Academic literature on the topic 'Market of non timber forest products'

Forest assessments to quantify Total Economic Valueave been carried out in many countries. The development of forest valuation, apart from forest products that have a market goods. Nowdys various methods of calculating forest product economic value that cannot be determined by the market system (non market goods) have developed. This study examined the economic aspects of forest product management in the upper watershed of Wae Riupa, West Seram Regency. The results showed of calculating the value of direct use Direct use Valuethe value of indirect use (indirect use-value) of Rp. 1. 645,920.00, -, the option value is Rp. 458.642,449, -, optional benefits of Rp. 11. 384,651,002, and the total economic value (TEV) of 13.489,213,451, -.ost of the potential forest products used and managed by the community in Rambatu Village come from forests, including timber forest products, various kinds of rich animals, non-timber forest products, and environmental services.

This paper generates data on the diversity and value of non- timber forest products (NTFPs) traded in markets adjacent to Mabira Central forest reserve. The objective of the study was to evaluate the contribution of NTFPs trade to the livelihoods of traders’ households. Quarterly market surveys and field observations were conducted in eleven markets in 2014. All NTFPs traders were interviewed using semi structured questionnaires. Simple profitability method was used to determine the profit margins of the traded products. The per capita value of NTFPs traded was calculated and was highest for drums ($ 3,101) and lowest for winnowing trays ($3). All products had profit margins above 60%. Income generated from NTFP trade was used to cater for other essential needs in households like payment of school fees, medical treatment, buying food and other household items. NTFP trade has potential of improving the lives of traders through establishment of NTFP enterprises. In order for such enterprises to be successful forest products traded must be harvested sustainably to ensure consistent supply of the products. Multipurpose species like Markhamia lutea, Phoenix reclinata, Raphia farinifera and Calmus sp. should be domesticated to minimize pressure on the forest. Keywords: Market, non-timber forest products, trade, profitability, income, Mabira, livelihood

This study sought to: (1) identify the types and sources of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) traded; (2) find the frequencyof the NTFPs trade and (3) identify the challenges in NTFPs trading in the Sunyani Municipality. The survey was carried outfrom February, 2014 to April, 2014 mainly at the Sunyani Central and Nana Bosoma Markets in the Sunyani Municipality. Thetarget population comprised NTFPs collectors (gatherers), sellers and consumers. Respondents were purposively sampled. Atotal of 100 respondents were engaged in this study. The NTFPs were grouped into six categories namely; food, medicine,building materials, packaging materials, artefacts and domestic utensils. Key informants’ interviews were also conducted atthe Sunyani Forest Services Division to triangulate the data already gathered. Statistical Package for Social Sciences was usedto analyze the data obtained. The study demonstrated that domestic utensils (37%), food (33%), medicinal products (12%),packaging materials (9%), artefacts (6%) and building materials (3%) were the types of NTFPs traded in the two market centers.The results also showed that majority of the respondents (77%) harvest their NTFPs from forest lands as against 23% whoharvest from communal lands. A significant proportion of the respondents (52%) traded in above 40 kg of NTFPs and only 4%were seen trading in 10 kg of NTFPs. The study further highlighted that food (28%) and domestic utensils (26%) were regularlybrought to the market centers on weekly basis whilst significant proportions of medicinal products (9%), building materials(3%) and artefacts (4%) were brought to the market venues on monthly basis. Cumbersome permit procedure (40%), increasedmarket demand (15%) and financial constraints (20%) were identified as some of the challenges encountered in NTFPs tradingin the Sunyani Municipality. To ensure strict monitoring and sustainability of the resource, there is the need for sensitizationprogramme on the importance of NTFPs in rural livelihood and why their conservation is vital in meeting the needs of thepresent generation whilst not undermining their potential in supplying the needs of future generations.

ABSTRACTConservationists promote non-timber forest products (NTFP) to simultaneously alleviate poverty and conserve ecosystems. Unfortunately, little is known about how such products actually contribute to poverty alleviation, or how various complementary policies such as green marketing campaigns or cooperative management might impact resource health and users' welfare. This paper develops a simple NTFP extraction model that focuses on spatial and labor market dimensions of use in both managed and unmanaged settings. The model contrasts patterns of spatial use, resource health, and income generation under open access and community-managed institutions. We then test the conceptual model by investigating the case of xate production in the rainforest of Chiapas, Mexico, using survey work conducted over two separate periods. The empirical investigation reveals spatial patterns and labor market outcomes predicted by the model. We find NTFP use is mainly conducted by households with low opportunity costs of time and fewer income generation opportunities.

Forest certification is a key issue in relation to the forest products industry. It's also a new trend market of forest products. Forest certification is a guarantee that the products resulting from the forest management process in accordance with the standard of sustainable forest resources management. Certification will be increasing the cost of management as an impact of fulfilling requirement on the criteria of the certified forest. The fundamental question whether the award of certified products has been accompanied by an increase in premium price for forest estate or only becoming as the cost that reducing profit for the forest estate. The aims of this research are: 1) to know the difference between the sales price of certified and non-certified wood, 2) to know the premium price on certified forests, 3) to identify the factors that influence the amount of premium price of the certified forest. Data collection were used by searching the document and literature reference on forest certification. The results showed that the premium price received from the certified timber is higher than non-certified timber. Certified wood with high quality has a premium price that is greater than the low-quality wood. The percentage of premium price received varied forest estate. Premium price sometimes unsignificantly received by small-scale of timber estate. The revenue of premium price of certifies forest is influenced by the following factors: 1) The forest area to be certified, 2) Organizations that perform assessments, 3) Company / bodies / organizations that filed the certification, 4) he The country as a buyer of certified timber product 5) the facilitator in the market activities, 6) post-certification fee, and 7) the sales price.

This study aimed to analyze the Brazilian competitiveness in the world market of the main non-timber forest products (NTFPs) exported by Brazil during the subperiods from 2006 to 2010, and from 2011 to 2016. The products were selected based on their relevance in the Brazilian NTFP export. In order to analyze competitiveness, we used the competitiveness matrix, which is given by the performance point of view. In the construction of this matrix, the vertical axis was represented by the Revealed Symmetric Comparative Advantage index while the horizontal axis was represented by the growth rate. The results showed that natural rubber was in the “missed opportunities” quadrant in the first period and in the “retreat” quadrant in the second period analyzed. On the other hand, honey, mate and cashew nut were positioned in the “optimum” sector in both periods, although cashew nut had showed a decrease both in the world growth rate and in the RSCA in the second period studied. In the final analysis, we concluded that Brazil is competitive in exports of honey and mate, it has been losing competitiveness in exports of cashew nuts, and is in decline as regards natural rubber exports.

In present study ethnobotany in relation to livelihood security in district Bastar of Chhattisgarh state with special reference to non timber forest produces were found to collect variety of plant produces from forests, for their livelihood security. Those collected plant produces were non timber forest produces (NTFPs).In this research total 44 plants producing NTFP were noted to be collected by tribals in 20 villages of Bastar district.Plant and plant produce collected by the tribals from the plants were seeds of 11 plants, fruits of 11, roots of 03, Rhizomes of 04,flowers of 04, secretory products from 03 plants, while 04 whole plants.Lakh and cocoons were also collected by the tribals from the forest.Beside collection of NTFPs,69 potential market place in Bastar district, where marketing of NTFPs was found maximum were also identified for the selling of plant produces.

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are important in rural southwest Virginia as a source of household sustenance and supplemental income. The trade in NTFPs from this region is centuries old and now helps supply growing worldwide demands. Although marketing is a vital part of optimizing the value of these products, it has been ignored in rural natural resource development. This research analyzes marketing systems for selected NTFPs in southwest Virginia by describing marketing chains, interpreting data on important marketing elements, and comparing results within and between different groups of NTFPs. Product categories selected for emphasis are crafts (grapevine wreaths, baskets, furniture, and birdhouses), medicinal and herbal products, specialty wood products (musical instruments), and edible forest products. This qualitative, exploratory study utilizes direct interviews with fifty market players at various levels in marketing chains. Results provide information on NTFP products, value addition, market outlets, pricing, promotion, distribution, and marketing chains. Hundreds of people are involved with the NTFP trade in southwest Virginia and marketing can help ameliorate negative effects of job scarcity. The greatest opportunity for local level marketing exists for market players of crafts and specialty wood products. Medicinal and herbal products are the only category which very little local value addition takes place within the region and as a result, market players have minimal control over marketing. Edible forest products are not marketed but are collected only for consumption in the household. Several opportunities for marketing include improving market access for crafts and specialty wood products, increasing production through cultivation for medicinal and herbal products, and developing capacity for edible product cultivation.<br>Master of Science

There is growing acknowledgement that forests and forest products are central to rural livelihoods, but their role in lifting households out of poverty remains contentious. This study tested the assertion by proponents of forest based poverty alleviation that changing conditions in the use and management of forests and forest products has created opportunities for poor rural households to lift themselves out of poverty. The study used detailed annual income data from various household sectors in two contrasting sites in Zambia, namely Mufulira and Kabompo districts, analyzing the relative contribution of forest income to household livelihood, the effect of household wealth status on forest use, factors driving household participation in forest product trade, and the influence of distance to urban markets on trends in the use of forest products. The study found that forest based activities play a central role in the livelihoods of households in the two study sites, contributing close to half of total household income, and dwarfing the contribution of agricultural sectors such as cropping and livestock rearing which are generally regarded as the main income sources for rural households. Forest based sectors were also found to be particularly valuable sources of household cash, often coming at critical times to meet basic needs. The findings also revealed that without the contribution of forest income, the proportion of households that would fall below the poverty line would increase sharply in both study sites. Wealthier households earned higher magnitudes of both subsistence and cash income from forest based activities than their poorer counterparts. Even the share of total household income coming from forest based activities was also higher among these better-off households, confirming that these activities are lucrative and they are improving the wealth status of households. Household participation in forest product trade was found to be influenced by demographic factors such as number of productive household members, age and the education level of the household head. Economic factors such as the level of income from wage labour, household poverty level, and ownership of key assets such as a bicycle were found to be important. Distance of homestead from the forest was also found to be an important contextual variable. The influence of urban demand on the use of forest products by rural households was significant in the study area. Although local sales played an important part as a source of cash for households, the most preferred channels for trade were linked to urban markets, either through roadside markets, middlemen or direct sales to urban buyers. The study concluded that with improved local organization and support for product development and marketing, some forest based activities provide a viable poverty alleviation option for poor rural households who otherwise have limited economic opportunities to escape poverty.

A great deal of research has demonstrated that Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) play a crucial role in the livelihoods of the rural poor, and are particularly important to the most marginalised people throughout the developing world. However, these livelihood benefits are not without cost to the natural resource base that rural communities depend so heavily upon. The continued dependence on NTFPs as a major livelihood source must be contingent upon the minimisation of the level of disturbance created through this dependency. This study assesses the level of disturbance created through natural resource harvesting in eight study sites around South Africa, and applies a predictive conceptual model created by Shankaar et al. (2004b) to try and ascertain under what conditions the level of disturbance created through natural resource harvesting will be high. It assesses the three key factors that Shankaar et al. (2004b) identified (level of Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK), level of dependency and access to markets) in relation to the level of disturbance found at each of the study sites. It was found that there was a statistically significant relationship between the level of dependency and the level of disturbance, but there was no statistically significant relationship between either access to markets or the level of LEK and disturbance. Regulation of land use is a key issue, with weak local institutions in communal areas making effective resource management difficult. The significance of these findings is discussed, and priorities for future research are identified. This study adds to the body of knowledge related to NTFP harvesting and critically analyses the conflicts between the livelihood gains and the level of disturbance created through NTFP harvesting in an attempt to ascertain how livelihoods can be safeguarded. And in the longer-term, so that management strategies can be identified where resource extraction is not at the cost of undermining the very livelihoods that depend upon the natural resource base.

A crença na capacidade do mercado de Produtos Florestais Não Madeireiros (PFNMs) em conciliar a conservação de florestas tropicais e o desenvolvimento de populações extrativistas resultou na implementação de diversos programas com esta finalidade na Amazônia brasileira. Dentre esses programas é cada vez mais comum o estabelecimento de parcerias entre comunidades extrativistas que comercializam PFNMs com empresas. No entanto, estudos têm evidenciado que o mercado de PFNMs apresenta impactos tanto na esfera ambiental como no âmbito socioeconômico das comunidades envolvidas. Sobre os efeitos socioeconômicos, não estão claros quais os efeitos deste mercado nas estratégias de compartilhamento de recursos e cooperação produtiva entre unidades domésticas, as quais têm funções econômicas e sociais para a subsistência, em especial no caso das unidades mais vulneráveis. Partindo dessa questão central foi testada a hipótese de que a exposição ao mercado de PFNMs afeta essas instituições cooperativas, trazendo consequências negativas para a segurança de subgrupos mais vulneráveis economicamente. Para isso foi feito um estudo comparativo entre duas comunidades que compartilham o mesmo histórico e estão localizadas em condições ambientais e geográficas semelhantes na Reserva Extrativista do Médio Juruá no Estado do Amazonas Brasil, mas que diferem com relação à exposição ao mercado de PFNMs. Enquanto a comunidade do Roque comercializa óleos vegetais com empresas de cosméticos, Pupuaí mantém práticas econômicas locais. As técnicas para coleta de dados incluíram painel de observações sistemáticas, surveys, diagnóstico rural participativo e entrevistas estruturadas e semi-estruturadas. Os resultados indicam que o compartilhamento de recursos é menos frequente na comunidade inserida no mercado de PFNMs, porém este efeito não é perceptível na avaliação transversal entre unidades domésticas com diferentes graus da inserção ao mercado. Portanto, as mudanças no compartilhamento de recursos foram observadas somente no nível entre comunidades e a hipótese foi apenas parcialmente aceita. Com relação aos efeitos sobre unidades domésticas mais vulneráveis este estudo apresentou dois resultados principais. Em primeiro lugar há um padrão distinto de compartilhamento de recursos entre as comunidades. Isto é, na comunidade com mercado de PFNMs as unidades vulneráveis receberam mais recursos, enquanto na comunidade menos exposta ao mercado foi observado o oposto. Mas, devido à menor frequência de eventos cooperativos observados na comunidade inserida no mercado, ainda assim suas unidades vulneráveis receberam menos recursos quando comparadas com as unidades vulneráveis da comunidade menos exposta ao mercado. O segundo resultado é que as unidades mais vulneráveis da comunidade com mercado de PFNMs participaram de interações cooperativas com menos unidades distintas quando comparadas com aquelas da comunidade sem mercado e, portanto, têm menor capital social para recorrer em situações de risco ou escassez de recursos. No entanto, para avaliar se a redução no comportamento cooperativo afeta o bem-estar das unidades mais vulneráveis seria necessário avaliar se a demanda de consumo das unidades vulneráveis são melhor atendidas na comunidade inserida no mercado de PFNMs ou naquela menos exposta ao mercado.<br>The belief in the capacity of Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) to reconcile the double aim of providing for the well-being of extractive communities and conserving tropical forests resulted in the implementation of various programs with this purpose in the Brazilian Amazon. Among these programs it is increasingly common the adoption of partnerships between extractive communities and companies to trade NTFPs. Recently, however, several studies have highlighted the shortcomings of trading NTFP, regarding both biological conservation and the well-being of communities. Within the context of well-being impacts, there is a fear the increased integration of largely autarkic communities into NTFP markets can disrupt cooperation strategies and sharing practices, which have economic and social functions to peasant economies, particularly for more vulnerable households. In this study, we focus on this issue and advance the hypothesis that increased trade in NTFP may disrupt those cooperative institutions, bringing negative consequences to the security of the most economically vulnerable subgroups. To test this hypothesis, we compare two communities of the Médio Juruá Extractive Reserve, Brazilian Amazonia, which share the same historical background and similar environmental and geographic conditions, but differ in relation to NTFP trade. While Roque community trades vegetable oils with cosmetics companies, Pupuaí carries on with previous economic practices. Data gathering techniques included random systematic observations, household surveys, participatory rural appraisal and structured and semi-structured interviews. The results indicate that the community integrated into NTFP markets has fewer cooperative events than the community less market integrated. Despite that, no pattern is observed when we compare the association between levels of market participation among households. Therefore, we concluded the hypothesis was only partially accepted, because the changes in sharing practices are observable only at the community level. When we evaluate the effects of cooperation networks on more vulnerable households, we find two main results. First, we find a different pattern between the two communities as regards vulnerable households. While more vulnerable households benefit more from cooperative events in the community integrated into NTFPs, the opposite is observed in the community less exposed to markets. Even so, because the frequency of cooperation is much lower in the community trading NTFPs, these differences mean more vulnerable households still get fewer payoffs from cooperation than in the community less market integrated. Secondly, households from the community trading NTFPs, besides cooperating less frequently, also do so with a smaller number of different households when compared with the community less integrated to markets, which means their networks of social capital are weaker. It is therefore not yet clear in which community the human needs of vulnerable households are better fulfilled in order to ascertain whether the reduction on cooperative behavior diminishes their well-being.

Este estudo tem como objetivo verificar quais são os efeitos indiretos que a participação de povos indígenas no mercado de produtos florestais não madeireiros (PFNMs) produz no uso de recursos naturais. As Terras Indígenas são estratégicas para a conservação das florestas tropicais, embora este papel possa ser alterado pelo crescente envolvimento dos povos indígenas com o mercado. Estimulado como forma de promover o desenvolvimento econômico dessas sociedades aliado à conservação ambiental, o mercado de PFNMs pode também produzir efeitos negativos no meio ambiente, tanto diretos - nos recursos explorados - como indiretos - por meio de transformações nas atividades de subsistência dos povos indígenas. O estudo dos efeitos indiretos é ainda negligenciado, restando dúvidas se a adoção dessa estratégia de mercado atinge os objetivos a que se propõe. O presente estudo pretende auxiliar a preencher essa lacuna, verificando de que forma a participação dos Araweté no mercado de PFNMs afeta suas atividades de subsistência. Por meio de técnicas qualitativas (entrevistas semi-estruturadas e informais) e quantitativas (survey e observações sistemáticas de alocação de tempo), foram levantados dados sobre o grau de envolvimento no mercado de PFNMs (renda obtida) e o padrão de utilização dos recursos naturais (tempo alocado nas diferentes atividades de subsistência e tamanho da área cultivada) de uma amostra de 24 unidades domésticas por um período de sete meses, durante um ano. Os resultados mostram que ocorreram transformações históricas nas atividades de subsistência dos Araweté e em sua participação na economia de mercado. Na subsistência, observou-se: o maior consumo da mandioca e do milho; o cultivo de dois roçados (milho e mandioca) por várias famílias; a incorporação de novas tecnologias na pesca e agricultura; a redução da coleta de alguns itens e a introdução do cultivo de arroz. Os Araweté participam da economia de mercado principalmente por meio da comercialização de PFNMs, bem como por aposentadorias e salários do governo. O maior envolvimento no mercado de PFNMs está associado com maior dedicação às atividades de subsistência (de forma geral) e, em particular, à agricultura e à coleta, embora não explique variações na caça e pesca.<br>The aim of this study is to analyse the indirect effects produced to the use of natural resources which arise from the participation of indigenous peoples in markets for non-timber forest products (NTFP). Indigenous territories play a strategic role in the conservation of tropical rainforests, though their character might change with the growing involvement of indigenous societies in the market economy. If NTFP markets are stimulated in order to promote economic development of such societies, alongside with forest conservation, they may as well produce negative effects both directly – to the resource extracted, or indirectly – through changes in the patterns of subsistence activities. The study of the latter has been neglected, raising doubts whether this win-win strategy accomplishes its own purposes. This study focuses on this gap, by investigating how the participation of the Araweté in the NTFP trade affects their pattern of subsistence activities. Qualitative (semi-structured and unstructured interviews) and quantitative (survey and spot observations) techniques were adopted to gather data about Arawete’s level of participation in the market economy (i.e. incomes) and the patterns of natural resource use (i.e. time allocated to subsistence activities and size of the agricultural plots). 24 households were sampled during seven months within a year’s period. The results show the patterns of Araweté’s subsistence and their involvement into the market economy were transformed. As regards subsistence patterns, we observed: a greater consumption of manioc and corn; the cultivation of two plots (corn and manioc) by several families; the incorporation of new fishing and hunting technologies; a decrease in gathering of some products and the introduction of rice. The Araweté participate in the market economy mainly through the commercialisation of NTFPs, as well as pensions and government salaries. Their greater involvement in the market economy is associated with greater dedication to subsistence (in general) and, in particular, to agriculture, while it does not explain changes in hunting and fishing patterns.

Thesis (M.S.)--West Virginia University, 2007.<br>Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains viii, 115 p. : ill. (some col.), maps (some col.). Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 84-91).

In the European Union, forests and other wooded areas cover a total of 177.8 million hectares, which represents approximately 40% of the EU total area and an area similar to that used for agricultural purposes (183.9 million hectares). Germany, Spain, France, Finland and Sweden make up over three-fifths of the area covered by forests in the EU. Our paper shows the distribution of forested areas in the EU and their importance in comparison with the agricultural area of each Member State. In 2014, the EU represents about 12 % of global timber volume harvested timber from forests and woodlands on its surfaces rising to 392.9 million m3. Forestry, logging and related services covering timber production and extraction and harvesting of forest products that grow in the wild. In addition to industrial round wood, forests produce firewood, too. In some regions, non-timber forest products are also an important source of local income. In the research approach, we considered necessary and appropriate to perform a comparative analysis of the situation of Romanian forest similar to that of the main European Union countries, to identify measures that some of them have tried, and even managed to increase a rational exploitation of afforested areas forest resources. The results conducted to a comparative analysis of the National Forest and the main EU countries’ Systems, to identify possible starting points for grounding new sustainable development strategies, given their similar experience.

Abstract In recent years, the world economy has seen expansive market growth in the area of Micro-Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS). It is predicted that the MEMS market could reach more than $34 billion by the year 2002. Today, commercially available MEMS products include accelerometers for airbags and inkjet printer heads. These products require little or no assembly because a monolithic integrated circuit process is used to develop the devices. However, future MEMS will be more elaborate. Monolithic integration is not feasible when incompatible processes, complex geometry, or different materials are involved. For these cases, new and extremely precise micro-manipulation capabilities will be required for successful product realization. This paper outlines the design and implementation of a computer aided simulation of Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) assembly utilizing force feedback devices for display of forces of interaction. The system described in this paper solves boundary element equations for electrostatic forces between MEMS components and then displays this solution in near real time with the help of the PHANToM force feedback device. Issues discussed in this paper include: boundary element solutions of electrostatic forces, interpolation of a six degree of freedom solution grid, scaling up of electrostatic forces to human scale, and use of the PHANToM device for haptic display of electrostatic and contact forces.

To survive in today’s volatile and changing markets, companies are now faced with the problem of providing more customization, greater quality, faster response, more innovative designs and lower prices. New models need to be introduced in the market more frequently, which has given momentum to design product platforms. Use of common components can reduce the design and manufacturing time significantly. Determining commonality among different components is a key to reducing the new product design cycle time. CAD files can be used as a means to measure commonality for a set of similar components. This paper presents a tree-based approach to compare a set of similar 3D CAD models, measure shape commonality and identify the common platform shape. First a mapping of the solid models using the IGES format to IPG (IGES Parametric Graph) has been developed. The IPG, a Labeled Attribute Tree, is used to capture the three dimensional shape and design attributes along with the function of the component. The IPGs are then used to obtain a commonality index and establish a common platform for a set of similar products. The applicability of the method is demonstrated using CAD models of a family of casing. This research can also be applied to identify existing components that can be reused in new products.

Abstract Many market forces are driving companies to improve their targeting of increasingly small market niches. To accomplish this efficiently, products are organized into product families that typically share common platforms. In industries with short product lifecycles, the decision to move towards a common platform approach, even for some components, requires estimating the reduction in development time. One of the problems encountered in estimating development time is that initially, before implementing a platform approach, hard information related to product family design and development is not available. The purpose of this paper is to estimate the design and development time using simple activity models, when moving towards a platform approach. The product family models are developed from existing single product design activities, which are modified and extended to reflect activities related to development of product platform and subsequent product members of the family from the platform. Uncertainty associated with time for each activity is also included in the model, which is solved using Monte Carlo simulation. The approach is demonstrated using a hard disk drive spindle motor platform development for a family of hard disks.

The high competitive pressure in the aero-engine market demands higher quality products in shorter time at lower costs. In order to achieve this, a close integration of the product lifecycle with early design stages is necessary. Decisions made in design have an impact on later lifecycle areas like manufacturing and aftermarket, which a design may not foresee without the relevant information. This leads to avoidable iterations in the product development process. This paper illustrates a concept for a design decision support system on feature level. Key knowledge of different design domains is provided within the available design systems during the product development phases.

The competitiveness in today’s market forces many companies to rethink the way they design (and redesign) products. Instead of developing one product at a time, many manufacturing companies are developing families of products to provide enough variety for the marketplace while keeping costs relatively low. Although the benefits of commonality are widely known, many companies are still not taking full advantage of it when developing new products or redesigning existing ones. One reason is the lack of appropriate methods and useful metrics to assess a product family based on commonality and diversity. Although many component-based commonality metrics have been proposed in the literature, they do not (1) help resolve the tradeoff between commonality and diversity in a product family and (2) capture enough information to be completely useful during product family design and redesign. In this paper, we propose the Comprehensive Metric for Commonality (CMC) to evaluate the design of a product family on a 0–1 scale based on the components in each product, their size, geometry, material, manufacturing process, assembly, costs, and the allowed diversity in a family. To demonstrate the usefulness of this metric for product family benchmarking and redesign, the CMC is compared to six other component-based commonality indices. A CMC-based method is also proposed and applied to a family of staplers to (1) assess the level of commonality in the product family and (2) give recommendations for redesigning the product family.

Rapid Prototyping and Manufacturing (RP&amp;M) technologies are increasingly being applied to produce functional prototypes and directly manufacture small batches of components (where the “prototype” is itself the final product). Although there are various forms of RP&amp;M, almost all rely on a layered manufacturing approach. However despite the flexibility of these systems, they have common drawbacks such as slow build rates, a limited number of build axes (typically one) and the need for post processing, i.e. removal of support structures and finishing. This paper reports the preliminary research that aims to combine sophisticated CAM software and automated assembly technologies to demonstrate that a non-layered method of RP can be engineered. The system under development is referred to as RPBloX. This novel technique has the potential to not only supplement current RP techniques but also act as a standalone method in which products can be brought to market within a shorter design-manufacture cycle time. Essentially, the RPBloX methodology involves a cellular approach to building up a part. Rather than slicing up the CAD model into numerous thin sheets, RPBloX segments the model into 3D cells (or Bloxes) of varying sizes. In contrast to current RP technology, conventional machine tools such as CNC machines and robots are employed for manufacturing and assembly work. Consequently, production costs could be significantly reduced without the forfeiting accuracy and timeliness.

1.1 Macroeconomic summary Economic recovery has consistently outperformed the technical staff’s expectations following a steep decline in activity in the second quarter of 2020. At the same time, total and core inflation rates have fallen and remain at low levels, suggesting that a significant element of the reactivation of Colombia’s economy has been related to recovery in potential GDP. This would support the technical staff’s diagnosis of weak aggregate demand and ample excess capacity. The most recently available data on 2020 growth suggests a contraction in economic activity of 6.8%, lower than estimates from January’s Monetary Policy Report (-7.2%). High-frequency indicators suggest that economic performance was significantly more dynamic than expected in January, despite mobility restrictions and quarantine measures. This has also come amid declines in total and core inflation, the latter of which was below January projections if controlling for certain relative price changes. This suggests that the unexpected strength of recent growth contains elements of demand, and that excess capacity, while significant, could be lower than previously estimated. Nevertheless, uncertainty over the measurement of excess capacity continues to be unusually high and marked both by variations in the way different economic sectors and spending components have been affected by the pandemic, and by uneven price behavior. The size of excess capacity, and in particular the evolution of the pandemic in forthcoming quarters, constitute substantial risks to the macroeconomic forecast presented in this report. Despite the unexpected strength of the recovery, the technical staff continues to project ample excess capacity that is expected to remain on the forecast horizon, alongside core inflation that will likely remain below the target. Domestic demand remains below 2019 levels amid unusually significant uncertainty over the size of excess capacity in the economy. High national unemployment (14.6% for February 2021) reflects a loose labor market, while observed total and core inflation continue to be below 2%. Inflationary pressures from the exchange rate are expected to continue to be low, with relatively little pass-through on inflation. This would be compatible with a negative output gap. Excess productive capacity and the expectation of core inflation below the 3% target on the forecast horizon provide a basis for an expansive monetary policy posture. The technical staff’s assessment of certain shocks and their expected effects on the economy, as well as the presence of several sources of uncertainty and related assumptions about their potential macroeconomic impacts, remain a feature of this report. The coronavirus pandemic, in particular, continues to affect the public health environment, and the reopening of Colombia’s economy remains incomplete. The technical staff’s assessment is that the COVID-19 shock has affected both aggregate demand and supply, but that the impact on demand has been deeper and more persistent. Given this persistence, the central forecast accounts for a gradual tightening of the output gap in the absence of new waves of contagion, and as vaccination campaigns progress. The central forecast continues to include an expected increase of total and core inflation rates in the second quarter of 2021, alongside the lapse of the temporary price relief measures put in place in 2020. Additional COVID-19 outbreaks (of uncertain duration and intensity) represent a significant risk factor that could affect these projections. Additionally, the forecast continues to include an upward trend in sovereign risk premiums, reflected by higher levels of public debt that in the wake of the pandemic are likely to persist on the forecast horizon, even in the context of a fiscal adjustment. At the same time, the projection accounts for the shortterm effects on private domestic demand from a fiscal adjustment along the lines of the one currently being proposed by the national government. This would be compatible with a gradual recovery of private domestic demand in 2022. The size and characteristics of the fiscal adjustment that is ultimately implemented, as well as the corresponding market response, represent another source of forecast uncertainty. Newly available information offers evidence of the potential for significant changes to the macroeconomic scenario, though without altering the general diagnosis described above. The most recent data on inflation, growth, fiscal policy, and international financial conditions suggests a more dynamic economy than previously expected. However, a third wave of the pandemic has delayed the re-opening of Colombia’s economy and brought with it a deceleration in economic activity. Detailed descriptions of these considerations and subsequent changes to the macroeconomic forecast are presented below. The expected annual decline in GDP (-0.3%) in the first quarter of 2021 appears to have been less pronounced than projected in January (-4.8%). Partial closures in January to address a second wave of COVID-19 appear to have had a less significant negative impact on the economy than previously estimated. This is reflected in figures related to mobility, energy demand, industry and retail sales, foreign trade, commercial transactions from selected banks, and the national statistics agency’s (DANE) economic tracking indicator (ISE). Output is now expected to have declined annually in the first quarter by 0.3%. Private consumption likely continued to recover, registering levels somewhat above those from the previous year, while public consumption likely increased significantly. While a recovery in investment in both housing and in other buildings and structures is expected, overall investment levels in this case likely continued to be low, and gross fixed capital formation is expected to continue to show significant annual declines. Imports likely recovered to again outpace exports, though both are expected to register significant annual declines. Economic activity that outpaced projections, an increase in oil prices and other export products, and an expected increase in public spending this year account for the upward revision to the 2021 growth forecast (from 4.6% with a range between 2% and 6% in January, to 6.0% with a range between 3% and 7% in April). As a result, the output gap is expected to be smaller and to tighten more rapidly than projected in the previous report, though it is still expected to remain in negative territory on the forecast horizon. Wide forecast intervals reflect the fact that the future evolution of the COVID-19 pandemic remains a significant source of uncertainty on these projections. The delay in the recovery of economic activity as a result of the resurgence of COVID-19 in the first quarter appears to have been less significant than projected in the January report. The central forecast scenario expects this improved performance to continue in 2021 alongside increased consumer and business confidence. Low real interest rates and an active credit supply would also support this dynamic, and the overall conditions would be expected to spur a recovery in consumption and investment. Increased growth in public spending and public works based on the national government’s spending plan (Plan Financiero del Gobierno) are other factors to consider. Additionally, an expected recovery in global demand and higher projected prices for oil and coffee would further contribute to improved external revenues and would favor investment, in particular in the oil sector. Given the above, the technical staff’s 2021 growth forecast has been revised upward from 4.6% in January (range from 2% to 6%) to 6.0% in April (range from 3% to 7%). These projections account for the potential for the third wave of COVID-19 to have a larger and more persistent effect on the economy than the previous wave, while also supposing that there will not be any additional significant waves of the pandemic and that mobility restrictions will be relaxed as a result. Economic growth in 2022 is expected to be 3%, with a range between 1% and 5%. This figure would be lower than projected in the January report (3.6% with a range between 2% and 6%), due to a higher base of comparison given the upward revision to expected GDP in 2021. This forecast also takes into account the likely effects on private demand of a fiscal adjustment of the size currently being proposed by the national government, and which would come into effect in 2022. Excess in productive capacity is now expected to be lower than estimated in January but continues to be significant and affected by high levels of uncertainty, as reflected in the wide forecast intervals. The possibility of new waves of the virus (of uncertain intensity and duration) represents a significant downward risk to projected GDP growth, and is signaled by the lower limits of the ranges provided in this report. Inflation (1.51%) and inflation excluding food and regulated items (0.94%) declined in March compared to December, continuing below the 3% target. The decline in inflation in this period was below projections, explained in large part by unanticipated increases in the costs of certain foods (3.92%) and regulated items (1.52%). An increase in international food and shipping prices, increased foreign demand for beef, and specific upward pressures on perishable food supplies appear to explain a lower-than-expected deceleration in the consumer price index (CPI) for foods. An unexpected increase in regulated items prices came amid unanticipated increases in international fuel prices, on some utilities rates, and for regulated education prices. The decline in annual inflation excluding food and regulated items between December and March was in line with projections from January, though this included downward pressure from a significant reduction in telecommunications rates due to the imminent entry of a new operator. When controlling for the effects of this relative price change, inflation excluding food and regulated items exceeds levels forecast in the previous report. Within this indicator of core inflation, the CPI for goods (1.05%) accelerated due to a reversion of the effects of the VAT-free day in November, which was largely accounted for in February, and possibly by the transmission of a recent depreciation of the peso on domestic prices for certain items (electric and household appliances). For their part, services prices decelerated and showed the lowest rate of annual growth (0.89%) among the large consumer baskets in the CPI. Within the services basket, the annual change in rental prices continued to decline, while those services that continue to experience the most significant restrictions on returning to normal operations (tourism, cinemas, nightlife, etc.) continued to register significant price declines. As previously mentioned, telephone rates also fell significantly due to increased competition in the market. Total inflation is expected to continue to be affected by ample excesses in productive capacity for the remainder of 2021 and 2022, though less so than projected in January. As a result, convergence to the inflation target is now expected to be somewhat faster than estimated in the previous report, assuming the absence of significant additional outbreaks of COVID-19. The technical staff’s year-end inflation projections for 2021 and 2022 have increased, suggesting figures around 3% due largely to variation in food and regulated items prices. The projection for inflation excluding food and regulated items also increased, but remains below 3%. Price relief measures on indirect taxes implemented in 2020 are expected to lapse in the second quarter of 2021, generating a one-off effect on prices and temporarily affecting inflation excluding food and regulated items. However, indexation to low levels of past inflation, weak demand, and ample excess productive capacity are expected to keep core inflation below the target, near 2.3% at the end of 2021 (previously 2.1%). The reversion in 2021 of the effects of some price relief measures on utility rates from 2020 should lead to an increase in the CPI for regulated items in the second half of this year. Annual price changes are now expected to be higher than estimated in the January report due to an increased expected path for fuel prices and unanticipated increases in regulated education prices. The projection for the CPI for foods has increased compared to the previous report, taking into account certain factors that were not anticipated in January (a less favorable agricultural cycle, increased pressure from international prices, and transport costs). Given the above, year-end annual inflation for 2021 and 2022 is now expected to be 3% and 2.8%, respectively, which would be above projections from January (2.3% and 2,7%). For its part, expected inflation based on analyst surveys suggests year-end inflation in 2021 and 2022 of 2.8% and 3.1%, respectively. There remains significant uncertainty surrounding the inflation forecasts included in this report due to several factors: 1) the evolution of the pandemic; 2) the difficulty in evaluating the size and persistence of excess productive capacity; 3) the timing and manner in which price relief measures will lapse; and 4) the future behavior of food prices. Projected 2021 growth in foreign demand (4.4% to 5.2%) and the supposed average oil price (USD 53 to USD 61 per Brent benchmark barrel) were both revised upward. An increase in long-term international interest rates has been reflected in a depreciation of the peso and could result in relatively tighter external financial conditions for emerging market economies, including Colombia. Average growth among Colombia’s trade partners was greater than expected in the fourth quarter of 2020. This, together with a sizable fiscal stimulus approved in the United States and the onset of a massive global vaccination campaign, largely explains the projected increase in foreign demand growth in 2021. The resilience of the goods market in the face of global crisis and an expected normalization in international trade are additional factors. These considerations and the expected continuation of a gradual reduction of mobility restrictions abroad suggest that Colombia’s trade partners could grow on average by 5.2% in 2021 and around 3.4% in 2022. The improved prospects for global economic growth have led to an increase in current and expected oil prices. Production interruptions due to a heavy winter, reduced inventories, and increased supply restrictions instituted by producing countries have also contributed to the increase. Meanwhile, market forecasts and recent Federal Reserve pronouncements suggest that the benchmark interest rate in the U.S. will remain stable for the next two years. Nevertheless, a significant increase in public spending in the country has fostered expectations for greater growth and inflation, as well as increased uncertainty over the moment in which a normalization of monetary policy might begin. This has been reflected in an increase in long-term interest rates. In this context, emerging market economies in the region, including Colombia, have registered increases in sovereign risk premiums and long-term domestic interest rates, and a depreciation of local currencies against the dollar. Recent outbreaks of COVID-19 in several of these economies; limits on vaccine supply and the slow pace of immunization campaigns in some countries; a significant increase in public debt; and tensions between the United States and China, among other factors, all add to a high level of uncertainty surrounding interest rate spreads, external financing conditions, and the future performance of risk premiums. The impact that this environment could have on the exchange rate and on domestic financing conditions represent risks to the macroeconomic and monetary policy forecasts. Domestic financial conditions continue to favor recovery in economic activity. The transmission of reductions to the policy interest rate on credit rates has been significant. The banking portfolio continues to recover amid circumstances that have affected both the supply and demand for loans, and in which some credit risks have materialized. Preferential and ordinary commercial interest rates have fallen to a similar degree as the benchmark interest rate. As is generally the case, this transmission has come at a slower pace for consumer credit rates, and has been further delayed in the case of mortgage rates. Commercial credit levels stabilized above pre-pandemic levels in March, following an increase resulting from significant liquidity requirements for businesses in the second quarter of 2020. The consumer credit portfolio continued to recover and has now surpassed February 2020 levels, though overall growth in the portfolio remains low. At the same time, portfolio projections and default indicators have increased, and credit establishment earnings have come down. Despite this, credit disbursements continue to recover and solvency indicators remain well above regulatory minimums. 1.2 Monetary policy decision In its meetings in March and April the BDBR left the benchmark interest rate unchanged at 1.75%.