Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Math anxiety. Mathematics'

ABSTRACT This study?s purpose was to determine whether instruction in growth math mindset led to change in perceptions of 18-22-year-old at-risk students in math mindset, math anxiety, and view of math. The experimental curriculum was created by the researcher with the guidance of experts in mathematics and education and focused on the impact of brain growth and learning supported by positive math mindset. Young adult public charter high school at-risk students were surveyed before and after completion of the experimental intervention to measure their perceptions in the domains of Math Mindset, Math Anxiety, and View of Math. The results revealed significant differences in the treatment group?s pre-to post-test perceptions in all three math domains (p < .001) Comparison between the experimental and control groups were conducted, revealing significant differences between the two group in all three domains of math. These results point to the effectiveness of the experimental curriculum and instructional techniques to positively impact students? perceptions of Math Mindset, reduction of Math Anxiety, and improvement in View of Math. Keywords: [mindset, mathematics, math anxiety, view of math, math curriculum, education, at-risk]

The subjects of science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) have grown in importance because they are fundamental to the future quality of life and the ability to compete in today’s global society. The demand for STEM careers is increasing; however, the United States is having difficulty meeting this demand. Society needs students who can research and think critically, so they can be proficient in STEM education and become the next generation of mathematicians, scientists, technologists, and engineers. Mathematical proficiency is of particular concern because while it is required for STEM education success, individuals find it challenging.

Both adults and children have apprehension about mathematics, and their negative attitudes toward math develop a barrier to STEM education and careers. This negative math phobia, or math anxiety, causes a decrease in math achievement. This study explored the perceptions of elementary teachers in establishing a classroom environment free of math anxiety. Specifically, this study focused on best practices that teachers incorporate in order to reduce math anxiety.

The purpose of the study was to (a) determine the strategies and practices teachers employ to reduce math anxiety, (b) determine the challenges teachers face in reducing math anxiety, (c) determine how teachers measure the success of their practices in reducing math anxiety, and (d) determine the recommendations teachers would make for future implementation of strategies in reducing math anxiety.

Thesis (M.S.)--Central Connecticut State University, 1998.
Thesis advisor: Timothy V. Craine. "... in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science [for the Department of Mathematics]". Includes bibliographical references (leaves 51-53).

Non-math majors enrolled in lower-division math courses at an urban university were surveyed on their math attitudes, coping behaviors, and math anxiety (MATHANX). The Revised Ways of Coping Checklist (RWCC), Revised Math Anxiety Rating Scale, and other questions were presented to 30 men and 32 women. Hierarchical regressions showed that after controlling for attitudinal covariates, emotion-focused coping behaviors (EMOTFOC) were strongly associated with MATHANX (F(5,54)=18.66, 12 < .0001), but problem-focused coping behaviors (PROBFOC) were not. The RWCC subscale most highly correlated with MATHANX was Wishful Thinking (r = .70, p < .0001). Ss were then dichotomized on PROBFOC and EMOTFOC, providing four behavioral groups. An ANCOVA controlling for attitudinal covariates showed behavioral group membership significant with respect to MATHANX (F(3,58)=6.07, p < .001), and an ANOVA revealed that students who reported high EMOTFOC coupled with low PROBFOC experienced the greatest MATHANX (,E(3,58) = 12.66, p < .0001). Males and females reported virtually identical MATHANX (M=36.30 for males, 36.44 for females), and the only significant gender difference was for avoidance coping, which was used more by males (F(1,60) = 5.43, p < .03]. Results from this study suggest that fewer gender differences may exist in MATHANX and coping than have been found in the past. Additionally, this study identifies the need for future research to determine whether EMOTFOC is the behavioral component, or one of the determinants, of math anxiety.

The purpose of this study is to identify and analyze the relationships that exist between mathematics anxiety and nurse self-efficacy for mathematics, and the medication calculation performance of acute care nurses. This research used a quantitative correlational research design and involved a sample of 84 acute care nurses, LVNs and RNs, from a suburban private hospital. the participants filled out a Mathematics Anxiety Scale, a Nurse Self-Efficacy for Mathematics Scale and also completed a 20-item medication calculation test. Significant practical and statistical relationships were discovered between the variables utilizing multiple linear regression statistics and commonality analysis. As the Nurse’s Mathematics anxiety score increased the scores on the medication test decreased and the scores on nurse self-efficacy for mathematics scale also decreased. the demographic item of “Hours a nurse worked in one week” had the greatest significance. the more hours a nurse worked the lower their score was on the medication calculation test. This study agrees with others that nurses are not good at mathematics. This study also correlated that as the number of hours worked increased so did the medication calculations errors. and many nurses have a measurable level of anxiety about mathematics and dosage calculations and this may influence calculation ability. Suggestions for further research include refinement of instruments used in study, further differentiation of barriers to successful medication calculation performance, and testing of interventions used to teach, train and evaluate accurate medication administration in nurses.

Den här studien utgår från livsberättelser baserad på såväl narrativ teori som metod där fyra vuxna personer som säger sig ha upplevt matematikångest har blivit intervjuade. Syftet med studien är att identifiera specifika episoder i matematiksammanhang som kan kopplas till matematikångest men även känslor som är knutna till dessa episoder samt om det förekommer likheter mellan de olika intervjupersonernas upplevelser. Resultatet visar att det finns en rad gemensamma drag i livsberättelserna som till exempel liknande känslor men även situationer. Möjliga orsaker som beskrivs i litteraturbakgrunden återfinns även i intervjupersonernas livsberättelser. Det som främst framkommit är att läraren och arbetssättet har en betydande roll för hur eleven påverkas av matematiken i skolan men även hur detta har påverkat framtida livsval. Livsberättelser är en intressant metod eftersom man i rollen som intervjuare kommer intervjupersonen nära och berättelsen upplevs därmed som genuin och ärlig. Utifrån analysen av resultatet är det viktigt att läraren är medveten om att dennes arbetssätt och bemötande kan påverka elevens upplevelse av matematik såväl negativt som positivt. Blir upplevelsen för negativ kan den i värsta fall leda till att eleven utvecklar matematikångest.

Research indicates that many students have difficulty with mathematics, which can be attributed to many factors including math anxiety. Students who experience math anxiety have poor attitudes towards mathematics and perform below grade level based on class and statewide assessments. The purpose of this quasi-experimental quantitative study was to investigate the effectiveness of cooperative groups on the math anxiety levels of Grade 5 male and female students. The theoretical foundation of the study included Vygotsky's social learning and Piaget's concept of knowledge. Thirty-two students from 2 Grade 5 classrooms were administered the pre and post MASC inventory. A repeated-measure ANOVA was used to compare the overall mean difference for each group. Key results revealed that students in the treatment group (cooperative grouping) had less math anxiety after 9 weeks than students involved in the control group (noncooperative grouping). Females in the treatment group had lower math anxiety scores than the females in the control group, while males in the treatment group showed no change in math anxiety levels when compared to males in the control group. A conclusion from this study suggests that cooperative grouping, especially for females, may have a positive impact on students' attitudes and overall mathematics performance. It is recommended that administrators schedule professional development on cooperative grouping to implement successful cooperative learning in the classroom. Positive social change could be realized by teachers incorporating strategies in lessons that promote a positive learning environment as well as support learning and academic achievement.

The purpose of this study was to further explore single case data related to the construct of math anxiety, as it applies to women. A triple mode analysis was used to identify critical variables and to establish patterns of synchrony, desynchrony and partial synchrony. A total of six women participated in two math tasks. While performing these two tasks, high threat and low threat, heart rate, self-reported anxiety and motoric performance were monitored. Data were collected before and after each specific task. Data were also collected at pre-selected points during the task performance. This continuous time series and interval data were utilized to provide clarification of the math anxiety construct, as it applies to women.Using visual inspection, there was not enough variance in the physical and motoric data to warrant a deferential determination of synchrony or desynchrony. The subjects responded differently than hypothesized. The heart rate measure varied only slightly over task and time. Self-reported anxiety, SUDS and STAI, was above average. The WAIS digit symbol results were sometimes opposite the hypotheses. Cognition, self-report and the standardized measure of state anxiety emerged as the dominant factors in assigning the construct of math anxiety. These are consistent with the findings of Hackett and Betz (1989) whose research theorized the existence of a model for math self-efficacy.
Department of Counseling Psychology and Guidance Services

This study sought to better understand the phenomenon of Math anxiety as experienced by female elementary school teachers, teaching grades 2-5. Using qualitative research methods to collect and analyze data, ten participants were recruited for open-ended interviews designed to collect data in the form of verbatim statements. The analysis of this data resulted in qualitative descriptions of the lived experience of Math anxiety by focusing on what Math anxiety is and how it precipitates. In addition, a description of the meaning and essence of Math anxiety was constructed. Results of this study include teachers' descriptions of factors they associate with Math anxiety including frequently changing Mathematics curriculums, student and parental issues, mandatory statewide online Mathematical assessments, teacher evaluations that require statewide student Mathematical assessment scores and parental input, and budgetary decisions adversely affecting students and faculty. Participants described time restrictions, painful past memories, feelings of Mathematical inadequacy, and Mathematics/gender issues. In addition, participants described how Math anxiety may decrease with humor, greater Mathematical experience, and/or by understanding Mathematics on deeper levels due to the newly adopted Common Core Mathematical Standards. Up until the completion of this dissertation, the researcher has not been able to locate any studies describing the lived experience of Math anxiety in female elementary school teachers. Through the voices of the teachers themselves, it is hoped that this novel approach may increase the understanding of Math anxiety for educators, parents, students, administrators, and researchers.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--West Virginia University, 2000.
Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains v, 160 p. : ill. Vita. Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 64-80).

Learning disabled (LD) students are put in inclusion classrooms in order to experience the mainstream environment and to receive the same level of education as their regular education counterparts. Unfortunately, LD students do not always get the mathematics education that they deserve because inclusion mathematics teachers are not required to be highly qualified in mathematics. The focus of this study was on the relationship between mathematics anxiety and self-efficacy of inclusion teachers and the academic achievement of the LD students they serve. The theoretical framework of this study involved the concepts of student achievement, teacher efficacy, mathematics anxiety, and best practices in teaching. The research questions of this study involved understanding the impact of inclusion teachers' mathematics anxiety and mathematics self-efficacy on the mathematics achievement of LD students. A quantitative survey design was used, and data were collected from 15 volunteered participating inclusion math teachers using the Learning Mathematics Anxiety subscale; the Personal Mathematics Teaching Efficacy subscale; a demographic questionnaire; and students' school level state standardized test scores and end-of-course final average in Geometry, Trigonometry, Algebra I, or Algebra II. Regression analyses were used to evaluate the relationship between the variables of mathematics teachers' anxiety, mathematics teachers' self-efficacy, and student achievement. The findings of this study revealed that inclusion teachers' mathematics anxiety and teaching efficacy did not significantly predict mathematics achievement of LD students. The implication for social change is that further research that includes variables other than teacher mathematics anxiety and teaching efficacy is needed to understand mathematics performance of learning disabled students.

Research suggests that student success in mathematics is positively correlated to math self-efficacy and negatively correlated to math anxiety. At a Hispanic serving community college in the Midwest, developmental math students had a lower pass rate than did college-level math students, but the role of math self-efficacy and math anxiety on these students' learning was unknown. This causal comparative, correlational study, guided by social cognitive theory and math anxiety research, hypothesized that students in developmental math would have lower levels of math self-efficacy and higher levels of math anxiety, and that significant correlations would exist between course level, self-efficacy, and anxiety. All math students at this setting (N = 1,019) were contacted to complete the self-report Mathematics Self-Efficacy and Anxiety Questionnaire; 32 developmental math and 103 college-level math students returned the survey. A random sample of 32 college-level students was selected to create equal group sizes for the data analyses. Independent samples t-tests revealed no significant differences in self-efficacy and anxiety between the groups. Significant correlations were found for course level, self-efficacy, and anxiety. Lower course level math students reported on average significantly lower levels of self-efficacy and significantly higher levels of anxiety than did upper course level students. A professional development program was created to educate faculty about math self-efficacy and math anxiety and to implement strategies that may increase math self-efficacy and decrease math anxiety over time. This doctoral study has the potential to create social change by offering educators new insight into the role of math self-efficacy and math anxiety in student learning.

CITE/Mathematics and Science Education
Ed.D.
The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of training in self-regulated learning strategies on math anxiety and mathematics achievement among preservice teachers. The self-regulated learning strategies examined included personal time management, how to read your mathematics textbook for understanding, organizational skills, mathematics test taking and preparation, and the use of estimation in solving mathematics problems. Preservice elementary teachers with these improved learning skills may in turn become more successful teachers of mathematics. The effect of training in self-regulated learning as a treatment for math anxiety is not well established. However, self-regulated learning has been associated with improved mathematics and science problem solving (De Corte, Verschaffel, & Op't Eynde, 2000; Taylor & Corrigan, 2005; Zan, 2000). Increased use of self-regulated learning strategies has also been associated with a reduction in test anxiety (Hofer & Yu, 2003; Pintrich, 2000; Zeidner, 1998). Therefore, training in self-regulated learning strategies has the potential to reduce math anxiety among preservice elementary teachers. Elementary education majors in a course in mathematics concepts were given training in self-regulated learning strategies. A control group of similar students received the same classroom instruction by the same college professor. The professor did not participate in the training sessions that were led by this researcher. Both treatment and control groups were given pretests and posttests: the Abbreviated Mathematics Anxiety Scale - to measure math anxiety, the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire - to measure use of self-regulated learning strategies, and a Mathematics Achievement Test - to measure changes in content knowledge. The analyses used t-tests and correlations to compare the participants' pretest and posttest scores on the three scales. The use of self-regulated learning strategies was not shown to reduce math anxiety or improve achievement among the elementary education majors in this study. This result may have been due to various limitations, such as insufficient time for applying and following up on the training and an inability to fully embed the training into the course content. Future research should investigate if, given the proper conditions, self-regulated learning strategies will reduce math anxiety and improve the learning of mathematics concepts, leading to more effective mathematics teaching in the elementary classrooms.
Temple University--Theses

Thesis advisor: Marina Vasilyeva
This research explored the nature of gender differences in math performance across development. It examined potential mechanisms underlying gender differences by testing a mediation model in which females' higher anxiety taxes their working memory resources leading to underperformance on a mathematics test. Further, this research examined stereotype threat effects on math performance by testing whether female students presented with a scenario activating the stereotype would perform worse than females not exposed to the stereotype. Participants in Study 1 were 71 fourth, 107 eighth, and 147 twelfth grade students from high performing school districts. Students completed anxiety measures and a challenging mathematics test either in the stereotype threat condition or the no-threat condition. Results showed that there were consistent gender differences in math performance across all three grade levels; however, stereotype threat did not impact girls' math performance. Importantly, the relation between gender and math performance at the eighth and twelfth grade levels was mediated by the worry component of anxiety. This finding suggests that girls' heightened worry can explain their underperformance on a math test. In Study 2, the mediating relation observed in Study 1 was further explored by testing whether working memory mediated the relation between worry and math performance. Participants were 90 college students who were assigned to either the stereotype threat or no-threat condition. Students completed anxiety measures, two working memory tasks (verbal and visual), and a challenging math test. Again, findings showed a significant gender difference in math performance but no stereotype threat effects. Further, there was a mediating chain from gender to the worry component of anxiety to visual working memory to math performance. The results suggest that females' heightened worry taxes their working memory leading to gender differences in math performance. Both studies contribute to our understanding of affective and cognitive factors underlying gender differences in math performance. The findings of this research are discussed in terms of their implications for interventions and the future of women's participation in STEM careers
Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2011
Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education
Discipline: Counseling, Developmental, and Educational Psychology

Syftet med denna studie är att bidra med ökad kunskap om matematikångest utifrån ett specialpedagogiskt perspektiv genom att intervjua speciallärare, specialpedagoger och lärare som alla arbetar inom det pedagogiska fältet där matematikångest uppträder. Studien är inspirerad av en kvalitativ ansats med intervjuer som datainsamlingsmetod. I resultatet framkommer en begreppsförvirring kring hur olika respondenterna förklarar begreppet matematikångest och vad de omfattar i dess beskrivning. Speciallärarna, specialpedagogerna och lärarna som medverkar i denna studie bidrar med erfarenheter kring de elever de har mött och på vilket sätt de har arbetat med det stöd och hjälpande insatser för att hindra eller förebygga att matematikångest uppstår. Viktiga faktorer som påtalas i vårt arbete är lärarens undervisning, lärmiljön och elevens individuella förutsättningar så som arbetsminnet och föräldrarnas attityd till ämnet. Forskningen lyfter framgångsrika metoder som kan minska matematikångest för de elever som redan utvecklat detta hinder. Sammanfattningsvis visar vår studie att de hinder som skapar matematikångest hos elever är komplext och vikten av att den specialpedagogiska kompetensen ökar på skolorna för att stödja men även förebygga matematikångest hos elever.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between individual student differences and academic success in three pedagogical methods (traditional classroom, computer-aided instruction (CAI) in an on-campus setting, and CAI in a distance education setting) for developmental mathematics classes at the community college level. Locus of control, math anxiety and learning style were the individual differences examined. Final grade, final exam score and persistence were the indicators of success. The literature review focused on developmental mathematics, pedagogical techniques and variables contributing to academic performance. Two parallel research populations consisted of 135 Beginning Algebra students and 113 Intermediate Algebra students. The Rotter I-E Locus of Control Scale, the Abbreviated Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale, the 4MAT Learning Type Measure, and an instrument to gather demographic data were used. It was the conclusion of this study that the instructional methods were not equal with respect to achievement. In Beginning Algebra, the CAI students received significantly higher final grades than did the traditionally taught students. In Intermediate Algebra traditional students scored significantly higher on the final exam than did the CBI students. There were more students persisting than expected in traditionally taught Beginning Algebra and no significant difference in attrition in Intermediate Algebra. There was no significant prediction of achievement in Beginning Algebra. For Intermediate Algebra math anxiety was a significant predictor for final exam percentage and locus of control was a significant predictor for final grade percentage. Only the instructional method contributed significantly to the prediction of attrition. While these findings are statistically significant, they account for only a small part of student success. However, the results had implications for the future. In particular, further study should be given to the question of whether CAI, and its associated expenses, is prudent for developmental mathematics instruction.

Syftet med denna studie har varit att införskaffa kunskap om förekomsten av math anxiety, ångestkänslor i förhållande till matematik, samt om det kan förebyggas. Fokus för studien har varit elever i grundskolans tidigare år samt lärarstudenter. För att undersöka detta har en litteraturstudie med systematisk metod genomförts, med syfte att ta reda på vad aktuell forskning säger om det utvalda området. Resultaten visar att ett flertal faktorer spelar in vad gäller lärarstudenters förhållande till matematikämnet, bland annat händelser i den egna skolgången och förhållandet till lärarna. Ångestkänslor relaterade till matematik hos lärarstudenterna kan förbyggas genom kurser i matematisk metod, arbete med laborativt material, feedback från lärare och goda lärarförebilder. Hos elever i grundskolan påverkas nivåerna av math anxiety till stor del av elevernas självbild, där lägre nivåer av math anxiety rapporterats hos elever med större självförtroende. Hos eleverna är arbetsminnet relaterat till math anxiety, och de elever som använder mer avancerade strategier och nyttjar mer arbetsminne i problemlösning drabbas i större utsträckning än andra elever. Även föräldrarnas attityd och tillgången till matematik i hemmet är faktorer som påverkar elevers math anxiety. Nivåerna av math anxiety hos grundskoleelever kan sänkas vid interaktiva inslag i problemlösningen, då eleverna får interagera med fysiska objekt relaterade till uppgifterna

Matematik

Recently, there has been a big surge of research and public interest in increasing the math capabilities and skills of American children. This paper serves as a literature review examining how the home environment, specifically parents, can help with that. This meta-analysis delves into the factors of maternal math talk, a parent’s own math anxiety, and the relationship between a parent and child in the context of a parent’s gender stereotypes and a parent’s perception on his or her child’s math abilities. Interventions, suggestions, and future implications are also discussed. This paper will hopefully bring needed awareness to parents about their roles in their child’s math development, abilities, and achievement.

American students no longer lead the world in quantitative skills. This decline in mathematical ability has potentially significant negative national and personal consequences. Math anxiety, low self-efficacy in relation to math, and a sense of hopelessness about math are all possible barriers to being successful in learning and using math, not only in school but ultimately in many aspects of adult life. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between hope, expectation, math anxiety (positive and negative affect related components), and students’ final course scores in College Algebra within the context of an instructional strategy intended to improve student achievement and reduce math anxiety. Data were collected from 214 College Algebra students in 12 different classrooms, taught by five instructors using this strategy. These data were analyzed using multilevel modeling. Within the context of the study, the scores students hoped to earn and pre-course negative affect related math anxiety subscores did not significantly influence their final course scores. However, the scores students expected to earn and positive affect related math anxiety subscores did impact final course scores. Scores students hoped to earn at the beginning of the course were significantly related to total math anxiety as well as positive and negative affect related math anxiety subscores at the end of the course. Classroom average attitudes, including averages of scores students hoped to earn, scores students expected to earn, and math anxiety scores were significantly related to post-course positive and negative affect related math anxiety subscores and total post-course math anxiety. The number of students indicating that they enjoyed math and would like to take more math classes in the future was higher at the end of the course than at the beginning. Fewer students disagreed with every negative affect related item on the instrument at the end of the course than did at the beginning, indicating improving affect. Instructional strategies similar to the one used in this study may provide a rich context for supporting student achievement and improving attitudes towards math in College Algebra. The results of this study may help inform the work of practitioners through improved understanding of the impact and interactions of hope, expectation, math anxiety, classroom attitudes, and achievement.

Thesis (MTech (Design))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2015.
Mathematical literacy among the citizenry of a nation is considered indispensable to the economic welfare and global competitiveness of that nation (World Economic Forum, 2013a). In a world governed by technology, quantitative literacy is crucial (Colwell cited by Steen, 2002:8) and becomes a “most important professional and life skill” (Maloney et al., 2012:380). It is also seen as an individual’s ability to “manage situations or solve problems in practice” (Frith & Prince, 2006). Lastly, Jansen (2012) believes that sound mathematical literacy leads to an understanding of cause and effect and would guide citizens in their choices of actions. Yet, the belief that mathematical competence (or even just quantitative literacy) is the privilege of a small group of intellectually predisposed individuals is widely accepted in society, further entrenched by erroneous stereotyping (Eccles et al., 1990; Bonnot & Croizet, 2007; Mangels et al., 2011), as well as inadequate teaching methods in the Mathematics classroom/lecture theatre (Artigue, 1999; NSTF, 2009, 2010; Department of Basic Education, 2014). The consequences of this skewed view of Mathematics, and the emotional stress caused by regular failure at the subject, have resulted in wide-spread maths anxiety and maths avoidance among scholars and students. This dissertation examines an intervention programme which was designed to alter students’ negative perceptions of their intellectual ability to grasp mathematical concepts. Instead of attributing their past failures to internal, stable and uncontrollable causes, such as cognitive inability (Weiner, 1985), they were asked to consider factors which were internal or external, but certainly unstable and controllable, and which played a major role in their disappointing history in Mathematics. The interventions were aimed at bringing about a paradigm shift from a fixed mindset (entity theory) to a growth mindset (increment theory) as researched by Dweck since the 1980s. The intervention programme was implemented in the Foundation Course of a South African university of technology. It involved four interventions spread over roughly four months of the first semester and was comprised of the following lecture units and activities: a session of free-writing (Elbow, 1973), lectures on the plasticity of the brain (Hebb, 1949; Diamond 2001, Zull, 2002), the three memory systems (Eysenck & Calvo, 1992), a very basic version of Kolb’s experiential and reflective learning cycle (Atherton, 2009), and the notion of threshold concepts (Meyer & Land, 2003)

Att höra någon uttrycka att den ogillar matematik är inte ovanligt. I detta arbete undersöks vilka faktorer som påverkar personers negativa känslor inför matematik. Inledningsvis beskrivs fenomenet matematikångest samt olika perspektiv på lärande. Därefter presenteras studiens resultat. Data har insamlats genom systematiska litteraturstudier. Materialet har sedan analyserats med hjälp av en innehållsanalys. Denna studie är kartläggande, och resultatet presenteras både i tabellform och i löpande text. Upptäckta påverkansfaktorer har kategoriserats i sex olika grupper vilka är: kognitiva processer, lärare, föräldrar, genetik, socialt kön samt känslor kopplade till självbild. Resultatet pekar på att det inte går att bestämma en enskild faktor som ensam påverkar personers negativa känslor inför matematik. Snarare rör det sig om samverkan mellan flera faktorer. Avslutningsvis diskuteras vilka konsekvenser resultatet får för undervisning, och förslag ges på områden för vidare forskning.
To hear someone expressing their dislike for math isn’t uncommon. In this paper different factors influencing peoples’ negative emotions related to mathematics are examined. First, the phenomena math anxiety, and different perspectives on learning, is described. Then, this study’s results are presented. Data was collected through a systematic literature review. The material was then analysed by a content analysis. This study is a survey, and the results are presented both in a table and in textual form. The discovered affective factors were categorized into six different groups, which are: cognitive processes, teachers, parents, genetics, gender and emotions connected to self-image. The results show that it’s impossible to point out one single factor that alone affect people’s negative emotions related to mathematics. Rather, it’s a co-operation between many factors. To conclude, the consequences on teaching are discussed, and suggestions on areas for further studies are given.

Project Independence (PI) is a community college immersion program dedicated to assisting women returning to college. The focus of this study and associated summative evaluation was to understand how the PI program addresses anxiety and other learning deficiencies associated with math. Knowle's andragogical models portray adults as motivated and self-directed, and the American college campus fosters a culture of independence. This culture is foreign to many minority, first-generation, and working class adults who learn through interdependence. This qualitative instrumental case study and evaluation is the first to examine the efficacy of PI. The guiding questions of this study concern early math learning experiences, PI interventions on study, coping and math-learning skills, and how participants utilize these skills in subsequent math classes. Three faculty members and 8 graduates of the program who had completed at least 2 math classes participated in individual interviews. Inductive analysis of these interviews showed the cohort and long term counseling as pivotal to developing a sense of belonging, self-esteem, and an attitude of self-worth. With cohort support, students learn to find campus resources, explore career options, and overcome personal obstacles to their education. Improved math learning for adult minority and first generation students has diverse implications for social change. Math education is requisite for many technical degrees and certificates. Enabling math learning expands options that transcend gender, cultural, and socioeconomic barriers. The cohort experience and culture of interdependence should be expanded to college preparation programs for men, as well as mainstream community college math preparation interventions.

Då det finns skillnader i skolresultat mellan manliga och kvinnliga elever i den svenska grund- och gymnasieskolan undersöks sättet elever talar, beskriver och resonerar kring matematik då det kan påverka inlärningen. Syftet med detta examensarbete var att undersöka gymnasieelevers attityder kring matematik. Tre fokusområden valdes ut för att studera elevernas diskurs, deras attityd till matematik, kontrollfokus och uppfattningar om hur inlärning av matematik sker. En enkätundersökning i pappersform delades ut till 200 elever på en gymnasieskola i en Svensk stad. Resultaten sorterades enligt könstillhörighet och undersöktes efter eventuella samband. Fynden indikerar att deltagarna, oavsett könstillhörighet, hade en starkt negativ bild av skolmatematiken. Vidare, kvinnliga elever hänvisade sina resultat i skolmatematiken till interna faktorer i större utsträckning än externa. Till skillnad från manliga elever som hade en mer jämn fördelning mellan externa och interna faktorer. Både manliga och kvinnliga elever hade en deterministisk uppfattning kring inlärning av skolmatematik, trots att båda grupper identifierade hårt arbete som en viktig faktor för inlärning av skolmatematik. De manliga eleverna hade en deterministisk syn på skolmatematiken då de kände sig maktlösa om de inte var "födda med det". De kvinnliga eleverna hade en deterministisk syn på skolmatematiken då de var mer självkritiska och, på grund av synen av matematik som en mansdominerad arena, står emot att identifiera sig själva som "smarta". Sammanfattningsvis, det visade sig att de tillfrågade gymnasieeleverna har negativa associationer till skolmatematiken, och könsstereotypa uppfattningar om skolmatematiken påverkar både manliga och kvinnliga elever negativt.
In light of mathematical achievement disparity between male and female elementary students in Swedish high school, student discourse about mathematics is investigated as a possible key factor. The purpose of this investigation was to examine upper secondary high school students’ attitudes towards learning mathematics. Three measurements were chosen in order to investigate student discourse, attitudes towards mathematics, locus of control and perceptions about the acquisition of mathematical knowledge. 200 student responses from the same upper secondary high school in a Swedish City were collected through a printed survey and analyzed in regards to gender. The findings indicate that the participants, regardless of gender, had a strongly negative attitude towards mathematics. Additionally, female students were more prone to attribute their achievements in mathematics to internal factors whereas male students had a more equal distribution of external and internal. Furthermore, both male and female students were more inclined to have a deterministic idea of mathematical knowledge, in spite of both groups identifying hard work as a key factor for success in mathematics. Arguably, the male students had a deterministic view of mathematics because they felt powerless if they were not “born with it”. On the other hand, the female students possibly had a deterministic view because they were more self-critical of their results and, because of existing discourse about mathematics as a male dominated arena, resist identifying as “smart”. Concluding, it was found that mathematics have strongly negative connotations for high school students, and existing stereotypical discourses limit both male and female students’ possibilities for learning.

Syftet med denna kvalitativa studie är att undersöka hur matematiklärare arbetar för att motverka matematikängslan hos elever i årskurs 4–6. Den valda datainsamlingsmetoden är semistrukturerad intervju. Resultatet visar att elever uttrycker sig negativt när de utför matematiska uppgifter eller är med på matematiklektioner. De intervjuade matematiklärarna beskriver olika orsaker bakom matematikängslan, en orsak är att elever har brister i grundläggande kunskaper i matematik. En slutsats som går att dra är att matematiklärare är medvetna om matematikängslan.

The objective of this study was to bring further knowledge to the subject as to what influences students motivation and self-esteem. The study had focus on role that the teachers play in these aspects. The study was done by using both a qualitative and quantitative approach. The qualitative method was interviews based on six interviews with two teachers and four students from two different classes. The quantitative method was a questionnaire study that was done in both classes. Results from the study show that the students think that their high school teachers are promoting their mathematical self-esteem. The differences regarding students mathematical self-esteem are less than the differences found within the gender. One of the conclusions drawn from this study is that students mathematical self-esteem is considerably lower than their general self-esteem. It has also been noticed that student’s perceive that their mathematical self-esteem has increased from elementary school to high school which they claim is due to their high school teachers.

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Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)
Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)
Mathematics anxiety is characterized by a specific set of unpleasant physiological, cognitive and behavioral reactions to any mathematical stimuli or mathematics learning contingencies. This paper had as a general objective to look for evidence of validity of assessment and intervention tools related to mathematics anxiety and to this end, the research was divided into two studies. The study part is intended to search for evidence of validity of the Mathematics Anxiety Scale (MAS). It is divided into three steps aiming in order to investigate the main objectives such as verify evidence of the inner structure of the MAS; check out correlations between high and low scores on the MAS and school performance in subject matters like mathematics, portuguese, history and geography; expand the application of the MAS in the South, Midwest and Northeast in Brazil and observe possible differences in average scores of mathematics anxiety in each region, taking into account students’ gender, school year (grades) and term. The second study aimed to verify the effectiveness of an intervention program to math anxiety and it was done in a single step. On the first study, the results in step 1, by Exploratory and Confirmatory Data Analysis, indicated that the MAS tends to show a structure with two dimensions. In part 2, the results showed that there was significant and positive correlation between MAS total score and performance in mathematics, in eleven two-month terms analyzed; Portuguese, in six two-month terms; History; in twomonth terms; Geography, in six two-month terms. In the third part, the results showed significant difference in MAS average in relation to the gender variable in the Midwest, southern regions and in the general sample. Referring to the period variable, there was also a significant difference in the Midwest, Southeast and also, in the general sample. On the school year variable, the significant differences in MAS average occurred in the Midwest and in the general sample. In the Midwest, the significant differences in MAS scores occurred between the 1st year of high school (9th grade) and the 6th and 7th years of elementary school. Significant differences were also observed between the 3rd grade and the 8th grade; the 6th grade and 8th and 1st grades; the 7th grade and 1st and 8th grades; and the 8th grade and 3rd, 6th and 7th grades. In the general sample, the differences between the 1st grade of high school (9th grade) and the 6th and 7th grades of elementary school. In relation to the general objective of this paper which is about the search for evidence of validity of an assessment tool and the effectiveness of an intervention, both concerned with math anxiety, data supporting positive evidence for carrying on using MAS and to the intervention were found in this research. Although the last one was only an initial study and thus it is still not possible to indicate whether it is effective, but the results are promising.
A ansiedade à matemática é caracterizada por um conjunto específico de reações fisiológicas desagradáveis, cognitivas e comportamentais diante de qualquer estímulo matemático ou contingências de aprendizagem de matemática. Esse trabalho teve como objetivo geral buscar evidências de validade de ferramentas de avaliação e intervenção relacionadas à ansiedade à matemática e para isso o trabalho foi dividido em dois estudos. O primeiro estudo é a busca de evidências de validade da Escala da Ansiedade à Matemática – EAM – dividida em três etapas para a investigação dos respectivos objetivos específicos: verificar evidências da estrutura interna da EAM; verificar correlações entre altos e baixos escores na escala EAM e desempenho escolar nas disciplinas de matemática, português, história e geografia; ampliar a aplicação da EAM na região Sul, Centro-Oeste e Nordeste e observar possíveis diferenças de média de escores de ansiedade à matemática em cada região, considerando as variáveis gênero, ano escolar e período. O segundo estudo teve como objetivo verificar a eficácia de um programa de intervenção de ansiedade à matemática e abrangeu apenas uma etapa. Sobre o primeiro estudo, os resultados na etapa 1 por meio da Análise Fatorial Exploratória e Confirmatória, indicaram que o instrumento EAM tende a apresentar uma estrutura com duas dimensões. Na etapa 2, os resultados mostraram que houve correlação significativa e positiva entre escore total da EAM e desempenho em: matemática, em onze bimestres analisados; português, em seis bimestres; história; em dois bimestres; geografia, em seis bimestres. Na terceira etapa, os resultados apontaram diferença significativa de média na EAM, em relação à variável gênero nas regiões Centro-Oeste, Sul e na amostra geral. Referente à variável período, também houve diferença significativa quando analisadas as regiões Centro-Oeste, Sudeste e também, na amostra geral; sobre a variável série, as diferenças significativas na média. da EAM ocorreram na região Centro-Oeste e na amostra geral. Na região Centro-Oeste as diferenças significativas na pontuação da EAM ocorreram entre o 1º ano do Ensino Médio e o 6º e 7º anos do Ensino Fundamental. Também foram observadas diferenças significativas entre o 3º ano e o 8º ano; o 6º ano e 8º e 1º anos; o 7º ano e 1º e 8º anos; e o 8º ano e 3º, 6º e 7º anos; na amostra geral as diferenças entre o 1º ano do Ensino Médio e a 6º e 7º anos do Ensino Fundamental. Em relação ao objetivo geral do estudo, sobre a busca de evidências de validade para um instrumento de avaliação e da eficácia de uma intervenção, ambos para ansiedade à matemática, na presente pesquisa foram encontrados dados que sustentam evidências positivas para a continuação dos estudos com a EAM e para a intervenção, embora esse último tenha sido apenas um estudo inicial e por isso, ainda não é possível indicar se possui eficácia, mas os resultados são favoráveis.

This PhD thesis comprises five studies aiming to investigate differences between low math- anxious (LMA) and high math-anxious (HMA) individuals in numeric processing by means of behavioral and event-related potential (ERPs) measures. The excellent temporal resolution of the ERP technique was expected to provide detailed information that would shed light about the difficulties HMA individuals face when they have to deal with numbers. The first study aimed to adapt into Spanish and validate the Shortened Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale (sMARS; Alexander & Martray, 1989) as a starting point of this thesis, in order to make sure that the construct of math anxiety (MA) was going to be assessed with an instrument providing valid and reliable measures. The adaptation into Spanish of the sMARS scale gave sound evidence of its good psychometric properties: strong internal consistency, high 7-week test-retest reliability and good convergent/discriminant validity. Study II aimed to investigate, with the ERP technique, the use of the plausibility strategy in math-anxious individuals by studying Faust et al. (1996)´s finding on flawed scores for dramatically incorrect solutions (large-split) in an arithmetic verification task. We were able to replicate, for the first time, those findings, by finding a greater percentage of flawed scores for large-split solutions for the HMA group as compared to the LMA one. Moreover, ERP analysis showed that large-split solutions generated a P600/P3b component of larger amplitude and delayed latency for the HMA group as compared to the LMA one. Given the functionality of this component, this finding suggested that large-split solutions demanded more cognitive resources and required more time to be processed for the HMA group than for the LMA one. These findings were interpreted according to the Attentional Control Theory (ACT; Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos, & Calvo, 2007): HMA individuals, being more influenced by the stimulus-driven attentional system, would have succumbed to the distractor nature of the large-split solution, devoting more time (P600/P3b latency) and cognitive resources (P600/P3b amplitude) to process this clearly wrong solution, instead of using the plausibility strategy. Study III consisted of finding the electrophysiological correlates of numeric interference in LMA and HMA individuals, by means of a numeric Stroop task. We found that HMA individuals needed more time to solve this task as compared to their LMA peers, suggesting that they were distracted by the task-irrelevant dimension of the stimuli (i.e. physical size of numbers). ERP data analysis showed that LMA and HMA individuals differed in the way they adapted to conflict: the LMA group presenting a greater N450 component for the interference effect preceded by congruence than when preceded by incongruity while the HMA group showed the same enhancement but for the subsequent Conflict sustained potential. These results suggested that both groups showed a different implementation of attentional control, which was executed in a proactive way by LMA individuals and in a reactive way by HMA ones. A reactive recruitment of attentional control in HMA individuals would have made them more influenced by bottom-up input (i.e. stimulus-driven attentional system), making them more vulnerable to distraction. The two remaining studies of this PhD thesis aimed to explore two possible factors contributing to the development of MA. Given that errors are crucial for mathematical learning, because of its cumulative nature, one concept building on the next, Study IV aimed to assess whether LMA and HMA individuals differed in the way they processed a numeric error as compared to a non- numeric one. We found that HMA individuals showed an increased error-related negativity (ERN) when they committed an error in the numeric Stroop task, but not in the classical Stroop task. Furthermore, standardized low resolution electromagnetic tomography (sLORETA) analysis showed significant greater voxel activation at the right insula for the errors committed in the numerical task as compared to the classical one for the HMA group and not differences at all for the LMA one. Given that the right insula has been associated with the discomfort with one´s own physiological responses and given that errors are considered to generate a cascade of physiological responses, this finding suggests that HMA individuals´ may have experienced a discomfort with the physiological responses generated by a numeric error. This negative bodily reaction towards numeric errors may be at the base of the development of negative attitudes towards mathematics and of the tendency of HMA individuals to avoid math-related situations. Finally, Study V aimed to investigate, by means of an emotional Stroop task, whether MA is characterized by an attentional bias towards math-related information, given that an attentional bias towards threatening information is considered to be a contributory factor in the origin and maintenance of several types of anxiety. This study showed that HMA individuals showed a clear tendency of responding slower to math-related words as compared to neutral words. Given that this slowdown in an emotional Stroop task has traditionally been interpreted as an attentional bias towards threatening or emotional stimuli, this study demonstrates that MA is also characterized by an attentional bias, in this case, towards math-related words, which could probably be at the base of its development and maintenance. To sum up, this PhD thesis has shown that MA is characterized by a vulnerability to distraction, which was shown when a large-split solution was presented for a simple addition task (Study II) and when physical size interfered with numerical magnitude in a numeric Stroop task (Study III). Moreover, HMA individuals also showed a reactive recruitment of attentional control after conflict detection (Study III), a greater sensitivity or emotional response to numeric errors (Study IV) and a clear tendency of an attentional bias towards math-related stimuli (Study V).
Esta tesis doctoral se compone de cinco estudios cuyo objetivo era investigar las diferencias en el procesamiento numérico entre individuos con alta ansiedad a las matemáticas (AAM) y aquellos con baja ansiedad a las matemáticas (BAM) a través de medidas conductuales y de potenciales evocados cerebrales (ERPs). Esperábamos que la excelente resolución temporal de esta técnica nos permitiera obtener información más específica sobre los problemas a los que se enfrentan los individuos con AAM cuando han de procesar números. El primer estudio pretendía adaptar al español y validar la escala sMARS (Alexander & Martray, 1989), como punto de partida de esta tesis, para asegurarnos de que el constructo de la ansiedad a las matemáticas (AM) fuera medido con un instrumento que nos proporcionara medidas válidas y fiables. La adaptación al español de esta escala dio evidencias de sus buenas propiedades psicométricas: alta consistencia interna, alta fiabilidad test-retest de 7 semanas, y alta validez convergente/discriminante. El Estudio II pretendía investigar, con la ayuda de los ERPs, el uso de la estrategia de plausibilidad en los individuos con AAM, estudiando el hallazgo de Faust et al. (1996) en su medida de puntuaciones anómalas (flawed scores) para las soluciones exageradamente incorrectas (large- split solutions). En primer lugar, reproducimos el patrón obtenido por dichos autores. Además, el análisis de ERPs mostró que las soluciones exageradamente incorrectas generaban un componente P600/P3b de mayor amplitud y de latencia más tardía para el grupo de AAM comparado con el de BAM. Dada la funcionalidad de este componente, estos resultados sugirieron que las soluciones exageradamente incorrectas demandaron más recursos cognitivos y requirieron más tiempo para ser procesadas en el grupo de AAM que en el de BAM. Estos resultados fueron interpretados de acuerdo a la Teoría del Control Atencional (ACT; Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos, & Calvo, 2007): los individuos con AAM, estando más influenciados por el sistema atencional ligado a estímulos (stimulus-driven attentional system), habrían sido más vulnerables a la distracción, y habrían sucumbido a la naturaleza distractora de las soluciones exageradamente incorrectas, empleando más recursos cognitivos y más tiempo (reflejado por la amplitud y la latencia del componente P600/P3b) para procesar esta solución implausible, en lugar de utilizar la estrategia de plausibilidad. Por otro lado, el Estudio III consistió en investigar el correlato electrofisiológico de la interferencia numérica en individuos con AAM, por medio de una tarea de Stroop numérico. En este estudio encontramos que los individuos con AAM necesitaban más tiempo para resolver la tarea que los individuos con BAM, sugiriendo que éstos se distraían con la dimensión irrelevante de la tarea (esto es, el tamaño físico). El análisis de ERPs demostró que los individuos con AAM y BAM presentaban una adaptación al conflicto diferente: el grupo de BAM mostró una mayor amplitud del componente N450 para la interferencia precedida por congruencia respecto a la precedida por incongruencia, mientras el grupo de AAM mostró dicho aumento de amplitud, pero para el componente CSP. Estos resultados sugirieron que los grupos implementaban el control atencional de un modo diferente: de una manera proactiva por el grupo de BAM y de una manera reactiva por el grupo de AAM. Un uso reactivo del control atencional en individuos con AAM los habría hecho más influenciables por el sistema atencional ligado a estímulos y, por tanto, más vulnerables a la distracción. Los dos estudios restantes de esta tesis doctoral pretendían explorar dos factores que podrían contribuir al desarrollo de la AM. Dado que los errores son cruciales para el aprendizaje de las matemáticas, el Estudio IV pretendía evaluar si los individuos con AAM y BAM diferirían en la manera en que procesan un error numérico respecto a otro no numérico. En este estudio encontramos que los individuos con AAM mostraron un componente ERN de mayor amplitud cuando cometían un error en la tarea numérica que cuando lo cometían en una tarea no numérica. Además el estudio con sLORETA mostró una mayor activación de la ínsula derecha para los errores cometidos en la tarea numérica respecto a la tarea no numérica, sólo para el grupo de AAM. Dado que la ínsula derecha se ha asociado al desagrado con las respuestas fisiológicas y dado que se considera que los errores generan una cascada de dichas respuestas, este hallazgo fue interpretado como indicador del malestar que los individuos con AAM habrían experimentado respecto a su respuesta fisiológica ante errores numéricos. Esta reacción corporal negativa hacia errores numéricos podría estar en la base del desarrollo de actitudes negativas hacia las matemáticas y de la tendencia de los individuos con AAM a evitar situaciones con contenido numérico. Finalmente, el Estudio V pretendía estudiar si la ansiedad a las matemáticas podría desarrollarse a través de los mismos mecanismos por los que se ha sugerido que se desarrollarían otros tipos de ansiedad investigando, por medio de la tarea de Stroop emocional, si la AM se caracteriza por un sesgo atencional hacia información relacionada con las matemáticas. Este estudio mostró que los individuos con AAM eran más lentos en indicar el color de la tinta de palabras relacionadas con las matemáticas comparado con palabras neutras, mientras que no hubo diferencias en este sentido para el grupo de BAM. Dado que este enlentecimiento en los tiempos de respuesta en la tarea de Stroop emocional se interpreta como un sesgo atencional hacia información emocional u amenazante, este estudio demuestra que la ansiedad a las matemáticas también se caracteriza por un sesgo atencional, que podría jugar algún papel en su desarrollo, mantenimiento o empeoramiento. Para resumir, esta tesis doctoral ha mostrado que la AM se caracteriza por una vulnerabilidad a la distracción, la cual se mostró cuando se presentó una solución exageradamente incorrecta para una tarea de sumas simples (Estudio II) y cuando el tamaño físico interfería con la magnitud numérica en una tarea de Stroop numérico (Estudio III). Además, los individuos con AAM también mostraron un uso reactivo del control atencional tras la detección del conflicto (Estudio III), mayor sensibilidad o respuesta emocional al error (Estudio IV) y un sesgo atencional hacia palabras relacionadas con las matemáticas (Estudio V).

The aim of this study is to explore the adult immigrant students’ experience of maths in Sweden. I will present an understanding rather than an explanation on how second language adult students learn maths. It can be argued that people who study maths as adults in a new homeland and in a foreign language face particular challenges. At the same time research reports that people sometimes approach the subject in a more fruitful way as adults compared to their childhood experiences. I want to contribute to the general knowledge of the subject and furthermore provide improved understanding of how mathematics teachers can guide their students towards their goals.I have performed semi-structured qualitative research interviews. My informants are my own maths students on the basic level with incomplete grades in maths from secondary school, or they have failed in their maths studies in upper secondary school due to a low level of know-ledge. They are over 20 years of age and they are all immigrants and have arrived in Sweden as adults. I have used my students statements, written as narratives as the material which is to be interpreted and understood. Because of my use of my own students in the interview, I will not take into account their statements about the teacher’s role in my conclusion.I find that:1. The difficult experience of being forced to leave the home country, together with a wish to take revenge on the failures from their youth, can lead to a kind of struggle for decom-pensation that can be reflected in the participants' positive evaluation of their maths studies.2. Having a family is a great motivational help for studying regardless of the time it takes to take care of the same.3. The memories of previous failures with the incomprehensible, abstract mathematics characterise the students’ inception of the subject.4. It seems possible that adult students can understand themselves in a new way and redefine their relationship with maths and their own ability to study the subject.

This thesis focuses on the challenges in teaching students with undiagnosed mathematical difficulties in an inclusive environment. Previous research mainly focuses on medically diagnosed mathematical difficulties in special education. Therefore, this study will focus on undiagnosed mathematical difficulties that fall within the teacher’s responsibility in the main classroom, such as math anxiety, lack of motivation and low self-esteem. To include students with these difficulties in the teaching environment, the teacher needs to manage the entailed challenges. This study is based on a hypothesis and associated research questions to investigate what students see as difficulties within mathematics and, more indepth, what teachers see as challenges. The two surveys conducted are based on a quantitative survey and a semi-structured interview. Further, this thesis discusses the students’ difficulties within mathematics, the complexity of the inclusive process and the pedagogical competence. The results show that the time aspect and the need for an excellent pedagogical relationship with the students are two of the most common challenges for the teacher. Further, the conclusion confirms that to succeed with inclusive teaching, the teacher must practice relational pedagogy. Individualized education will also play an important role, which will be a significant challenge in larger groups of students. The study has been conducted under a short time limit, and therefore some convenience-selections have been necessary. Further research could advantageously contain the same hypothesis and be carried out in a larger population and for a more extended period.

One of the big problems of the Swedish nine-year compulsory school is the large number of pupils who fail to achieve a satisfactory standard in mathematics. One explanation that has been increasingly considered over the last ten years is that the pupils have dyscalculia. Some research suggests that 6 per cent of compulsory school pupils suffer from this dysfunction, which would in that case make it one of the Swedish school’s greatest teaching problems.

The purpose of this thesis is to examine this problem area from two aspects. First of all by examining the concept of dyscalculia by means of a review of the literature from 1992 onwards. The second perspective has as its starting point a case study where the purpose was to give a detailed picture of the pupil with mathematics problems. The latter part of the study was carried out over a six-year period when 200 pupils, 13 of them with particular mathematics problems, were studied in detail.

A point of departure for the study was provided by a large database where as much information as possible was collected about pupils from Year 5 of the nine-year compulsory school to Year 2 of the three-year upper secondary school. The pupils were asked to fill in regular questionnaires and classroom observations were made of roughly 100 mathematics lessons, 40 of which were recorded on video. Finally there were in-depth interviews of the 13 pupils on two occasions, the final one being during Year 2 of the upper secondary school.

The review of the research showed a series of dubious and indistinct circumstances surrounding the dyscalculia concept, and also ambiguity with regard to the diagnosis of dyscalculia. The conclusion of the review was that the concept of dyscalculia ought at present to be used with great caution, or perhaps not at all. Admittedly the review does not provide grounds for totally dismissing the dyscalculia concept, but as long as it remains impossible to determine the concept unambiguously, and I have not been able to do this in the course of this study, there are no good scientific grounds for using the term dyscalculia in practice.

The empirical study shows the complexity of the problem area. Both the causes suggested by the pupils as the origin of the problem and the measures that helped them to obtain their mathematics grades form a complex pattern. The low work input of the pupils during mathematics lessons, an unsettled working environment, large classes, problems of stress and anxiety prior to tests, and obstructive gender patterns are among the causes suggested by the pupils as explanations of the occurrence of the mathematics problems. Good teachers, in other words teachers who can explain, set limits and give encouragement, were a significant factor in reversing the downward trend. Positive experiences of school changes, where the pupil felt that he or she could start again from the beginning, were also mentioned as significant by several pupils. Collaboration with fellow-pupils and the fact that the pupils themselves decided to get to grips with the problems were other important reasons for the change. The prospects of students with specific problems in mathematics nevertheless being able to leave compulsory school with satisfactory grades appear, however, from the results of this study, to be bright. All the pupils left the compulsory school with satisfactory mathematics grades and also completed mathematics studies at upper secondary school, despite major problems in the subject at intermediate school (age 10-13) stage.

The study indicates the need for research closer to the actual practical situation and to the importance of emphasizing good examples in practice. As the students themselves emphasize discrete communication between them as significant in the subject of mathematics, this is also an important area for future research.