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1
Brandt, Bjoern, Marion Gemeinert, Ralf Koppert, Jochen Bolte, and Torsten Rabe. "LTCC Substrates for High Performance Strain Gauges." Additional Conferences (Device Packaging, HiTEC, HiTEN, and CICMT) 2012, CICMT (September 1, 2012): 000175–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.4071/cicmt-2012-tp43.
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Recent advances in the development of high gauge factor thin-films for strain gauges prompt the research on advanced substrate materials. A glass ceramic composite has been developed in consideration of a high coefficient of thermal expansion and a low modulus of elasticity for the application as support material for thin-film sensors. Constantan foil strain gauges were fabricated from this material by tape casting, pressure-assisted sintering and subsequent lamination of the metal foil on the planar ceramic substrates. The sensors were mounted on a strain gauge beam arrangement and load curves and creep behavior were evaluated. The accuracy of the assembled load cells correspond to accuracy class C6. That qualifies the load cells for the use in automatic packaging units and confirms the applicability of the LTCC substrates for fabrication of accurate strain gauges. To facilitate the deposition of thin film sensor structures onto the LTCC substrates, the pressure-assisted sintering technology has been refined. By the use of smooth setters instead of release tapes substrates with minimal surface roughness were fabricated. Metallic thin films deposited on these substrates exhibit low surface resistances comparable to thin films on commercial alumina thin-film substrates. The presented advances in material design and manufacturing technology are important to promote the development of high performance thin-film strain gauges.
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Song, Ming, Hui Wang, and Tong Xu. "In-Plane Strain Field Sensor Based on the Semiconductor Film." Materials Science Forum 848 (March 2016): 777–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.848.777.
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The ZnO semiconductor multicrystalline film is utilized as the sensing material, and a sensors array is demonstrated in this paper. Based on the coupling effect of piezoelectric and semiconducting, an ultra-high sensitivity to the deformation is obtained that the gauge factor of the single units is derived up to 199, which is 100 times of that of the commercial foil gage (gauge factor = 2). After calibration on every sensing unit, the distribution of the uniform and non-uniform strain applied on the device is measured and mapped by the sensors array successfully. The results show a good application of the device on the deformation field sensing by contact test method.
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Oerke, Alexa, Christina König, Stephanus Büttgenbach, and Andreas Dietzel. "Investigation of Different Piezoresistive Materials to be Integrated into Micromechanical Force Sensors Based on SU 8 Photoresist." Key Engineering Materials 613 (May 2014): 244–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.613.244.
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The aim of this scientific work is to present different piezoresistive materials suitable to be integrated into micromechanical force sensors. As material for the mechanical structure of the sensors SU-8 has been chosen because it features favorable characteristics, such as flexible and simple fabrication of micro components through the use of standard UV lithography for forming three dimensional geometries such as cantilevers and membranes. In addition, on the basis of a significantly lower Young’s modulus compared to silicon, great opportunities to improve the force sensitivity of such sensors are offered by SU-8.However, SU-8 photoresist does not have piezoresistive properties, and therefore it has to be combined with an additional, beneficial piezoresistive material. A well-controlled and frequently used material for piezoresistive elements is doped silicon. This paper provides an overview of characteristics such as gauge factor and temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) for a variety of commonly used piezoresistive materials, namely metals, silicon, conductive composite materials and diamond-like carbon. As a characteristic factor for the estimated sensitivity of the force sensor, the ratio of the gauge factor k to the Young´s modulus E of the structural material is presented for the different material combinations. A classification of conventional silicon based tactile force sensors is made to build a basis for comparison. Furthermore the suitability of different piezoresistive materials for the integration into an SU 8-based sensor is investigated.
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YAN, JIANWU, and JICHENG ZHOU. "STRAIN SENSITIVITY AND TEMPERATURE INFLUENCE OF NICHROME (80/20 wt.%) THIN FILM FABRICATED BY MAGNETRON SPUTTERING." International Journal of Modern Physics B 21, no. 21 (August 20, 2007): 3719–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0217979207037636.
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The electromechanical properties of nichrome ( Ni – Cr 80/20 wt.%) used as a common material for application in thin film strain gauges have been studied. The surface topography and chemical composition of Ni – Cr thin films grown on the glass substrate by magnetron sputtering have been analyzed by atomic force microscope (AFM) and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), respectively. The temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) has been determined by a Nano-volt/Micro ohm meter. The gauge factor (FG) has been determined by the cantilever method. Low stable TCR values (22 ppm to 46 ppm in the 50–150°C temperature range) have been obtained. Resistance stability is achieved by rapid thermal annealing (RTA) at 300°C for 10 min combined with a 24 h thermal annealing (TA) at 150°C. The desired 45 Ω/m sheet resistance and a gauge factor of 2.6 have been attained for 40-nm-thickness films. The films have very small roughness of 2.1~4.4 nm.
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Mathis, Maximilian, Dennis Vollberg, Matthäus Langosch, Dirk Göttel, Angela Lellig, and Günter Schultes. "Creep adjustment of strain gauges based on granular NiCr-carbon thin films." Journal of Sensors and Sensor Systems 10, no. 1 (March 12, 2021): 53–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/jsss-10-53-2021.
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Abstract. An important property of high-precision mechanical sensors such as force transducers or torque sensors is the so-called creep error. It is defined as the signal deviation over time at a constant load. Since this signal deviation results in a reduced accuracy of the sensor, it is beneficial to minimize the creep error. Many of these sensors consist of a metallic spring element and strain gauges. In order to realize a sensor with a creep error of almost zero, it is necessary to compensate for the creep behavior of the metallic spring element. This can be achieved by creep adjustment of the used strain gauges. Unlike standard metal foil strain gauges with a gauge factor of 2, a type of strain gauges based on sputter-deposited NiCr-carbon thin films on polymer substrates offers the advantage of an improved gauge factor of about 10. However, for this type of strain gauge, creep adjustment by customary methods is not possible. In order to remedy this disadvantage, a thorough creep analysis is carried out. Five major influences on the creep error of force transducers equipped with NiCr-carbon thin-film strain gauges are examined, namely, the material creep of the metallic spring element (1), the creep (relaxation) of the polymer substrate (2), the composition of the thin film (3), the strain transfer to the thin film (4), and the kind of strain field on the surface of the transducer (5). Consequently, we present two applicable methods for creep adjustment of NiCr-carbon thin- film strain gauges. The first method addresses the intrinsic creep behavior of the thin film by a modification of the film composition. With increasing Cr content (at the expense of Ni, the intrinsic negative creep error can be shifted towards zero. The second method is not based on the thin film itself but rather on a modification of the strain transfer from the polyimide carrier to the thin film. This is achieved by controlled cutting of well-defined deep trenches into the polymer substrate via a picosecond laser.
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Naveed, Shayan, Tayyaba Malik, Muhammad Muneer, and Mohammad Ali Mohammad. "A Laser Scribed Graphene Oxide and Polyimide Hybrid Strain Sensor." Key Engineering Materials 778 (September 2018): 169–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.778.169.
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Strain sensors are devices used in applications such as electronic skin, prosthetic limbs, and e-textile applications, etc., for the purpose of measuring the physical elongation of a desired structure under a given or applied force. An artificial throat, using a strain sensor, was recently developed as an aid for speech impaired individuals. Strain sensors have been developed using graphene and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), with a reported gauge factor ranging from (5~120). We have developed a strain sensor through laser scribing. Using laser scribing is a recent and facile technology, used for printed electronics. Complex geometries and patterns can be drawn very easily using this method. The laser scribing method relies on the property of certain materials to form a graphene-like conductive material upon irradiation by lasers. Polyimide and graphene oxide (GO) are two such materials.In these experiments, 2×2 cm sheet of polyimide were taken and printed 1×1 cm box on the sheet using a laser patterning setup of 450 nm wavelength. Graphene oxide solution was drop-casted on the reduced polyimide sheet of 1×1cm, to increase its sensitivity, and then the drop-casted graphene oxide was reduced using the same laser. The strain sensor was characterized by a micro-strain testing machine. The normalized resistance was plotted against strain and the gauge factor was calculated. The effect of the laser intensity was investigated and different gauge factors were calculated by varying the intensity of the laser. The gauge factors were found to be in the range of 49-54 and was compared with the polyimide reduced strain sensor (without drop-casting the GO).
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Gamil, Mohammed, Osamu Tabata, Koichi Nakamura, Ahmed M. R. Fath El-Bab, and Ahmed A. El-Moneim. "Investigation of a New High Sensitive Micro-Electromechanical Strain Gauge Sensor Based on Graphene Piezoresistivity." Key Engineering Materials 605 (April 2014): 207–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.605.207.
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A new strain gauge based on graphene piezoresistivity was fabricated by a novel low cost technique which suits mass production of micro piezoresistor sensors. The strain gauge consists of a monolayer graphene film made by chemical vapor deposition on a copper foil surface, and transferred to Si/SiO2 surface by using a polymethyl-methacrylate (PMMA) assisted transfer method. The film is shaped by laser machine to work as a conductive-piezoresistive material between two deposited electrical silver electrodes. This method of fabrication provides a high productivity due to the homogeneous distribution of the graphene monolayer all over the Si/SiO2 surface. The experimentally measured gauge factor of graphene based device is 255, which promises a new strain gauge sensor of high sensitivity.
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Melnykowycz, Mark, Michael Tschudin, Rebecca Selle, Kelley R. Maynard, Rebecca R. Richards-Kortum, Z. Maria Oden, and Frank J. Clemens. "Soft Condensed Matter Hybrid Fiber Sensors for Vital Function Monitoring." Advances in Science and Technology 100 (October 2016): 79–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/ast.100.79.
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Textile band structures with integrated soft condensed matter sensor (SCMS) can be used as a vital function monitor device to detect pulse wave and breathing on the human body. A textile an elastic band was used as a support material and the U-shaped SCMS fiber sensor was bonded on the surface with elastic band with a liquid rubber bonding material. The sensor signal and gauge factor of the textile sensor structure was investigated using tensile testing experiments. The resistivity of the sensor structure increased linearly within a strain of 10 to 50%, and a slope of 8 (kOhm/% strain) could be detected. The sensor had a gauge factor of 4-5 from 10 to 50% between strain. Using the integrated SCMS sensor textile band around the chest, it was possible to detect talking, normal breathing and coughing. In collaboration with Rice University the textile sensor was tested for proof-of-concept for use in a battery-powered monitor for apnea of premature infants.
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Hu, Li-qun, and Ai-min Sha. "Research on Influence Factor in Semi-rigid Base Course Material Temperature Shrinkage Coefficient Test Using Strain Gauge." Journal of Highway and Transportation Research and Development (English Edition) 2, no. 2 (December 2007): 12–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/jhtrcq.0000186.
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NAGASE, Yasuo, and Yoshiyuki NAKAMURA. "Fatigue Gauge Utilizing Slip Deformation of Aluminum Foil : Effect of Material Factor on the Evolution of Roughness." JSME international journal. Ser. 1, Solid mechanics, strength of materials 35, no. 2 (1992): 247–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1299/jsmea1988.35.2_247.
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Zeiser, R., T. Fellner, and J. Wilde. "Capacitive strain gauges on flexible polymer substrates for wireless, intelligent systems." Journal of Sensors and Sensor Systems 3, no. 1 (April 10, 2014): 77–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/jsss-3-77-2014.
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Abstract. This paper presents a novel capacitive strain gauge with interdigital electrodes, which was processed on polyimide and LCP (liquid crystal polymer) foil substrates. The metallization is deposited and patterned using thin-film technology with structure sizes down to 15 μm. We determined linear strain sensitivities for our sensor configuration and identified the most influencing parameters on the output signal by means of an analytical approach. Finite-element method (FEM) simulations of the strain gauge indicated the complex interaction of mechanical strains within the sensitive structure and their effect on the capacitance. The influence of geometry and material parameters on the strain sensitivity was investigated and optimized. We implemented thin films on 50 μm thick standard polymer foils by means of a temporary bonding process of the foils on carrier wafers. The characterization of the strain sensors after fabrication revealed the gauge factor as well as the cross sensitivities on temperatures up to 100 °C and relative humidity up to 100%. The gauge factor of a sensor with an electrode width of 45 μm and a clearance of 15 μm was −1.38 at a capacitance of 48 pF. Furthermore, we achieved a substantial reduction of the cross sensitivity against humidity from 1435 to 55 ppm %−1 RH when LCP was used for the sensor substrate and the encapsulation instead of polyimide. The gauge factor of a sensor half-bridge consisting of two orthogonal capacitors was 2.3 and the cross sensitivity on temperature was reduced to 240 ppm K−1. Finally, a sensor system was presented that utilizes a special instrumentation Integrated Circuit (IC). For this system, performance data comprising cross sensitivities and power consumption are given.
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Druzhinin, A. O., I. I. Maryamova, and O. P. Kutrakov. "High temperature strain sensors based on gallium phosphide whiskers." Технология и конструирование в электронной аппаратуре, no. 3-4 (2019): 26–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.15222/tkea2019.3-4.26.
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The paper presents a study of tensoresistive characteristics of p-type GaP whiskers with [111] crystallographic orientation coinciding with the direction of the maximal piezoresistive effect for this material. The authors present a newly-developed technology of creating the ohmic contacts to GaP crystals that allows using these crystals at high temperatures (400—600°C). Tensoresistive characteristics of p-type GaP whiskers were studied in the strain range of ±1,2•10–3 rel. un. These studies show that the gauge factor for these crystals at 20°C is rather large. Thus, for p-type GaP crystals with a resistivity of 0.025—0.03 Ω•cm, the gage factor is in the range of 90—95. The study of tensoresistive properties shows that in the temperature range of 20—300°C for p-type GaP crystals with the resistivity of 0,01—0,03 Ω•cm, the gage factor decreases as the temperature rises, but in the temperature range of 300—550°C for this crystals, very slight temperature dependence of the gage factor was observed. In this temperature range, the temperature coefficient of gage factor is no more than –0,03%/°Ñ. In the temperature range of 300—500°C, the value of gage factor is high (40—50). It could be noticed that in the entire investigated temperature range, the strain sensors based on p-type GaP whiskers have the linear resistance vs. strain dependence in the strain range of ±5,0•10–4 rel. un. The developed strain sensors based on p-type GaP whiskers have high mechanical strength at the static and dynamic strain (more than 108 cycles), which makes them operable in dynamic mode.
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Di Benedetto, Francesca, Ciro Esposito, Maria Lucia Protopapa, Emanuela Piscopiello, Marcello Massaro, Gennaro Cassano, Valentino Filiberto, Martino Palmisano, and Leander Tapfer. "Strain gauge properties of Pd+-ion-implanted polymer." Nanomaterials and Nanotechnology 10 (January 1, 2020): 184798042094797. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1847980420947975.
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Pd+ ions (90 keV) were implanted at normal incidence and at room temperature in different highly insulating (>200 GΩ) thermoplastic polymers (poly(methyl methacrylate), polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate glycol-modified, and polycarbonate). At high fluence and optimized process parameters, the ion implantation gives rise to the formation of a nanocomposite thin surface layer constituted by Pd nanoclusters and carbonaceous material (nanographite/amorphous carbon). The morphological, microstructural, and microanalytical properties of the nanocomposite layers were investigated by He-ion microscopy, glancing incidence X-ray diffraction, and Raman scattering, respectively. The electrical properties were characterized by resistance, van der Pauw, and Hall measurements. We performed accurate simultaneous deformation/bending experiments and electrical resistance measurements. We show that the electrical resistance varies linearly with the mechanical deformation (beam deflection) applied. The experimental results are interpreted by “hopping conductivity” model considering the nanostructure configuration of the nanocomposite layers. A gauge factor in the range between 4 and 8, depending on the ion-implanted polymer, was obtained for prototype strain gauge devices.
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Yi, Ying, Bo Wang, and Amine Bermak. "A Low-Cost Strain Gauge Displacement Sensor Fabricated via Shadow Mask Printing." Sensors 19, no. 21 (October 30, 2019): 4713. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s19214713.
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This work presents a cost-effective shadow mask printing approach to fabricate flexible sensors. The liquid-state sensing material can be directly brushed on a flexible substrate through a shadow mask. The ink leakage issue which often occurs in printed electronics is addressed with a custom taping scheme. A simple thermal compression bonding approach is also proposed to package the functional area of the sensor. To verify the feasibility and robustness of the proposed fabrication approach, a prototyped strain gauge displacement sensor is fabricated using carbon ink as the sensing material and a flexible polyimide (PI) film as the substrate. Once the substrate is deformed, cracks in the solidified ink layer can cause an increased resistance in the conductive path, thus achieving function of stable displacement/strain sensing. As a demonstration for displacement sensing application, this sensor is evaluated by studying its real-time resistance response under both static and dynamic mechanical loading. The fabricated sensor shows a comparable performance (with a gauge factor of ~17.6) to those fabricated using costly lithography or inkjet printing schemes, while with a significantly lower production cost.
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NAGASE, Yasuo, and Yoshiyuki NAKAMURA. "Fatigue Gauge Utilizing Slip Deformation of Aluminum Foil. (2nd Report. Effect of Material Factor on the Evolution of Roughness)." Transactions of the Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers Series A 57, no. 538 (1991): 1313–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1299/kikaia.57.1313.
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Li, Xinlin, Rixuan Wang, Leilei Wang, Aizhen Li, Xiaowu Tang, Jungwook Choi, Pengfei Zhang, Ming Liang Jin, and Sang Woo Joo. "Scalable fabrication of carbon materials based silicon rubber for highly stretchable e-textile sensor." Nanotechnology Reviews 9, no. 1 (December 7, 2020): 1183–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2020-0088.
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AbstractDevelopment of stretchable wearable devices requires essential materials with high level of mechanical and electrical properties as well as scalability. Recently, silicone rubber-based elastic polymers with incorporated conductive fillers (metal particles, carbon nanomaterials, etc.) have been shown to the most promising materials for enabling both high electrical performance and stretchability, but the technology to make materials in scalable fabrication is still lacking. Here, we propose a facile method for fabricating a wearable device by directly coating essential electrical material on fabrics. The optimized material is implemented by the noncovalent association of multiwalled carbon nanotube (MWCNT), carbon black (CB), and silicon rubber (SR). The e-textile sensor has the highest gauge factor (GF) up to 34.38 when subjected to 40% strain for 5,000 cycles, without any degradation. In particular, the fabric sensor is fully operational even after being immersed in water for 10 days or stirred at room temperature for 8 hours. Our study provides a general platform for incorporating other stretchable elastic materials, enabling the future development of the smart clothing manufacturing.
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Wejrzanowski, Tomasz, Emil Tymicki, Tomasz Plocinski, Janusz Józef Bucki, and Teck Leong Tan. "Design of SiC-Doped Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor for High-Temperature Applications." Sensors 21, no. 18 (September 10, 2021): 6066. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21186066.
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Within these studies the piezoresistive effect was analyzed for 6H-SiC and 4H-SiC material doped with various elements: N, B, and Sc. Bulk SiC crystals with a specific concentration of dopants were fabricated by the Physical Vapor Transport (PVT) technique. For such materials, the structures and properties were analyzed using X-ray diffraction, SEM, and Hall measurements. The samples in the form of a beam were also prepared and strained (bent) to measure the resistance change (Gauge Factor). Based on the results obtained for bulk materials, piezoresistive thin films on 6H-SiC and 4H-SiC substrate were fabricated by Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD). Such materials were shaped by Focus Ion Beam (FIB) into pressure sensors with a specific geometry. The characteristics of the sensors made from different materials under a range of pressures and temperatures were obtained and are presented herewith.
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Peters, Björn, Johan Mölne, Henrik Hadimeri, Ursula Hadimeri, and Bernd Stegmayr. "Sixteen Gauge biopsy needles are better and safer than 18 Gauge in native and transplant kidney biopsies." Acta Radiologica 58, no. 2 (July 20, 2016): 240–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0284185116641349.
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Background Kidney biopsies are essential for optimal diagnosis and treatment. Purpose To examine if quality and safety aspects differ between types and sizes of biopsy needles in native and transplant kidneys. Material and Methods A total of 1299 consecutive biopsies (1039 native and 260 transplant kidneys) were included. Diagnostic quality, needle size and type, clinical data and complications were registered. Eight-three percent of the data were prospective. Results In native kidney biopsies, 16 Gauge (G) needles compared to 18 G showed more glomeruli per pass (11 vs. 8, P < 0.001) with less complications. Sub-analysis in native kidney biopsies revealed that 18 G 19-mm side-notch needles resulted in more major (11.3% vs. 3%; odds ratio [OR], 4.1; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.4–12.3) and overall complications (12.4% vs. 4.8%; OR, 2.8; 95% CI, 1.1–7.1) in women than in men. If the physician had performed less compared to more than four native kidney biopsies per year, minor (3.5% vs. 1.4%; OR, 2.6; 95% CI, 1.1–6.2) and overall complications (11.5% vs. 7.4%; OR, 1.6; 95% CI, 1.1–2.5) were more common. In transplant kidney biopsies, 16 G needles compared to 18 G resulted in more glomeruli per pass (12 vs. 8, P < 0.001). No differences existed in frequency of biopsy complications. The localization of performing biopsies was not a risk factor to develop complications. Conclusion Kidney biopsies taken by 16 G needles result in better histological quality and lower frequency of complications compared to 18 G. For native kidney biopsies the performer of the biopsy should do at least four biopsies per year.
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Bersten, A. D., D. R. G. Williams, and G. D. Phillips. "Central Venous Catheter Stiffness and its Relation to Vascular Perforation." Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 16, no. 3 (August 1988): 342–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0310057x8801600317.
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Delayed central venous perforation is an uncommon but serious complication of central venous catheter insertion. An increase in catheter stiffness may have been responsible for our association of venous perforation with use of a guidewire insertion technique. A bench model was used to investigate the stiffness characteristics of thirty-four different types of catheters. The initial stiffness is poorly described by material or catheter gauge. A large range of values is seen between apparently similar catheters — the 16 gauge polyethylene catheter associated with two perforations at our institution had an initial stiffness value 7.5 Nm 2 X 10 -5 at 37°C in comparison with our previous standard—the 16 gauge Deseret Intracath with an initial stiffness of 2 Nm2 X 10 -5. Multilumen catheters had a similar range of stiffness to single lumen catheters, while paediatric catheters in general were less stiff. Dialysis catheters were up to five times as stiff as the stiffest central venous catheter. Stiffness decayed at a rate and to an extent which differed from catheter to catheter. Absorption of water by the catheter appears to be one factor involved in stress relaxation.
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Sekertekin, Yeter, Ibrahim Bozyel, and Dincer Gokcen. "A Flexible and Low-Cost Tactile Sensor Produced by Screen Printing of Carbon Black/PVA Composite on Cellulose Paper." Sensors 20, no. 10 (May 21, 2020): 2908. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s20102908.
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This study presents the design and fabrication of a flexible tactile sensor printed on a cellulose paper substrate using a carbon black (CB) – filled polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) polymer matrix as ink material. In the design, electrodes are obtained by screen printing of CB/PVA composite on dielectric cellulose paper. The screen-printing method is preferred for fabrication because of its simplicity and low manufacturing cost. The tactile sensor is formed by overlapping two ink-printed sheets. Electrical properties are investigated under compressive and tensile strains. The results indicate that the tactile sensor configuration and materials can be used for piezoresistive, capacitive, and also impedance sensors. The same tactile sensor structure is also examined using a commercial carbon-based ink for performance comparison. The comparative study indicates that CB/PVA ink screen-printed on paper demonstrates superior sensitivity for capacitive sensing with low hysteresis, as well as low response and recovery times. The piezoresistive-sensing properties of CB/PVA on cellulose paper show a gauge factor (GF) of 10.68, which is also very promising when conventional metal strain gauges are considered. CB/PVA screen-printed on cellulose paper features impedance-sensing properties and is also sensitive to the measurement frequency. Therefore, the response type of the sensor can be altered with the frequency.
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Sugiura, Takaya, Naoki Takahashi, and Nobuhiko Nakano. "Evaluation of p-Type 4H-SiC Piezoresistance Coefficients in (0001) Plane Using Numerical Simulation." Materials Science Forum 1004 (July 2020): 249–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.1004.249.
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A numerical simulation of p-type 4H-Silicon Carbide (4H-SiC) piezoresistance coefficients in (0001) plane evaluation is shown in this study. A 4H-SiC material has outstanding material characteristics of wide band-gap of 3.26 eV and high temperature robustness. However, many material properties of 4H-SiC material are still unknown, including piezoresistance coefficients. Piezoresistive effect is resistivity change when mechanical stress is applied to the material. Piezoresistance coefficients express the magnitude of this effect, important for designing a mechanical stress sensor. In this study, reported piezoresistance coefficients of p-type 4H-SiC in (0001) plane is evaluated based on numerical simulation. The simulated results of Gauge Factor (GF) values (determined by (ΔR/R)/ε (R is the resistance and ε is the strain of material)) well matched to the theoretical GF values (determined by πE (π is the piezoresistance coefficient and E is Young’s modulus of the material)), shows that reported piezoresistance coefficients are reliable. Also, the internal mappings of piezoresistive effect from the numerical simulation are shown, useful to understand piezoresistive effect which is difficult to see by experimental results.
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Klubovich, V. V., M. M. Kulak, V. G. Samolyotov, and B. B. Khina. "Producing wear-resistant materials by SHS-casting with the application of centrifugal forces." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Physical-Technical Series 64, no. 3 (October 6, 2019): 275–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.29235/1561-8358-2019-64-3-275-285.
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The paper is devoted to the problem of producing hard, wear-resistant materials by SHS-casting using centrifugal forces. We have developed a device for centrifugal SHS casting and initial compositions of the reactive iron-base charge. A technology for producing coatings, materials and final products with a non-uniform distribution of strengthening particles over the specimen volume has been developed and tested in industrial conditions. The microstructure and phase composition of the synthesized material with a non-uniform distribution of reinforcing particles is studied. The synthesized material implements the Charpy principle: dispersed hard carbide particles are distributed in a relatively soft matrix, which ensures high wear resistance. By means of SHS casting, billets were obtained for producing a measurement instrument, namely a plug-type gauge, which successfully passed industrial tests at OJSC “VIZAS”. The tests shown that the hardness of all synthesized samples was in the range from 63 to 68 HRC and the number of measurements per 1 micron of wear on a diameter of15 mm was 2500 to 2700. Hence, the developed method made it possible to significantly increase the service life of the measuring tool: by a factor of 1.5 to 2.
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Ramalingame, Rajarajan, Jose Roberto Bautista-Quijano, Danrlei de Farias Alves, and Olfa Kanoun. "Temperature Self-Compensated Strain Sensors based on MWCNT-Graphene Hybrid Nanocomposite." Journal of Composites Science 3, no. 4 (November 7, 2019): 96. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jcs3040096.
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Sensors based on carbon nanomaterials are gaining importance due to their tunable properties and their potentially outstanding sensing performance. Despite their advantages, carbon-based nanomaterial sensors are prone to cross-sensitivities with environmental factors like temperature. Thus, to reduce the temperature influence on the sensing material, compensation and correction procedures are usually considered. These methods may require the use of additional sensors which can themselves be subject to residual errors. Hence, a more promising approach consists of synthesizing a material that is capable of self-compensating for the influence of temperature. In this study, a hybrid nanocomposite based on multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) and graphene is proposed, which can compensate, by itself, for the influence of temperature on the material conductivity. The hybrid nanocomposite material uses the different temperature behavior of MWCNTs, which have a negative temperature coefficient, and graphene, which has a positive temperature coefficient. The influence of the material ratio and dispersion quality are investigated in this work. Material composition and dispersion quality are analyzed using Raman spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). A composition of 70% graphene and 30% MWCNT exhibits a nearly temperature-independent hybrid nanocomposite with a sensitivity of 0.022 Ω/°C, corresponding to a resistance change of ~1.2 Ω for a temperature range of 25 to 80 °C. Additionally, a simple investigation of the strain sensing behavior of the hybrid material is also presented. The hybrid nanocomposite-based, thin-film strain sensor exhibits good stability over 100 cycles and a significantly high gauge factor, i.e., 16.21.
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Zymelka, Daniel, Takahiro Yamashita, Xiuru Sun, and Takeshi Kobayashi. "Printed Strain Sensors Based on an Intermittent Conductive Pattern Filled with Resistive Ink Droplets." Sensors 20, no. 15 (July 28, 2020): 4181. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s20154181.
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In this study, we demonstrate a strain sensor fabricated as a hybrid structure of a conductive intermittent pattern with embedded single droplets of a functional resistive ink. The main feature of our proposed sensor design is that although the intermittent pattern comprises the majority of the entire sensor area, the strain sensitivity depends almost selectively on the resistive droplets. This opens up the possibility for fast and inexpensive evaluation of sensors manufactured from various functional materials. As the use of resistive ink was limited to single droplets deposition, the required ink amount needed to build a sensor can be considerably reduced. This makes the sensors cost-effective and simple for fabrication. In this study, our proposed sensor design was evaluated when a carbon-based ink was used as the resistive material incorporated into an intermittent structure made of silver. The developed strain sensors were tested during bending deformations demonstrating good strain sensitivity (gauge factor: 7.71) and no hysteresis within the investigated strain range.
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Zeiser, Roderich, Suleman Ayub, Jochen Hempel, Michael Berndt, and Juergen Wilde. "Mechanical Stress Analyses of Packaged Pressure Sensors for Very High Temperatures." Journal of Microelectronics and Electronic Packaging 11, no. 1 (January 1, 2014): 30–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.4071/imaps.399.
Full textAbstract:
Methods for investigations of stresses specialized for devices operating up to 500°C are presented in this study. Resistive pressure sensors and test chips with microstrain (μ-strain) gauges are processed in thin film technology. The sensor structure was a Wheatstone bridge on a silicon membrane with platinum resistors. The μ-strain gauges were characterized with tensile tests in combination with optical strain measurements. A gauge factor of 3.6 was measured at room temperature. After characterization as bare dice, the chips were mounted with a borosilicate glass solder on two ceramic substrates, AlN and Si3N4. We generated a FE model of the sensor assemblies including temperature-dependent material properties. The distribution of mechanical strains and stresses in the sensor was analyzed. The chip warpage dependent on temperature up to 500°C was obtained from FE simulations and compared with high-precision 3D deformation measurements. Deformation results from digital image correlation (DIC) verified the utilized FE model. The correlation of experimental results for the chip warpage exhibited good agreement with the numerical results obtained from FEM. The chip deflection from the center to the edges in the out-of-plane direction on AlN was 4.5 μm; on Si3N4 a concave warpage of 3 μm at 25°C was found. Temperature-induced deformations of the sensor chip in the range of micrometers were recorded up to 500°C. The output signal of the pressure sensors is strongly affected by superimposed strains based on the sensor assembly. The bridge voltage increased by 40% after the glass solder process on AlN and by 34% for devices on Si3N4. The analysis of the μ-strain gauges showed compressive strains in the sensor membrane of −1.39% on average for assemblies on AlN and of −0.168% for glass soldered chips on Si3N4. The FEM simulations revealed an average in-plane stress in the sensor membrane of −45 MPa for chips on AlN and −20 MPa for Si3N4 substrates. The compressive strains in the membrane obtained by FEM were verified by the μ-strain gauge measurements. A higher strain and stress gradient in the membrane of devices on AlN was found with FEM, which is consistent with the higher signal offset of assembled pressure sensors that was measured in this study.
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Inoue, Tadahisa, Toyonori Tsuzuki, Taishi Takahara, Mayu Ibusuki, Rena Kitano, Yuji Kobayashi, Tomohiko Ohashi, et al. "Prospective evaluation of 25-gauge Franseen needles for endoscopic ultrasound-guided fine-needle biopsy of solid pancreatic masses." Endoscopy International Open 08, no. 04 (March 23, 2020): E566—E570. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/a-1119-6673.
Full textAbstract:
Abstract Background and study aims The ideal puncture needle for endoscopic ultrasound (EUS)-guided sampling is maneuverable and easy to puncture with, and can obtain sufficient material in almost one pass. The novel 25-gauge Franseen needle may provide a good balance between maneuverability and sample yield. Patients and methods Between July 2017 and December 2018, 116 patients with solid pancreatic masses were prospectively enrolled and investigated. We evaluated the diagnostic yield associated with using the 25-gauge Franseen needle for EUS-guided sampling of pancreatic masses. Results The technical success rate was 100 % (116/116). The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value, and accuracy for malignancy were 98 % (105/107), 100 % (9/9), 100 % (105/105), 82 % (9/11), and 98 % (114/116), respectively. Cumulative sensitivities for malignancy were 87 % (93/107) on pass 1, 97 % (104/107) on pass 2, and 98 % (105/107) on pass 3, respectively, with no increase in sensitivity after 4 or more. An adequate specimen for histological assessment was obtained in 79 % (92/116) of cases. Multivariate logistic analyses showed that lesion size smaller than 13 mm was a risk factor for failure of obtaining an adequate specimen for histological assessment (P = 0.010) Conclusions The novel 25-gauge Franseen needle showed excellent diagnostic yield for solid pancreatic masses. However, its ability to obtain an adequate specimen for histological assessment may still be insufficient, especially when dealing with small lesions.
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Karapepas, Christos, Daisy Nestler, and Guntram Wagner. "Influence of Sputtering Temperature and Layer Thickness on the Electrical Performance of Thin Film Strain Sensors Consisting of Nickel-Carbon Composite." Key Engineering Materials 809 (June 2019): 413–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.809.413.
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Hybrid laminates consisting of fibre-reinforced thermoplastic films and metallic thin sheets are successively replacing thermoset based systems due to their obvious advantages of higher formability and aptitude for mass production. In order to monitor the material under operating conditions, hybrid laminates need to be equipped with smart sensor units. Artifact-free integration of commercial strain gauges into hybrid laminates is almost impossible. Therefore, a new thin film strain sensor based on a PVD sputtering process was developed.The aim of this work was to evaluate the influence of the layer thickness as well as the elevated temperature during the sputtering process on the electrical performance of Ni-C strain sensors. The Ni-C films with different layer thickness and different sputtering temperatures manufactured by means of a magnetron sputtering process were investigated for the sheet resistance and the change of temperature coefficients of resistance. In addition, Raman spectroscopy was utilized to investigate the phase development with regard to different sputtering temperatures. It can be seen that the gauge factor gets doubled while optimizing the layer thickness. When the sputtering temperature was increased, the graphitic phase formation was preferred and the impurities were reduced. These results are discussed in this paper and appropriate solution concepts are provided.
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Chen, J. M., M. Parameswaran, and M. Paranjape. "Piezoresistance characterization of commercial CMOS gate polysilicon and its application in biomass microsensors." Canadian Journal of Physics 74, S1 (December 1, 1996): 151–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/p96-850.
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This paper presents experimental results on the piezoresistance characterization of gate polysilicon available from two commercial CMOS processes. It is shown that the gate polysilicon is very strain-sensitive, and a gauge factor of about 25 can be readily achieved. This value can allow standard gate polysilicon to be used as a strain-sensing element for integrated microsensor applications. As an example, a sub-nanogram mass sensor was fabricated using commercially available CMOS technology and is presented. The device incorporates gate polysilicon of the CMOS process as the sensing material, and is subjected to low levels of strain in order to measure small masses (< 10−9 g). A potential application for this sensor is to monitor the growth of biological cell cultures in a liquid environment.
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Mirza, M. Waseem, Richard A. Graul, Jonathan L. Groeger, and Aramis Lopez. "Theoretical Evaluation of Poisson's Ratio and Elastic Modulus Using Indirect Tensile Test with Emphasis on Bituminous Mixtures." Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 1590, no. 1 (January 1997): 34–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.3141/1590-05.
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The theoretical fundamentals used in evaluating Poisson's ratio and elastic modulus of materials using the indirect diametral tensile test are evaluated. With the current state of practice (ASTM D4123), the material properties are evaluated by the two-dimensional stress equations for a circular element supporting short-strip loading along the vertical diameter. Because of the inability of these equations to study misalignment of the specimen, the planar solution is analyzed. The analysis of the above two approaches indicates that the material properties predicted are relatively insensitive to specimen size and misalignment. However, the influence of aggregate inclusions in the vertical plane may cause significant propagation of errors in the vertical measurements outside the central half-radius that significantly affects the value of the predicted Poisson's ratio. The influence of aggregate inclusions in the horizontal plane does not appear to be a significant factor contributing in the horizontal displacement variations. Thus, determination of the elastic modulus from horizontal displacements alone has great potential in providing consistent, reasonable results with an assumed Poisson's ratio. In addition, a means of estimating the magnitude of the displacements and the required sensitivity of the measuring devices based upon expected Poisson's ratio and gauge length is presented. Finally, test control parameters based upon the ratio of vertical to horizontal deformations have been developed to check if the material being tested is within the elastic range as the test progresses.
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Handa, Tsunehisa, Kimihiro Nishimura, Hiroshi Shiomi, and Seishi Tsuyama. "Brittle Crack Propagation/Arrest Behavior in T-Joint Structure of Heavy Gauge Steel Plates." Materials Science Forum 706-709 (January 2012): 914–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.706-709.914.
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Brittle crack arrestability is extremely important in welded joints of heavy gauge steel plates used in large container ships. Recently, much attention has been focused on potential crack propagation along welds using large heat input. This paper examines the application of a T-joint to the strength deck structure of container ships to enhance crack arrestability. The crack arrest toughness, Kca, for crack arrest was varied. The ESSO test of T-joint components showed that brittle crack was arrested at the T-joint if the steel plate used for the flange had a high Kca value in the range from 4900 to 7300N/mm3/2. FE-analysis of the stress intensity factor K indicated that brittle crack propagation was arrested under the condition that the K-value at the running crack tip was less than the Kca of the material. In the T-joint, it was noted that the K-value around the area of the deepest point of the crack decreased and was finally less than the Kca of the flange plate when the brittle crack penetrated suddenly into the flange plate to a 10mm depth. This phenomenon shows the advantage of using a T-joint for brittle crack arrest in the flange plates of strength deck structures.
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Hong, Se-Hee, Tian-Feng Yuan, Jin-Seok Choi, and Young-Soo Yoon. "Effects of Steelmaking Slag and Moisture on Electrical Properties of Concrete." Materials 13, no. 12 (June 12, 2020): 2675. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma13122675.
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Strain sensors can indicate the conditions of concrete structures, but these sensors are only capable of measuring local behaviors of materials. To solve this problem, researchers have introduced conductive materials that can monitor the overall behavior of concrete structures. Steelmaking slag, which contains large amounts of iron oxide (Fe2O3), is conductive, and researchers have considered the addition of this material to improve concrete monitoring. In this study, mechanical and electrical properties of concrete containing steelmaking slag as a binder were evaluated. As the incorporation of steelmaking slag increased, the setting times were delayed, but the compressive strengths were similar within the replacement ratio of 15%. It was found that the addition of steelmaking slag with Fe2O3, the main ingredient of magnetite (Fe3O4), improved the electrical resistivity, piezoresistivity, and sensitivity of the concrete. Drying of the concretes resulted in an increase in electrical resistance and fractional change in resistivity (FCR). Expansion of steelmaking slag, due to contacting of free CaO and moisture under repeated loads, resulted in cracks in the concrete and affected the gauge factor (GF). This study demonstrates the possibility that the addition of steelmaking slag as a binder may provide an economical and environmentally-friendly solution to concrete strain monitoring.
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De Meo, Enea, Simone Agnelli, Antonino Veca, Valentia Brunella, and Marco Zanetti. "Piezoresistive and mechanical Behavior of CNT based polyurethane foam." Journal of Composites Science 4, no. 3 (September 6, 2020): 131. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jcs4030131.
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Carbon nanotubes (CNT) embedded into a polymeric foam demonstrate an enhancement in electrical and mechanical properties of the final nanocomposite. The enhanced material with new characteristics, e.g., piezoresistivity, can be substituted with the traditional metallic material to design sensors, switches, and knobs directly into a single multifunctional component. Research activities in this field are moving towards a mono-material fully integrated smarts components. In order to achieve this goal, a simple method is developed to produce piezoresistive polyurethane/CNT foams. The novelty consists in applying the dispersion of CNT considering industrial production constrains, in order to facilitate its introduction into a common industrial practice. Three kinds of PU-CNT foam have been prepared and tested: PU-CNT 1.5%, PU-CNT-COOH 1.0%, and PU-CNT-COOH 1.5%. Polyurethane with CNT-COOH showed an insulating-conductive transition phenomenon when the foam reaches the 80% of its compression strain with a Gauge factor (Gf) of about 30. Instead, PU-CNT showed conductivity only at 1.5% of filler concentration and a steady piezoresistive behavior with a Gf of 80. However, this samples did not show the insulating-conductive transition. Having improved the electromechanical properties of final nanocomposite polyurethane foam demonstrates that the proposed method can be applied differently for design sensors and switches.
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Kanakaraj, P., R. R. Ramachandran, and B. S. Dasaradan. "Development of Multi-Layer Fabric on a Flat Knitting Machine." Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics 9, no. 2 (June 2014): 155892501400900. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/155892501400900203.
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The loop transfer technique was used to develop the a splitable multi layer knit fabric on a computerized multi gauge flat knitting machine. The fabric consists of three layers: inner-single jersey, middle-1×1 purl and, outer-single jersey. By varying the loop length the multi layer knit fabric samples were produced, namely CCC-1, CCC-2 and CCC-3. The above multi layer fabrics were knitted using 24s Ne cotton of combined yarn feed in feeders 3, 4, and 4 respectively. The influence of loop length on wpc, cpc and tightness factor was studied using linear regression. The water vapor and air permeability properties of the produced multi layer knit fabrics were studied using ANOVA. The change of raw material in three individual layers could be useful for the production of fabric for functional, technical, and industrial applications.
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Wu, Zhiqiang, Jun Wei, Rongzhen Dong, and Hao Chen. "Epoxy Composites with Reduced Graphene Oxide–Cellulose Nanofiber Hybrid Filler and Their Application in Concrete Strain and Crack Monitoring." Sensors 19, no. 18 (September 13, 2019): 3963. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s19183963.
Full textAbstract:
Advances in nanotechnology have provided approaches for the fabrication of new composite materials for sensing. Flexible sensors can make up for the shortcomings of traditional strain sensors in monitoring the surface strain and cracks of concrete structures. Using reduced graphene oxide (RGO) as a conductive filler, cellulose nanofiber (CNF) as a dispersant and structural skeleton, and waterborne epoxy (WEP) as a polymer matrix, a flexible composite material with piezoresistive effect was prepared by the solution blending and solvent evaporation method. The mechanical, electrical, and electromechanical properties of the composite were investigated. The results show that CNF can significantly improve the dispersion of RGO in the WEP matrix and help to form stable reinforcing and conductive networks, leading to great changes in the mechanical properties and resistivity of the composite. The composite film can withstand large deformations (>55% strain), and the resistance change rate demonstrates a high sensitivity to mechanical strain with a gauge factor of 34–71. Within a 4% strain range, the piezoresistive property of the composite is stable with good linearity and repeatability. The performance of the flexible film sensor made of the composite is tested and it can monitor the strain and crack of the concrete surface well.
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Francavilla, Paola, Diana P. Ferreira, Joana C. Araújo, and Raul Fangueiro. "Smart Fibrous Structures Produced by Electrospinning Using the Combined Effect of PCL/Graphene Nanoplatelets." Applied Sciences 11, no. 3 (January 26, 2021): 1124. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app11031124.
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Over the years, the development of adaptable monitoring systems to be integrated into soldiers’ body gear, making them as comfortable and lightweight as possible (avoiding the use of rigid electronics), has become essential. Electrospun microfibers are a great material for this application due to their excellent properties, especially their flexibility and lightness. Their functionalization with graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) makes them a fantastic alternative for the development of innovative conductive materials. In this work, electrospun membranes based on polycaprolactone (PCL) were impregnated with different GNPs concentrations in order to create an electrically conductive surface with piezoresistive behavior. All the samples were properly characterized, demonstrating the homogeneous distribution and the GNPs’ adsorption onto the membrane’s surfaces. Additionally, the electrical performance of the developed systems was studied, including the electrical conductivity, piezoresistive behavior, and Gauge Factor (GF). A maximum electrical conductivity value of 0.079 S/m was obtained for the 2%GNPs-PCL sample. The developed piezoresistive sensor showed high sensitivity to external pressures and excellent durability to repetitive pressing. The best value of GF (3.20) was obtained for the membranes with 0.5% of GNPs. Hence, this work presents the development of a flexible piezoresistive sensor, based on electrospun PCL microfibers and GNPs, utilizing simple methods.
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Lemartinel, Antoine, Mickaël Castro, Olivier Fouché, Julio-César De Luca, and Jean-François Feller. "Strain Mapping and Damage Tracking in Carbon Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Composites during Dynamic Bending Until Fracture with Quantum Resistive Sensors in Array." Journal of Composites Science 5, no. 2 (February 20, 2021): 60. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jcs5020060.
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The sustained development of wind energies requires a dramatic rising of turbine blade size especially for their off-shore implantation, which requires as well composite materials with higher performances. In this context, the monitoring of the health of these structures appears essential to decrease maintenance costs, and produce a cheaper kwh. Thus, the input of quantum resistive sensors (QRS) arrays, to monitor the strain gradient in area of interest and anticipate damage in the core of composite structures, without compromising their mechanical properties, sounds promising. QRS are nanostructured strain and damage sensors, transducing strain at the nanoscale into a macroscopic resistive signal for a consumption of only some µW. QRS can be positioned on the surface or in the core of the composite material between plies, and this homogeneously as they are made of the same resin as the composite. The embedded QRS had a gauge factor of 3, which was found more than enough to follow the strain from 0.01% to 1.4% at the final failure. The spatial deployment of four QRS in array made possible for the first time the experimental visualization of a strain field comparable to the numerical simulation. QRS proved also to be able to memorize damage accumulation within the sample and thus could be used to attest the mechanical history of composites.
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Mishra, Meena Kumari, Manjeev Guragain, Smriti Narayan Thakur, and Sanjeeb Chaudhary. "Proportions of maxillary anterior teeth relative to each other and to golden standard in Chitwan Medical College." Journal of Chitwan Medical College 8, no. 1 (March 31, 2018): 14–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/jcmc.v8i1.23710.
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Introduction: One of the most important aspects of aesthetic dentistry while restoring or replacing maxillary anterior teeth is the creation of harmonious proportion between the widths of them. The appearance of anterior teeth is critical for an attractive face and pleasing smile. The dimensional determination of maxillary anterior teeth is an important factor for both, esthetic and function.
Materials and Methods: This study was conducted in 140 dentate subjects. Out of the 140 subjects, 70 (50%) were males and 70 (50%) were females. The age of the patients in this study ranged from 18 to 50 years. Maxillary impressions of selected subjects were made with an irreversible hydrocolloid impression material. The mesiodistal width of the maxillary anterior teeth was measured from the casts with a Boley gauge.
Results: The mean width ratios were 0.83 for right LI/CI and 0.85 for left LI/CI, 1.12 for right CN/LI and 1.1 for left CN/LI in total population. The mean width ratios in male group were 0.83 for right LI/CI and 0.87 for left LI/CI, 1.14 for right CN/ LI and 1.1 for left CN/LI. Similarly, in female group the mean width ratios were 0.82 for right LI/CI and 0.83 for left LI/CI, 1.1 for right CN/LI and 1.1 for left CN/LI.
Conclusion: In the evaluation of LI/CI, CN/LI, WLRs golden proportion was not found in left and right for both sexes.
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Koppert, Ralf. "NiC: a highly sensitive functional layer based on a nickel/graphene thin film for pressure and force sensors." Additional Conferences (Device Packaging, HiTEC, HiTEN, and CICMT) 2015, CICMT (September 1, 2015): 000208–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.4071/cicmt-wp11.
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A functional layer based on nickel and graphene called NiC was developed with the goal of a high strain sensitivity in combination with an adjustable temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR). A gauge factor up to 30 and TCR values of approximately 0±25 ppm/K can be achieved by variation of the film composition. Based on the increased sensitivity the important pressure range of below 2.5 bar is opened up for steel membrane pressure sensors without the need of a sophisticated technical effort. First pressure and force sensors with NiC functional layers were realized in order to demonstrate the high performance of this new material. The enlarged sensitivity of the film leads to a complex re-development of the microsystems “pressure and force sensors” in order to take the advantage of the high linearity, low hysteresis, high overload protection and stability. Due to the high sensitivity, it is possible to produce sensors with significantly increased stability values in the overload region. Using the same output voltage range as usual with NiCr thin film elements, the overload capability of the sensors with the new functional layer is about twenty times the characteristic value of NiCr sensors. On the other hand, the low pressure range is opened up since the membrane needs to be deformed only one tenth of its usual value. Because of this low stress the load cycle stability increases accordingly. Additionally base body materials like 1.4435 (316L), which are not very suitable for the production of pressure sensor membranes, can be used for example for hydrogen applications.
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Chen, Huamin, Longfeng Lv, Jiushuang Zhang, Shaochun Zhang, Pengjun Xu, Chuanchuan Li, Zhicheng Zhang, Yuliang Li, Yun Xu, and Jun Wang. "Enhanced Stretchable and Sensitive Strain Sensor via Controlled Strain Distribution." Nanomaterials 10, no. 2 (January 27, 2020): 218. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano10020218.
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Stretchable and wearable opto-electronics have attracted worldwide attention due to their broad prospects in health monitoring and epidermal applications. Resistive strain sensors, as one of the most typical and important device, have been the subject of great improvements in sensitivity and stretchability. Nevertheless, it is hard to take both sensitivity and stretchability into consideration for practical applications. Herein, we demonstrated a simple strategy to construct a highly sensitive and stretchable graphene-based strain sensor. According to the strain distribution in the simulation result, highly sensitive planar graphene and highly stretchable crumpled graphene (CG) were rationally connected to effectively modulate the sensitivity and stretchability of the device. For the stretching mode, the device showed a gauge factor (GF) of 20.1 with 105% tensile strain. The sensitivity of the device was relatively high in this large working range, and the device could endure a maximum tensile strain of 135% with a GF of 337.8. In addition, in the bending mode, the device could work in outward and inward modes. This work introduced a novel and simple method with which to effectively monitor sensitivity and stretchability at the same time. More importantly, the method could be applied to other material categories to further improve the performance.
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Kang, Ting-Kuo. "Inkjet Printing of Highly Sensitive, Transparent, Flexible Linear Piezoresistive Strain Sensors." Coatings 11, no. 1 (January 5, 2021): 51. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/coatings11010051.
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Flexible strain sensors are fabricated by using a simple and low-cost inkjet printing technology of graphene-PEDOT:PSS (poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate)) conductive ink. The inkjet-printed thin-film resistors on a polyethylene terephthalate (PET) substrate exhibit an excellent optical transmittance of about 90% over a visible wavelength range from 400 to 800 nm. While an external mechanical strain is applied to thin-film resistors as strain sensors, a gauge factor (GF) of the piezoresistive (PR) strain sensors can be evaluated. To improve the GF value of the PR strain sensors, a high resistive (HR) path caused by the phase segregation of the PEDOT:PSS polymer material is, for the first time, proposed to be perpendicular to the PR strain sensing direction. The increase in the GF with the increase in the HR number of the PR strain sensors without a marked hysteresis is found. The result can be explained by the tunneling effect with varied initial tunneling distances and tunneling barriers due to the increase in the number of HR. Finally, a high GF value of approximately 165 of three HR paths is obtained with a linear output signal at the strain range from 0% to 0.33%, further achieving for the inkjet printing of highly sensitive, transparent, and flexible linear PR strain sensors.
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Liu, Lu, Libo Wang, Xuqing Liu, Wenfeng Yuan, Mengmeng Yuan, Qixun Xia, Qianku Hu, and Aiguo Zhou. "High-Performance Wearable Strain Sensor Based on MXene@Cotton Fabric with Network Structure." Nanomaterials 11, no. 4 (March 31, 2021): 889. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano11040889.
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Flexible and comfortable wearable electronics are as a second skin for humans as they can collect the physiology of humans and show great application in health and fitness monitoring. MXene Ti3C2Tx have been used in flexible electronic devices for their unique properties such as high conductivity, excellent mechanical performance, flexibility, and good hydrophilicity, but less research has focused on MXene-based cotton fabric strain sensors. In this work, a high-performance wearable strain sensor composed of two-dimensional (2D) MXene d-Ti3C2Tx nanomaterials and cotton fabric is reported. Cotton fabrics were selected as substrate as they are comfortable textiles. As the active material in the sensor, MXene d-Ti3C2Tx exhibited an excellent conductivity and hydrophilicity and adhered well to the fabric fibers by electrostatic adsorption. The gauge factor of the MXene@cotton fabric strain sensor reached up to 4.11 within the strain range of 15%. Meanwhile, the sensor possessed high durability (>500 cycles) and a low strain detection limit of 0.3%. Finally, the encapsulated strain sensor was used to detect subtle or large body movements and exhibited a rapid response. This study shows that the MXene@cotton fabric strain sensor reported here have great potential for use in flexible, comfortable, and wearable devices for health monitoring and motion detection.
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Shen, Zhenzhen, and Aleksey Reiderman. "Additive Manufacturing for Multi-chip Modules." International Symposium on Microelectronics 2018, no. 1 (October 1, 2018): 000760–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.4071/2380-4505-2018.1.000760.
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Abstract The implementation of microelectronics, also known as multi-chip modules (MCM), is extensive in automotive, downhole and aerospace applications. MCMs have already demonstrated high-temperature performance, step improvement in reliability, and the potential to reduce product cost through miniaturization and integration of more functions. However, there are barriers preventing wider adoption of MCM technology in downhole applications. High non-recurring expenditures (NRE) charges increase development costs. Long substrate lead times prolong the time to market. Lengthy design iterations make it difficult to apply lean startup methodology to accelerate innovation. The main factor that leads to high NRE and long lead times is the complexity of substrate manufacturing processes. Together with assembly, MCM manufacturing comprises at least 11 steps, 6 different materials, 10 or more different machines, and requires a minimum of 6 supporting employees. A new concept proposes a simplified process to reduce labor and expenses. With best implementation, this process would require only a single machine capable of cycling through 3-step process of dispensing, placement and cure. Despite the dramatically simplified process, the constructional complexity of circuits can still be very high, such as a 3D multilayer MCM. In this paper, this concept was evaluated, micro-dispensing equipment was used to create basic circuitry blocks. Different materials to create conductive traces, isolation layers and wire bond replacement were evaluated. High-temperature aging tests were conducted to monitor the electrical and mechanical performance under thermal stress. The feasibility of dispensing fine features using dispensing and jetting methods are presented in the study. Conductors are a critical part in microelectronic assemblies because they create interconnects and thermal dissipation paths for microelectronics. Three different conductor materials were tested for their dispensability, resistance, continuity at temperature, and coefficients of thermal expansion (CTE) compatibility with different materials under thermal cycling. For dielectric materials, the requirements were to create various assembly constructs. The characterization included dispensability, electrical insulation, breakdown voltage, high-temperature performance, and the effects of CTE. Different approaches with different materials were tested for feasibility for wire bonding replacement. The application needs fine feature size with medium resistance lines. Consequently, the criteria for the material selection are fine particle size and medium sheet resistance. For high-power devices where heavy-gauge wires were used, jet dispensing is applicable. For other application with regular wire diameters, direct write is used. The over-all tests demonstrated the feasibility of using dispensed materials to replace wire bonds, which brings better reliability for shock and vibration, as compared to traditional wire bonds. The reliability of this approach requires a set of optimally matched conductive and dielectric materials. Three conductive materials (A, B and C) and three dielectric materials (D, E and F) were evaluated in this study. Tested conductive epoxy A can be used for attachment of SMT components with non-tin terminals, short traces, and wire bonding replacement for 25-μm wires, but it is not ideal for fine lines(<65um). Tested conductive epoxy B can be used for fine traces (58μm), and wire bonding replacement for 25-μm wires. The resistance of that material is not ideal. Nano-silver paste can be used for long traces, heavy-gauge wire bonding replacement, pads/polygons, the sheet resistance is equivalent to 0.5Oz Cu. For dielectrics, epoxy C can be used for crossovers, dielectric layers, and components staking. Epoxy D can be used for die edge insulation, but it is not ideal. Epoxy E can be used for crossovers and components staking. Epoxy F can be used for encapsulation and components staking. The wire bonding replacement concept structure is established with the dielectric forming the insulation around die edge, then the conductive wires dispensed on top of it. Feasibility was confirmed, a proof-of-concept was built, and some level of thermal stress was tested on the samples. Particle size and viscosity are critical to achieve fine features for micro-dispensing conductors and dielectrics. Periodic evaluations must be conducted to follow up on industry's progress with materials.
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Qureshi, Yumna, Mostapha Tarfaoui, Khalil K. Lafdi, and Khalid Lafdi. "Real-time strain monitoring and damage detection of composites in different directions of the applied load using a microscale flexible Nylon/Ag strain sensor." Structural Health Monitoring 19, no. 3 (August 21, 2019): 885–901. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1475921719869986.
Full textAbstract:
Composites are prone to failure during operating conditions and that is why vast research studies have been carried out to develop in situ sensors and monitoring systems to avoid their catastrophic failure and repairing cost. The aim of this research article was to develop a flexible strain sensor wire for real-time monitoring and damage detection in the composites when subjected to operational loads. This flexible strain sensor wire was developed by depositing conductive silver (Ag) nanoparticles on the surface of nylon (Ny) yarn by electroless plating process to achieve smallest uniform coating film without jeopardizing the integrity of each material. The sensitivity of this Nylon/Ag strain sensor wire was calculated experimentally, and gauge factor was found to be in the range of 21–25. Then, the Nylon/Ag strain sensor wire was inserted into each composite specimen at different positions intentionally during fabrication depending upon the type of damage to detect. The specimens were subjected to tensile loading at a strain rate of 2 mm/min. Overall mechanical response of composite specimens and electrical response signal of the Nylon/Ag strain sensor wire showed good reproducibility in results; however, the Nylon/Ag sensor showed a specific change in resistance in each direction because of the respective position. The strain sensor wire designed not only monitored the change in the mechanical behavior of the specimen during the elongation and detected the strain deformation but also identified the type of damage, whether it was compressive or tensile. This sensor wire showed good potential as a flexible reinforcement in composite materials for in situ structural health monitoring applications and detection of damage initiation before it can become fatal.
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Dios, Jose Ramon, Clara García-Astrain, Pedro Costa, Júlio César Viana, and Senentxu Lanceros-Méndez. "Carbonaceous Filler Type and Content Dependence of the Physical-Chemical and Electromechanical Properties of Thermoplastic Elastomer Polymer Composites." Materials 12, no. 9 (April 30, 2019): 1405. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma12091405.
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Graphene, carbon nanotubes (CNT), and carbon nanofibers (CNF) are the most studied nanocarbonaceous fillers for polymer-based composite fabrication due to their excellent overall properties. The combination of thermoplastic elastomers with excellent mechanical properties (e.g., styrene-b-(ethylene-co-butylene)-b-styrene (SEBS)) and conductive nanofillers such as those mentioned previously opens the way to the preparation of multifunctional materials for large-strain (up to 10% or even above) sensor applications. This work reports on the influence of different nanofillers (CNT, CNF, and graphene) on the properties of a SEBS matrix. It is shown that the overall properties of the composites depend on filler type and content, with special influence on the electrical properties. CNT/SEBS composites presented a percolation threshold near 1 wt.% filler content, whereas CNF and graphene-based composites showed a percolation threshold above 5 wt.%. Maximum strain remained similar for most filler types and contents, except for the largest filler contents (1 wt.% or more) in graphene (G)/SEBS composites, showing a reduction from 600% for SEBS to 150% for 5G/SEBS. Electromechanical properties of CNT/SEBS composite for strains up to 10% showed a gauge factor (GF) varying from 2 to 2.5 for different applied strains. The electrical conductivity of the G and CNF composites at up to 5 wt.% filler content was not suitable for the development of piezoresistive sensing materials. We performed thermal ageing at 120 °C for 1, 24, and 72 h for SEBS and its composites with 5 wt.% nanofiller content in order to evaluate the stability of the material properties for high-temperature applications. The mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties of SEBS and the composites were identical to those of pristine composites, but the electrical conductivity decreased by near one order of magnitude and the GF decreased to values between 0.5 and 1 in aged CNT/SEBS composites. Thus, the materials can still be used as large-deformation sensors, but the reduction of both electrical and electromechanical response has to be considered.
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BODRYSHEV, V. V., A. V. BABAYTSEV, and L. N. RABINSKIY. "INVESTIGATION OF PROCESSES OF DEFORMATION OF PLASTIC MATERIALS WITH THE HELP OF DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING." Periódico Tchê Química 16, no. 33 (March 20, 2019): 865–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.52571/ptq.v16.n33.2019.880_periodico33_pgs_865_876.pdf.
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As of now, many investigations are performed in order to develop methods of correlation with the help of relevant algorithms. This is especially helpfull for plotting vectors of displacements in order to estimate deformation of various materials, as well as to determine correspondence between sections of two images through calculation of the cross-correlating functions and to ensure seeking of the extremum. The aim of this study was to develop relevant method to estimate mechanism of fracture of materials in accordance with the data of analysis of a photographic image in respect of the parameter of the image intensity. In addition, this method is to be used with the help of the multivariate analysis (multi-factor analysis) of the interrelationship between image intensity, surface roughness, and possibility to determination the geometrical parameters of the deformation area/deformation volume under different conditions of operation. Digital method of processing of photographs/video frames has been used in order to investigate microstructure and surface of materials in respect of criterion of the image intensity in the course of mechanical tests in accordance with deformations. Quantitative parameters of the image intensity were compared to the structure of material, as well as to the surface roughness before and after destruction of samples. The images used were obtained during mechanical testing of aluminium samples. To ensure the validity of the test results, six specimens of the same type were tested. A stress-strain diagram was drawn up for each specimen. Stress-strain diagrams from the mechanical tests were compared with those from the photo analysis using the method described above. The results correlate well with each other, but unlike the experiment, where the strain is measured only at the strain gauge location, the photo analysis provides a complete picture of the strain distribution over the entire specimen area. In addition, a multivariate analysis has been carried out to evaluate the geometric dimensions and shapes of the structure elements.
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Demircilioglu, Erman, Egemen Teomete, and Osman E. Ozbulut. "Strain sensitivity of steel-fiber-reinforced industrial smart concrete." Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures 31, no. 1 (November 18, 2019): 127–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1045389x19888722.
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Self-sensing cementitious composites can enable structures that are capable of carrying the loads applied on them while monitoring their condition. Most of earlier research has focused on the incorporation of nanofillers or microfibers into cement paste or mortar composites. However, there have been very limited number of studies on the development of steel-fiber-reinforced cementitious composites with self-sensing capabilities. This study explores strain sensitivity of concrete mixtures that include coarse aggregates up to 15 mm diameter and steel fibers with a length of 13 mm and a diameter of 0.25 mm. Five different concrete mixtures with steel fibers at 0%, 0.2%, 0.35%, 0.5%, and 0.8% volume ratios were fabricated. Compression tests with simultaneous measurement of strain and electrical resistance were conducted on the cubic specimens. Gauge factor and percent linearity that is a measure of error in strain sensing were calculated. Concrete mixtures with 0.5% steel fibers possess a strong linear relationship between applied strain and electrical resistance change with a gauge factor over 20 times larger than that of traditional metal strain gauges. Phenomenological models for different resistivity and gauge factors of cement paste/mortar with respect to concrete with large aggregates and short–long fiber cement composites were presented.
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Tunakova, Veronika, Maros Tunak, Vladimir Bajzik, Larysa Ocheretna, Svitlana Arabuli, Olena Kyzymchuk, and Viktoriia Vlasenko. "Hybrid knitted fabric for electromagnetic radiation shielding." Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics 15 (January 2020): 155892502092539. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1558925020925397.
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Today we can’t imagine our life without electricity and technology, transport and television. In the information age, computers, the Internet, cell phones, and smartphones are helpers for everyday needs. However, our environment and comfortable living in it can be detrimental to our health. It is hard to realize the fact that such a global technical breakthrough has hit human health. Exposure to electromagnetic radiation could lead to changes in the structure of nerve cells and blood formulas, deformation of the circulatory system, pathology of the endocrine system, decreased immunity, and so on. Nowadays the development of innovative textiles with electromagnetic radiation shielding is a relevant topic that promotes the creation of a flexible protective screen for the human being and various electronic devices. Textiles themselves do not protect against electromagnetic radiation; however, the textiles can be successfully converted into protective material after changing the raw material composition, creating a new production process, or adapting technologies that can make them electrically conductive. Basic methods of textile producing such as weaving, knitting, non-weaving, or their combination can be used to make electromagnetic shielding fabric. In this study, the knitting on 8-gauge flat-bed machine has been chosen as main technology. The metal wire (stainless steel: 0.12 mm) is used separately or together with 10 × 2 tex cotton yarn. Two sets of samples with different interloopings are produced which differ by steel percentages and positioning in the structures. Electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of textile samples (dB) was measured according to ASTM 4935-10 on frequency range 30 MHz–1.5 GHz. It is concluded that the positioning of the metal components in the knitted structure is the main factor determining the shielding ability. The half Milano rib knitted structure demonstrates the highest shielding efficiency.
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D’Alessandro, Antonella, Andrea Meoni, and Filippo Ubertini. "Stainless Steel Microfibers for Strain-Sensing Smart Clay Bricks." Journal of Sensors 2018 (August 5, 2018): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/7431823.
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Life cycle monitoring of structural health of civil constructions is crucial to guarantee users’ safety. An optimal structural health monitoring system allows to automatically detect, locate, and quantify any damage in structural elements, thus anticipating major risks of local or global failures. Critical issues affecting traditional monitoring systems are sensors’ placement, hardware durability, and long-term reliability of the measurements. Indeed, sensors’ deployment is crucial for an effective investigation of the static and dynamic characteristics of the structural system, whereby durability and long-term stability of sensing systems are necessary for long-term monitoring. A very attractive solution to some of these challenges is developing sensors made of the same, or similar, material of the structure being monitored, allowing a spatially distributed and long-term reliable monitoring system, by the use of self-sensing construction materials. Within this context, the authors have recently proposed new “smart clay bricks” that are strain-sensing clay bricks aimed at embedding intelligent monitoring capabilities within structural masonry buildings. While previous work focused on smart bricks doped with titanium dioxide and using embedded point electrodes, this work proposes an enhanced version of smart bricks based on the addition of conductive micro stainless steel fibers that possess higher electrical conductivity and a more suitable fiber-like aspect ratio for the intended application, as well as plate copper electrodes deployed on top and bottom surfaces of the bricks. The paper thus presents preparation and experimental characterization of the new smart bricks. The influence of different amounts of fibers is investigated, allowing the identification of their optimal content to maximize the gauge factor of the bricks. Both electrical and electromechanical experimental tests were performed. Overall, the presented results demonstrate that the new smart bricks proposed in this paper possess enhanced strain-sensing capabilities and could be effectively utilized as sensors within structural masonry buildings.
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Krishnankutty, Sindhu, Hannah Nadel, Adam M. Taylor, Michael C. Wiemann, Yunke Wu, Steven W. Lingafelter, Scott W. Myers, and Ann M. Ray. "Identification of Tree Genera Used in the Construction of Solid Wood-Packaging Materials That Arrived at U.S. Ports Infested With Live Wood-Boring Insects." Journal of Economic Entomology 113, no. 3 (April 18, 2020): 1183–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jee/toaa060.
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Abstract Although international regulations have been successfully implemented to reduce the introduction and spread of plant pests through wood packaging material (WPM), wood-boring insects continue to be intercepted in WPM at U.S. ports of entry. Both hardwoods and softwoods are used in the construction of WPM for international trade; however, it is not clear if some types of wood pose higher risks than others for harboring wood borers. This study documented the taxonomic diversity of infested wood genera intercepted as a result of targeted WPM inspection at U.S. ports, and identified many of the wood-boring insects transported within them. The results of this study reveal associations among packaging woods, commodities, and shipment origins. The wood genera most frequently infested were Pinus Linnaeus (Pinales: Pinaceae), Picea Miller (Pinales: Pinaceae), and Populus Linnaeus (Malpighiales: Salicaceae), which were heavily represented as packaging for commodities such as stone, metal, vehicles, and machinery. In addition to these results, we summarized preferences by the wood borers to develop in living, stressed, dying, or dead hosts, the pest status of intercepted wood borers in their native and non-native ranges, and potential host range of intercepted wood borers to gauge potential for these taxa to become pests in North America. New possible host associations are reported for eight wood borer taxa. Taxonomy of host wood is presented as a new factor for consideration in pathway-level risk analysis of WPM, and the findings further reinforce the need for enhanced compliance with ISPM 15 to reduce entry of non-native wood-boring insects.
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Huang, Lixiong, Han Wang, Peixuan Wu, Weimin Huang, Wei Gao, Feiyu Fang, Nian Cai, Rouxi Chen, and Ziming Zhu. "Wearable Flexible Strain Sensor Based on Three-Dimensional Wavy Laser-Induced Graphene and Silicone Rubber." Sensors 20, no. 15 (July 30, 2020): 4266. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s20154266.
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Laser-induced graphene (LIG) has the advantages of one-step fabrication, prominent mechanical performance, as well as high conductivity; it acts as the ideal material to fabricate flexible strain sensors. In this study, a wearable flexible strain sensor consisting of three-dimensional (3D) wavy LIG and silicone rubber was reported. With a laser to scan on a polyimide film, 3D wavy LIG could be synthesized on the wavy surface of a mold. The wavy-LIG strain sensor was developed by transferring LIG to silicone rubber substrate and then packaging. For stress concentration, the ultimate strain primarily took place in the troughs of wavy LIG, resulting in higher sensitivity and less damage to LIG during stretching. As a result, the wavy-LIG strain sensor achieved high sensitivity (gauge factor was 37.8 in a range from 0% to 31.8%, better than the planar-LIG sensor), low hysteresis (1.39%) and wide working range (from 0% to 47.7%). The wavy-LIG strain sensor had a stable and rapid dynamic response; its reversibility and repeatability were demonstrated. After 5000 cycles, the signal peak varied by only 2.32%, demonstrating the long-term durability. Besides, its applications in detecting facial skin expansion, muscle movement, and joint movement, were discussed. It is considered a simple, efficient, and low-cost method to fabricate a flexible strain sensor with high sensitivity and structural robustness. Furthermore, the wavy-LIG strain senor can be developed into wearable sensing devices for virtual/augmented reality or electronic skin.