.
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Limam, Imed, and Abdelwahab Ben Hafaiedh. Education, Earnings, and Returns to Schooling in Tunisia. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198799863.003.0008.
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This chapter aims at identifying the main determinants of earnings and at estimating the private returns to education in Tunisia. The private rate of return to schooling is relatively low by international standards, especially for basic education. It is argued that in addition to the limited capacity of the economy to create high-productivity jobs, institutional factors may explain the low and heterogeneous returns to education in Tunisia. The returns to schooling are found to increase with the level of education. Regional disparities in earnings and returns to higher education may be explained by the lack of economic opportunities and low exposure to market forces in many inland regions, and also by differentiated early-life conditions as well as inequality of opportunity in access to quality education. These results are used to suggest directions to strengthen the role of public policies in reducing inequality of opportunities in both schooling and earnings.
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Middleton, Roger. The Great Depression in Europe. Edited by Nicholas Doumanis. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199695669.013.11.
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The Great Depression was a global phenomenon in origin and impact, but one typically viewed through an American lens. This chapter provides a European perspective, detailing and contextualizing European developments within that global context. The focus is not individual country experiences, which were significantly varied, but instead generic forces and factors set within an economist’s framework of the twin problem of attaining simultaneous internal and external balance in an age of marked instability. Three questions are addressed: the scale and scope of the depression and the unevenness of countries’ recoveries by the eve of the Second World War; the general causes, domestic and international, of the depression of the European economies; and the reasons why individual countries fared so differently as they sought to recover from the depression.
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Wilson, Andrew, and Alan Bowman, eds. Trade, Commerce, and the State in the Roman World. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198790662.001.0001.
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This interdisciplinary volume presents nineteen chapters by Roman historians and archaeologists, discussing trade in the Roman Empire in the period c.100 BC to AD 350, and in particular the role of the Roman state, in shaping the institutional framework for trade within and outside the Empire, in taxing that trade, and in intervening in the markets to ensure the supply of particular commodities, especially for the city of Rome and for the army. The chapters in this volume address facets of the subject on the basis of widely different sources of evidence—historical, papyrological, and archaeological—and are grouped in three sections: institutional factors (taxation, legal structures, market regulation, financial institutions); evidence for long-distance trade within the Empire, in wood, stone, glass, and pottery; and trade beyond the frontiers, with the East (as far as China), India, Arabia, and the Red Sea, and the Sahara. Rome’s external trade with realms to the east emerges as being of particular significance to the fisc. But in the eastern part of the Empire at least, the state appears, in collaboration with the elite holders of wealth, to have adapted the mechanisms of taxation, both direct and indirect, to support its need for revenue. On the other hand, the price of that collaboration, which was in effect a fiscal partnership, in slightly different forms in East and West, in the longer term fundamentally changed the political character of the Empire.
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Malone, David M., C. Raja Mohan, and Srinath Raghavan, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Indian Foreign Policy. Oxford University Press, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198743538.001.0001.
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India has emerged as a leading voice in global affairs in the past two decades. Its fast-growing domestic market largely explains the ardour with which Delhi is courted by powers great and small. India is also becoming increasingly important to global geostrategic calculations, being the only Asian country with the heft to counterbalance China over time. Nevertheless, India’s foreign policy has been relatively neglected in the existing literature. ThisHandbook, edited by three widely recognized students of the topic, provides an extensive survey of India’s external relations. The authors include leading Indian scholars and commentators of the field and several outstanding foreign scholars and practitioners. They address factors in Indian foreign policy flowing from both history and geography and also discuss key relationships, issues, and multilateral forums through which the country’s international relations are refracted.
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Malone, David M., C. Raja Mohan, and Srinath Raghavan. India and the World. Edited by David M. Malone, C. Raja Mohan, and Srinath Raghavan. Oxford University Press, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198743538.013.1.
Full textAbstract:
India has emerged as a leading voice in global affairs in the past two decades. Its fast-growing domestic market largely explains the ardour with which Delhi is courted by powers great and small. India is also becoming increasingly important to global geostrategic calculations, being the only Asian country with the heft to counterbalance China over time. Nevertheless, India’s foreign policy has been relatively neglected in the existing literature. ThisHandbook, edited by three widely recognized students of the topic, provides an extensive survey of India’s external relations. The authors include leading Indian scholars and commentators of the field and several outstanding foreign scholars and practitioners. They address factors in Indian foreign policy flowing from both history and geography and also discuss key relationships, issues, and multilateral forums through which the country’s international relations are refracted.
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Metcalfe, J. S. Entrepreneurship: An Evolutionary Perspective. Edited by Anuradha Basu, Mark Casson, Nigel Wadeson, and Bernard Yeung. Oxford University Press, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199546992.003.0003.
Full textAbstract:
This article suggests that an evolutionary market perspective provides a powerful framework for bringing the entrepreneur back into economic theory precisely because enterprise is the activity of introducing new activities, production methods and products into an economy. Economic variation is the prerequisite for economic transformation and development and this is why enterprise and the entrepreneur are central components of the evolutionary approach to economics. Indeed, the fundamental historical fact about capitalism is its internal capacity for transformation, and the corresponding transience of the activities and ways of life that it supports within a more slowly evolving set of institutions. Economists have for a long time recognized a capitalist, market economy as a self-organizing system sustaining a spontaneous order; far less well recognized is its capacity for spontaneous transformation, and it is this theme that forms the core of this article.
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Holt, Robin. Space. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199671458.003.0003.
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The French writer Georges Perec set out to ascertain everything that happened in a Parisian square. For three days Perec noted all the events he could, especially the incidental, and accidental. He exhausted himself. The chapter discusses the story as exemplifying the inevitable limits to knowledge, and hence to strategy if all strategy concerns itself with is the production and use of knowledge. Measuring, analysing, and depicting a space (environment, market, territory, industry, theatre) does not have to be of the typically measured form, and even when such forms are used, such as structured representational techniques like grids, meaning is carried way beyond the statement of ‘facts’. By understanding the factual reading of space critically, the chapter suggests strategy exponents might envisage using multiple forms of organizing.
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Babar, Zahra. Working for the Neighbours. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190608873.003.0002.
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The forces and factors driving regional migration have become more complex over time, and traditional explanations for the motivations, attraction, and selection of migrants are no longer sufficient in the study of migration to the Persian Gulf. Qatar, which in the last decade has emerged as one of the Middle East’s fastest-growing economies, provides a sound case study for discussing some of the emerging dynamics of regional labor migration. This chapter examines Arab-origin migration to Qatar, reviewing how the state has negotiated the entry and control of “alien” Arabs. The chapter examines the evolution and transformation of migration patterns to the Gulf Cooperation Council, and assesses policies adopted by the states to better manage their regional labor markets and control the flow of foreigners. Particular attention is given to scrutinizing how and why Qatar has become more selective and politicized in negotiating labor migration, and how this has impacted the Arab expatriate population.
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Schreuder, Michiel F. Normal variation in nephron numbers. Edited by Adrian Woolf. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0349.
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Kidney development includes the formation of nephrons, which ceases around the 36th week of gestation. At that time, around 900,000 nephrons are formed, but with a 10-fold variation (from 200,000 to over 2 million). Many factors have been described to influence the number of nephrons per individual, such as genetic variations, intrauterine growth and prematurity, maternal diseases and (nutritional) deficiencies, and drugs used during nephrogenesis. Counting nephrons is currently only possible ex vivo, even though magnetic resonance imaging techniques are getting to the stage that in vivo estimations using stereology (the gold standard methodology) can be expected to become available in the next decade. In the meantime, renal size is often used as a marker for nephron endowment.
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Hess, Earl J. Fighting for Atlanta. University of North Carolina Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.5149/northcarolina/9781469643427.001.0001.
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As William T. Sherman’s Union troops began their campaign for Atlanta in the spring of 1864, they encountered Confederate forces employing field fortifications located to take advantage of rugged terrain. While the Confederate Army of Tennessee consistently acted on the defensive, digging eighteen lines of earthworks from May to September, the Federals used fieldworks both defensively and offensively. With 160,000 troops engaged on both sides and hundreds of miles of trenches dug, fortifications became a defining factor in the Atlanta campaign battles. These engagements took place on topography ranging from Appalachian foothills to the clay fields of Georgia’s piedmont. This book examines how commanders adapted their operations to the physical environment, how the environment in turn affected their movements, and how Civil War armies altered the terrain through the science of field fortification. It also illuminates the impact of fighting and living in ditches for four months on the everyday lives of both Union and Confederate soldiers. The Atlanta campaign represents one of the best examples of a prolonged Union invasion deep into southern territory, and it marked another important transition in the conduct of war from open field battles to fighting from improvised field fortifications.
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Börzel, Tanja A., and Soo Yeon Kim. The International Political Economy of Regionalism. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.173.
Full textAbstract:
Economic regionalism has been dominated by preferential trade agreements (PTAs). Not only have their numbers surged since the end of the Cold War, we also see different varieties of PTAs emerging. First, long-standing PTAs have evolved into deeper forms of economic regionalism, such as custom unions, common markets, or currency unions. Second, PTAs increasingly involve “behind-the-border” trade liberalization, such as the coordination of domestic trade–related regulatory standards. Third, many of the PTAs that were established over the past 25 years no longer only involve countries of the “Global North” but are formed by developing and developed countries (“North-South” PTAs) and between developing countries (“South-South” PTAs). Finally, a most recent development in economic regionalism concerns the building of so called “mega-PTAs,” such as the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TTP) and the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP), combining several PTAs.In order to explain the formation, proliferation, and evolution of these varieties of PTA, existing international political economy (IPE) approaches have to give more credit to political factors, such as the locking-in of domestic reforms or the preservation of regional stability. Moreover, IPE scholarship should engage more systematically with diffusion research, particularly to account for the spate of deeper regionalism. Finally, “rising powers” and “emerging markets” constitute an exciting new research area for IPE. These new players differ with regard to the importance they attribute to regionalism and the ways in which they have sought to use and shape it. Identifying and explaining variations in the link between rising powers and regionalism is a key challenge for future research
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Lam, Alice, and David Marsden. Employment Systems, Skills, and Knowledge. Edited by John Buchanan, David Finegold, Ken Mayhew, and Chris Warhurst. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199655366.013.22.
Full textAbstract:
Learning by doing represents a major component of both workforce skills and organisational capabilities. Consequently, the boundaries of skills result from the interaction between organisational and labour market factors which shape employment systems. This chapter explores how skill systems are shaped, on the one hand, by the demands of different knowledge structures, whether they are predominantly individual or distributed, and whether they are codified or tacit, and on the other, by patterns of governance of employment relationships. It is argued that an economically productive relationship depends upon aligning knowledge types and organisational forms with suitable frameworks for the exchange of labour services. These pressures result in the development of four broad types of knowledge and skill systems outlined in the chapter. It goes on to examine how the spread of project-based and more transient employment relationships is changing the nature of skills and the organisation of job-related knowledge.
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Epstein, Rachel A. High and Low Levels of Foreign Bank Ownership. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198809968.003.0002.
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Global data on foreign bank ownership shows that the advanced industrial and major emerging economies have low levels of foreign bank ownership—a clear rebuke to marketized bank–state ties. Among developing and smaller emerging economies, however, foreign bank ownership levels are significantly higher on average. The chapter explains the divergence, highlighting both perceived advantages of banking sector protectionism, as well as specific pressures brought to bear on weaker states that forced banking market opening in the context of crisis or transition. Mirroring global trends, West European protectionism juxtaposed against East Central European openness appeared to be a case of stronger states exploiting weaker ones. But the consequences were in fact more complicated. West European banking nationalism was a key source of the European debt and currency crisis and financial fragmentation. And while West Europeans were paying trillions to save their banks, East Europeans largely escaped those fiscal burdens.
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Assael, Brenda. Health and Regulation in the Restaurant. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198817604.003.0005.
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This chapter places the restaurant in the context of public health issues. Even if they attained superior standards of hygiene in their kitchens and dining rooms, restaurants were vulnerable to contamination and adulteration emanating from suppliers, wholesalers, and markets. Concerns that the restaurant might be a site of pollution and disease inevitably accorded it a significant place in the discourses of official regulation. The culture and conduct of restaurant inspection, while definitely inscribed with the practices of liberal governance, were also required to accommodate themselves to the prerogatives of commercial forces. Moreover, the presence of inspectors should not obscure the fact that the restaurant sector itself was eager to reassure customers that it made every effort to ensure the highest standards of hygiene. Temperance and vegetarian establishments are also discussed here, as sites on which healthy eating was yoked to the pursuit of moral purity and rationalism.
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Siklos, Pierre L. The Decline of Simplicity and the Rise of Unorthodoxy. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190228835.003.0004.
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Crises come in various forms, and their impact is not predicable with much accuracy. Crises in emerging markets are not the same as those in advanced economies. By 2007, the idea that monetary policy ought to be rules-based was widely accepted and copied around the world. Policymakers believed that inflation and macroeconomic slack were all that mattered. Demographic and structural factors were underappreciated. The wrong conclusions are now being drawn: rules should not be abandoned, but monetary policy can be improved. Monetary policy now relies more on words. An expansion of central bank balance sheets has taken place and central bank independence is a quaint idea. Central banks no longer influence just prices; they also change financial system quantities. This leads to rising policy uncertainty. Central banks stand accused of hubris, with little clear idea of the “new normal” and how this will redefine a future monetary policy strategy.
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Geddes, Andrew. Global and Regional Cooperation on Migration. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.013.200.
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The problem of international migration is that global cooperation is somewhat rare. If international cooperation is to develop, then it will depend on states; but effective cooperation would also impose real constraints on states. Moreover, as states and their borders give meaning to international migration, it follows that the development, consolidation, and transformation of the state system is a key factor determining the possibilities for the global and regional governance of migration to develop. Existing forms of regional integration and their migration provisions as well as regional consultation processes (RCPs) can serve as a mechanism for intraregional communication, the sharing of knowledge, and for the dissemination of policy ideas and practices. The EU has already been discussed as the world’s most highly developed form of regional integration. It is the only international organization with the power and capacity to make and implement laws through its own institutional system that must be implemented by member states. The EU moreover has a highly developed system of internal free movement for nationals of its own states and has developed a border-free travel area for participating states. These developments constitute the hallmark of a highly developed intra-EU migration framework linked to the creation of the “single market.”
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Abhishek, Abhishek, and Michael Doherty. Pathophysiology of calcium pyrophosphate deposition. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199668847.003.0049.
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Calcium pyrophosphate (CPP) dihydrate crystals form extracellularly. Their formation requires sufficient extracellular inorganic pyrophosphate (ePPi), calcium, and pro-nucleating factors. As inorganic pyrophosphate (PPi) cannot cross cell membranes passively due to its large size, ePPi results either from hydrolysis of extracellular ATP by the enzyme ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase 1 (also known as plasma cell membrane glycoprotein 1) or from the transcellular transport of PPi by ANKH. ePPi is hydrolyzed to phosphate (Pi) by tissue non-specific alkaline phosphatase. The level of extracellular PPi and Pi is tightly regulated by several interlinked feedback mechanisms and growth factors. The relative concentration of Pi and PPi determines whether CPP or hydroxyapatite crystal is formed, with low Pi/PPi ratio resulting in CPP crystal formation, while a high Pi/PPi ratio promotes basic calcium phosphate crystal formation. CPP crystals are deposited in the cartilage matrix (preferentially in the middle layer) or in areas of chondroid metaplasia. Hypertrophic chondrocytes and specific cartilage matrix changes (e.g. high levels of dermatan sulfate and S-100 protein) are related to CPP crystal deposition and growth. CPP crystals cause inflammation by engaging with the NALP3 inflammasome, and with other components of the innate immune system, and is marked with a prolonged neutrophilic inflitrate. The pathogenesis of resolution of CPP crystal-induced inflammation is not well understood.
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Goldring, Steven R. Pathophysiology of periarticular bone changes in osteoarthritis. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199668847.003.0005.
Full textAbstract:
Under physiological conditions, the subchondral bone of diarthrodial joints such as the hip, knee, and phalanges forms an integrated biocomposite with the overlying calcified and hyaline articular cartilage that is optimally organized to transfer mechanical load. During the evolution of the osteoarthritic process both the periarticular bone and cartilage undergo marked changes in their structural and functional properties in response to adverse biomechanical and biological signals. These changes are mediated by bone cells that modify the architecture and properties of the bone through active cellular processes of modelling and remodelling. These same biomechanical and biological factors also affect chondrocytes in the cartilage matrix altering the composition and structure of the cartilage and further disrupting the homeostatic relationship between the cartilage and bone. This chapter reviews the structural alterations and cellular mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis bone pathology and discusses potential approaches for targeting bone remodelling to attenuate the progression of the osteoarthritic process.
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Scanlon, T. M. Status Inequality. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198812692.003.0003.
Full textAbstract:
In societies with caste and class distinctions, and in societies marked by racial discrimination, some people are denied access to forms of employment and other valuable opportunities on the grounds that their race, gender, religion, or some other feature marks them as inferior, and hence unsuitable as candidates for these goods. Economic inequality can also involve inequality of status if being poor means being unable to afford goods that are regarded as essential to being a respectable person. These forms of objectionable inequality depend on mistaken evaluative attitudes about the significance of certain facts about a person. In a thoroughly meritocratic society, in which people are selected for positions of advantage on the basis of relevant forms of ability, the inferior status of those who fail to succeed might seem even more difficult for them to bear insofar as it is seen, even correctly, as justified. This will be so, however, only if these forms of success are valued in mistaken ways. Rawls put forward the idea of non-comparing groups as a way of minimizing this problem in an otherwise just society. But in an unjust society the tendency of people to associate mainly with others who are similarly successful can foster unjustified feelings of entitlement, and have other objectionable effects.
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Schimpfössl, Elisabeth. Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190677763.003.0001.
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This introduction provides an overview of Rich Russians, a sociological study of Russia’s new rich. It delineates the approach applied in conducting biographical narrative interviews with multimillionaires, billionaires, their spouses, and their children. It underlines that the individuals concerned are themselves highly conscious of the need to explain their success during the transition to a market economy and justify the more refined forms of distinction which they now display in order to distance themselves from upstart imitators. It also reviews the critical literature on the study of the Russian elite and of social distinction in other countries, especially the work of Max Weber and Pierre Bourdieu. These studies remained distinct from one another due to the absence of a Russian bourgeoisie in twentieth-century history. The current study is the first to bring these traditions together in recognition of the fact that a bourgeoisie has now appeared in Russia.
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Inayatullah, Naeem, and David L. Blaney. Units, Markets, Relations, and Flow: Beyond Interacting Parts to Unfolding Wholes. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.272.
Full textAbstract:
Heterodox work in Global Political Economy (GPE) finds its motive force in challenging the ontological atomism of International Political Economy (IPE) orthodoxy. Various strains of heterodoxy that have grown out of dependency theory and World-Systems Theory (WST), for example, emphasize the social whole: Individual parts are given form and meaning within social relations of domination produced by a history of violence and colonial conquest. An atomistic approach, they stress, seems designed to ignore this history of violence and relations of domination by making bargaining among independent units the key to explaining the current state of international institutions. For IPE, it is precisely this atomistic approach, largely inspired by the ostensible success of neoclassical economics, which justifies its claims to scientific rigor. International relations can be modeled as a market-like space, in which individual actors, with given preferences and endowments, bargain over the character of international institutional arrangements. Heterodox scholars’ treatment of social processes as indivisible wholes places them beyond the pale of acceptable scientific practice. Heterodoxy appears, then, as the constitutive outside of IPE orthodoxy.Heterodox GPE perhaps reached its zenith in the 1980s. Just as heterodox work was being cast out from the temple of International Relations (IR), heterodox scholars, building on earlier work, produced magisterial studies that continue to merit our attention. We focus on three texts: K. N. Chaudhuri’s Asia Before Europe (1990), Eric Wolf’s Europe and the People Without History (1982), and L. S. Stavrianos’s Global Rift (1981). We select these texts for their temporal and geographical sweep and their intellectual acuity. While Chaudhuri limits his scope to the Indian Ocean over a millennium, Wolf and Stavrianos attempt an anthropology and a history, respectively, of European expansion, colonialism, and the rise of capitalism in the modern era. Though the authors combine different elements of material, political, and social life, all three illustrate the power of seeing the “social process” as an “indivisible whole,” as Schumpeter discusses in the epigram below. “Economic facts,” the region, or time period they extract for detailed scrutiny are never disconnected from the “great stream” or process of social relations. More specifically, Chaudhuri’s work shows notably that we cannot take for granted the distinct units that comprise a social whole, as does the IPE orthodoxy. Rather, such units must be carefully assembled by the scholar from historical evidence, just as the institutions, practices, and material infrastructure that comprise the unit were and are constructed by people over the longue durée. Wolf starts with a world of interaction, but shows that European expansion and the rise and spread of capitalism intensified cultural encounters, encompassing them all within a global division of labor that conditioned the developmental prospects of each in relation to the others. Stavrianos carries out a systematic and relational history of the First and Third Worlds, in which both appear as structural positions conditioned by a capitalist political economy. By way of conclusion, we suggest that these three works collectively inspire an effort to overcome the reification and dualism of agents and structures that inform IR theory and arrive instead at “flow.”
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Sudra, Paweł. Rozpraszanie i koncentracja zabudowy na przykładzie aglomeracji warszawskiej po 1989 roku = Dispersion and concentration of built-up areas on the example of the Warsaw agglomeration after 1989. Instytut Geografii i Przestrzennego Zagospodarowania im. Stanisława Leszczyckiego, Polska Akademia Nauk, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.7163/9788361590057.
Full textAbstract:
The research problem undertaken in the study is the occurrence of dispersed and concentrated built-up (in particular residential) area patterns caused by suburbanisation processes in a large urban agglomeration, on the example of the Warsaw metropolitan area. The research concerned the period after 1989, when the political and economic transformation in Poland began. The historical and contemporary socio-economic conditions of suburbanization and urban sprawl are described, which have the features of a spontaneous, chaotic dispersion, quite different than in Western countries. It is partly to blame for faulty spatial planning. The succession of urban development into rural areas is subordinated to the factors of the construction market. In the empirical part of the analysis, topographic data on all buildings in the urban agglomeration and databases on land use derived from satellite images were used to investigate settlement changes. A multidimensional study was carried out relating to various spatial scales, types of spatial relations and territorial units. Measures of spatial concentration of point patterns as well as landscape metrics were used for this purpose. The indicators used were subject to critical methodological evaluation afterwards. The study was performed in several temporal cross-sections. The locations of new development in agricultural, forest and wasteland areas have been identified. Finally, recommendations for the implementation of appropriate spatial policy and improvement of the spatial order in the Warsaw agglomeration were formulated
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Schweitzer, Stuart O., and Z. John Lu. Pharmaceutical Economics and Policy. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190623784.001.0001.
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Pharmaceuticals play a critical role in the raging debate over how best to advance and improve healthcare in the United States and the rest of the world. Using the analytical tools of economics, this book explores the conflicting priorities and aims of the biopharmaceutical industry. It starts out by describing the supply side of pharmaceuticals in all its forms, including the traditional pharmaceutical sector, the biotechnology sector, and the generic sector, as well as the increased blending among them. It next turns to the demand side, looking at the determinants of demand for pharmaceutical products. It discusses third-party payer coverage and patient access issues, and considers pharmaceutical demand factors in both emerging markets and industrialized parts of the world. Drawing extensively from recent economics and policy literatures, this book examines if and how a drug’s pricing strategy is influenced by clinical and economic attributes, characteristics of third-party payers, cost of research and development, competition from other branded drugs and generics, and other factors. An in-depth analysis looks at various drug promotional programs, their effectiveness in influencing demand and price, and the corresponding controversies and ensuing public debates. The focus of the book then turns toward pharmaceutical regulation, including the patent system, the approval process for both branded and generic drugs, the regulation of drug promotion, and major drug legislations since the beginning of the twentieth century. The book concludes by offering a look ahead at evolving industry structure, research methods, product characteristics, financing mechanisms, and regulatory policies affecting both price and access to pharmaceuticals worldwide.