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Journal articles on the topic 'Mcy genes'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 2 February 2022

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1

Christiansen, Guntram, Jutta Fastner, Marcel Erhard, Thomas Börner, and Elke Dittmann. "Microcystin Biosynthesis in Planktothrix: Genes, Evolution, and Manipulation." Journal of Bacteriology 185, no. 2 (January 15, 2003): 564–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jb.185.2.564-572.2003.

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ABSTRACT Microcystins represent an extraordinarily large family of cyclic heptapeptide toxins that are nonribosomally synthesized by various cyanobacteria. Microcystins specifically inhibit the eukaryotic protein phosphatases 1 and 2A. Their outstanding variability makes them particularly useful for studies on the evolution of structure-function relationships in peptide synthetases and their genes. Analyses of microcystin synthetase genes provide valuable clues for the potential and limits of combinatorial biosynthesis. We have sequenced and analyzed 55.6 kb of the potential microcystin synthetase gene (mcy) cluster from the filamentous cyanobacterium Planktothrix agardhii CYA 126. The cluster contains genes for peptide synthetases (mcyABC), polyketide synthases (PKSs; mcyD), chimeric enzymes composed of peptide synthetase and PKS modules (mcyEG), a putative thioesterase (mcyT), a putative ABC transporter (mcyH), and a putative peptide-modifying enzyme (mcyJ). The gene content and arrangement and the sequence of specific domains in the gene products differ from those of the mcy cluster in Microcystis, a unicellular cyanobacterium. The data suggest an evolution of mcy clusters from, rather than to, genes for nodularin (a related pentapeptide) biosynthesis. Our data do not support the idea of horizontal gene transfer of complete mcy gene clusters between the genera. We have established a protocol for stable genetic transformation of Planktothrix, a genus that is characterized by multicellular filaments exhibiting continuous motility. Targeted mutation of mcyJ revealed its function as a gene coding for a O-methyltransferase. The mutant cells produce a novel microcystin variant exhibiting reduced inhibitory activity toward protein phosphatases.
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2

DONG, S. J., X. D. BI, J. Y. ZHANG, W. DAI, P. P. ZHANG, K. R. ZHOU, X. Y. WANG, and D. J. ZHANG. "ANALYSIS OF THE MICROCYSTIN-LR PRODUCTION ABILITY OF METAGENOMIC MCY GENES IN FRESHWATER AQUACULTURE PONDS FOCUSING ON THE ABUNDANCE OF METAGENOMIC MCY GENES AND SNP." Applied Ecology and Environmental Research 19, no. 1 (2021): 237–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1901_237248.

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3

Christiansen, Guntram, Rainer Kurmayer, Qian Liu, and Thomas Börner. "Transposons Inactivate Biosynthesis of the Nonribosomal Peptide Microcystin in Naturally Occurring Planktothrix spp." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 72, no. 1 (January 2006): 117–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.72.1.117-123.2006.

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ABSTRACT The filamentous cyanobacteria Planktothrix spp. occur in the temperate region of the Northern hemisphere. The red-pigmented Planktothrix rubescens bacteria occur in deep, physically stratified, and less eutrophic lakes. Planktothrix is a known producer of the toxic heptapeptide microcystin (MC), which is produced nonribosomally by a large enzyme complex consisting of peptide synthetases and polyketide synthases encoded by a total of nine genes (mcy genes). Planktothrix spp. differ in their cellular MC contents as well as the production of MC variants; however, the mechanisms favoring this diversity are not understood. Recently, the occurrence of Planktothrix strains containing all mcy genes but lacking MC has been reported. In this study, 29 such strains were analyzed to find out if mutations of the mcy genes lead to the inability to synthesize MC. Two deletions, spanning 400 bp (in mcyB; one strain) and 1,869 bp (in mcyHA; three strains), and three insertions (IS), spanning 1,429 bp (in mcyD; eight strains), 1,433 bp (in mcyEG; one strain), and 1,433 bp (in mcyA; one strain), were identified. Though found in different genes and different isolates and transcribed in opposite directions, IS were found to be identical and contained conserved domains assigned to transposable elements. Using mutation-specific primers, two insertions (in mcyD and mcyA) and one deletion (in mcyHA) were found regularly in populations of P. rubescens in different lakes. The results demonstrate for the first time that different mutations resulting in inactivation of MC synthesis do occur frequently and make up a stable proportion of the mcy gene pool in Planktothrix populations over several years.
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4

Tanabe, Yuuhiko, Kunimitsu Kaya, and Makoto M. Watanabe. "Evidence for Recombination in the Microcystin Synthetase (mcy) Genes ofToxic Cyanobacteria Microcystis spp." Journal of Molecular Evolution 58, no. 6 (June 2004): 633–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00239-004-2583-1.

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5

Kurmayer, Rainer, and Thomas Kutzenberger. "Application of Real-Time PCR for Quantification of Microcystin Genotypes in a Population of the Toxic Cyanobacterium Microcystis sp." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 69, no. 11 (November 2003): 6723–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.69.11.6723-6730.2003.

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ABSTRACT The cyanobacterium Microcystis sp. frequently develops water blooms consisting of organisms with different genotypes that either produce or lack the hepatotoxin microcystin. In order to monitor the development of microcystin (mcy) genotypes during the seasonal cycle of the total population, mcy genotypes were quantified by means of real-time PCR in Lake Wannsee (Berlin, Germany) from June 1999 to October 2000. Standard curves were established by relating cell concentrations to the threshold cycle (the PCR cycle number at which the fluorescence passes a set threshold level) determined by the Taq nuclease assay (TNA) for two gene regions, the intergenic spacer region within the phycocyanin (PC) operon to quantify the total population and the mcyB gene, which is indicative of microcystin synthesis. In laboratory batch cultures, the cell numbers inferred from the standard curve by TNA correlated significantly with the microscopically determined cell numbers on a logarithmic scale. The TNA analysis of 10 strains revealed identical amplification efficiencies for both genes. In the field, the proportion of mcy genotypes made up the smaller part of the PC genotypes, ranging from 1 to 38%. The number of mcyB genotypes was one-to-one related to the number of PC genotypes, and parallel relationships between cell numbers estimated via the inverted microscope technique and TNA were found for both genes. It is concluded that the mean proportion of microcystin genotypes is stable from winter to summer and that Microcystis cell numbers could be used to infer the mean proportion of mcy genotypes in Lake Wannsee.
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6

Sipari, Hanna, Anne Rantala-Ylinen, Jouni Jokela, Ilona Oksanen, and Kaarina Sivonen. "Development of a Chip Assay and Quantitative PCR for Detecting Microcystin Synthetase E Gene Expression." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 76, no. 12 (April 16, 2010): 3797–805. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.00452-10.

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ABSTRACT The chip and quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) assays were optimized to study the expression of microcystin biosynthesis genes (mcy) with RNA samples extracted from cyanobacterial strains and environmental water samples. Both microcystin-producing Anabaena and Microcystis were identified in Lake Tuusulanjärvi samples. Microcystis transcribed the mcyE genes throughout the summer of 2006, while expression by Anabaena became evident later in August and September. Active mcyE gene expression was also detectable when microcystin concentrations were very low. Detection of Anabaena mcyE transcripts by qPCR, as well as certain cyanobacterial 16S rRNAs with the chip assay, showed slightly reduced sensitivity compared with the DNA analyses. In contrast, even groups undetectable or present in low quantities as determined by microscopy could be identified with the chip assay from DNA samples. The methods introduced add to the previously scarce repertoire of applications for mcy expression profiling in environmental samples and enable in situ studies of regulation of microcystin synthesis in response to environmental factors.
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7

Cordeiro, Rita, Joana Azevedo, Rúben Luz, Vitor Vasconcelos, Vítor Gonçalves, and Amélia Fonseca. "Cyanotoxin Screening in BACA Culture Collection: Identification of New Cylindrospermopsin Producing Cyanobacteria." Toxins 13, no. 4 (April 3, 2021): 258. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins13040258.

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Microcystins (MCs), Saxitoxins (STXs), and Cylindrospermopsins (CYNs) are some of the more well-known cyanotoxins. Taking into consideration the impacts of cyanotoxins, many studies have focused on the identification of unknown cyanotoxin(s)-producing strains. This study aimed to screen strains from the Azorean Bank of Algae and Cyanobacteria (BACA) for MCs, STX, and CYN production. A total of 157 strains were searched for mcy, sxt, and cyr producing genes by PCR, toxin identification by ESI-LC-MS/MS, and cyanotoxin-producing strains morphological identification and confirmation by 16S rRNA phylogenetic analysis. Cyanotoxin-producing genes were amplified in 13 strains and four were confirmed as toxin producers by ESI-LC-MS/MS. As expected Aphanizomenon gracile BACA0041 was confirmed as an STX producer, with amplification of genes sxtA, sxtG, sxtH, and sxtI, and Microcystis aeruginosa BACA0148 as an MC-LR producer, with amplification of genes mcyC, mcyD, mcyE, and mcyG. Two nostocalean strains, BACA0025 and BACA0031, were positive for both cyrB and cyrC genes and ESI-LC-MS/MS confirmed CYN production. Although these strains morphologically resemble Sphaerospermopsis, the 16S rRNA phylogenetic analysis reveals that they probably belong to a new genus.
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8

Tanabe, Yuuhiko, Tomoharu Sano, Fumie Kasai, and Makoto M. Watanabe. "Recombination, cryptic clades and neutral molecular divergence of the microcystin synthetase (mcy) genes of toxic cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa." BMC Evolutionary Biology 9, no. 1 (2009): 115. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-9-115.

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9

Mbukwa, Elbert A., Sammy Boussiba, Victor Wepener, Stefan Leu, Yuval Kaye, Titus A. M. Msagati, and Bhekie B. Mamba. "PCR amplification and DNA sequence of mcyA gene: The distribution profile of a toxigenic Microcystis aeruginosa in the Hartbeespoort Dam, South Africa." Journal of Water and Health 11, no. 3 (April 25, 2013): 563–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2013.014.

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Using new polymerase chain reaction (PCR) primers, a once known to be under-transcribed microcystin synthetase A (mcyA) gene from the only known toxigenic cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa dominating the Hartbeespoort Dam was consistently amplified from genomic DNA extracted from a set of algal and cell free water samples collected across this dam. In addition to this, five more mcy genes (mcyBCDEG) were also amplified during this study. The resultant mcyA PCR products (518 bp) were purified and sequenced and gave nucleotide sequence segments of 408 bp sizes. The obtained sequence was aligned to the published mcyA gene sequence available online on the NCBI database and resulted in 100% similarity to a 408 bp mcyA gene sequence segment of M. aeruginosa UWOCC RID-1. Furthermore, it was found that the above sequence segment (408 bp) spans from a common base in M. aeruginosa PCC 7806 and M. aeruginosa PCC 7820 from 141 to 548 bp in the N-methyl transferase (NMT) region signifying their closer relatedness to M. aeruginosa UWOCC strains. This study has for the first time amplified mcyA gene consistently from both intracellular and extracellular DNA extracts obtained from algal and cell free water samples, respectively. Sequence data and the amplified mcy genes showed that M. aeruginosa is widely distributed and dominant in this dam.
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10

Pearson, Leanne A., Michael Hisbergues, Thomas B�rner, Elke Dittmann, and Brett A. Neilan. "Inactivation of an ABC Transporter Gene, mcyH, Results in Loss of Microcystin Production in the Cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa PCC 7806." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 70, no. 11 (November 2004): 6370–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.70.11.6370-6378.2004.

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ABSTRACT The cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa is widely known for its production of the potent hepatotoxin microcystin. Microcystin is synthesized nonribosomally by the thiotemplate function of a large, modular enzyme complex encoded within the 55-kb microcystin synthetase (mcy) gene cluster. Also encoded within the mcy gene cluster is a putative ATP binding cassette (ABC) transporter, McyH. This study details the bioinformatic and mutational analyses of McyH and offers functional predictions for the hypothetical protein. The transporter is putatively comprised of two homodimers, each with an N-terminal hydrophobic domain and a C-terminal ATPase. Phylogenetically, McyH was found to cluster with members of the ABC-A1 subgroup of ABC ATPases, suggesting an export function for the protein. Two mcyH null mutant (ΔmcyH) strains were constructed by partial deletion of the mcyH gene. Microcystin production was completely absent in these strains. While the mcyH deletion had no apparent effect on the transcription of other mcy genes, the complete microcystin biosynthesis enzyme complex could not be detected in ΔmcyH mutant strains. Finally, expression levels of McyH in the wild type and in ΔmcyA, ΔmcyB, and ΔmcyH mutants were investigated by using immunoblotting with an anti-McyH antibody. Expression of McyH was found to be reduced in ΔmcyA and ΔmcyB mutants and completely absent in the ΔmcyH mutant. By virtue of its association with the mcy gene cluster and the bioinformatic and experimental data presented in this study, we predict that McyH functions as a microcystin exporter and is, in addition, intimately associated with the microcystin biosynthesis pathway.
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11

Zuo, Jun, Liting Chen, Kun Shan, Lili Hu, Lirong Song, and Nanqin Gan. "Assessment of different mcy genes for detecting the toxic to non-toxic Microcystis ratio in the field by multiplex qPCR." Journal of Oceanology and Limnology 36, no. 4 (July 2018): 1132–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00343-019-7186-1.

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12

Wang, Shanlin, Ping Ding, Siyu Lu, Pian Wu, Xiaoqian Wei, Ruixue Huang, and Tianhan Kai. "Cell density-dependent regulation of microcystin synthetase genes (mcy) expression and microcystin-LR production in Microcystis aeruginosa that mimics quorum sensing." Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 220 (September 2021): 112330. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112330.

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13

Kaebernick, Melanie, Elke Dittmann, Thomas B�rner, and Brett A. Neilan. "Multiple Alternate Transcripts Direct the Biosynthesis of Microcystin, a Cyanobacterial." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 68, no. 2 (February 2002): 449–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.68.2.449-455.2002.

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ABSTRACT The mcyABCDEFGHIJ gene cluster of Microcystis aeruginosa encodes the mixed polyketide synthase/nonribosomal peptide synthetase (microcystin synthetase) which is responsible for biosynthesis of the potent liver toxin microcystin. The sequence and orientation of the mcy genes have previously been reported, but no transcriptional analysis had been performed prior to this study. The mcyABCDEFGHIJ genes are transcribed as two polycistronic operons, mcyABC and mcyDEFGHIJ, from a central bidirectional promoter between mcyA and mcyD. Two transcription start sites were detected for both mcyA and mcyD when cells were exposed to light intensities of 68 and 16 μmol of photons m−2 s−1. The start sites, located 206 and 254 bp upstream of the translational start for mcyD under high and low light conditions, respectively, indicate long untranslated leader regions. Putative transcription start sites were also identified for mcyE, mcyF, mcyG, mcyH, mcyI, and mcyJ but not for mcyB and mcyC. A combination of reverse transcription-PCR and rapid amplification of cDNA ends was employed throughout this work, which may have been one of the first transcriptional analyses of a large nonribosomal polyketide gene cluster.
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14

Beiter, T., and M. Velders. "Pimp My Genes - Gendoping zwischen Fakten und Fiktionen." Deutsche Zeitschrift für Sportmedizin 2012, no. 05 (May 1, 2012): 121–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.5960/dzsm.2012.019.

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15

Kaebernick, Melanie, Brett A. Neilan, Thomas Börner, and Elke Dittmann. "Light and the Transcriptional Response of the Microcystin Biosynthesis Gene Cluster." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 66, no. 8 (August 1, 2000): 3387–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.66.8.3387-3392.2000.

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ABSTRACT Microcystin, a hepatotoxin known to be the cause of animal and human deaths, is produced by the bloom-forming cyanobacteriumMicrocystis aeruginosa in freshwater bodies worldwide. The toxin is produced nonribosomally via a multifunctional enzyme complex, consisting of both peptide synthetase and polyketide synthase modules coded for by the mcy gene cluster. The recent identification of the mcy genes in the production of microcystin synthetase for the first time provides an avenue to study the regulation of microcystin production at a genetic level. In this study, M. aeruginosa PCC7806 was grown either under continuous light of various intensities or under low light with subsequent short-term exposure to different light intensities and qualities and various stress factors. RNase protection assays were employed to observe the level of mcyB and mcyDtranscription under each condition. Both mcyB andmcyD transcript levels were increased under high light intensities and red light. Blue light and certain artificial stress factors (methylviologen and NaCl) led to reduced transcript amounts. There appeared to be two light thresholds, between dark and low light (16 μmol of photons m−2 s−1), and medium (31 μmol of photons m−2 s−1) and high light (68 μmol of photons m−2 s−1), at which a significant increase in transcription occurred. Our findings show that the effect of light on microcystin synthetase production is due to light quality and is initiated at certain threshold intensities, which are not necessarily reflected by observed intracellular toxin bioactivity.
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16

Khomutovska, Nataliia, Małgorzata Sandzewicz, Łukasz Łach, Małgorzata Suska-Malawska, Monika Chmielewska, Hanna Mazur-Marzec, Marta Cegłowska, et al. "Limited Microcystin, Anatoxin and Cylindrospermopsin Production by Cyanobacteria from Microbial Mats in Cold Deserts." Toxins 12, no. 4 (April 11, 2020): 244. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins12040244.

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Toxic metabolites are produced by many cyanobacterial species. There are limited data on toxigenic benthic, mat-forming cyanobacteria, and information on toxic cyanobacteria from Central Asia is even more scarce. In the present study, we examined cyanobacterial diversity and community structure, the presence of genes involved in toxin production and the occurrence of cyanotoxins in cyanobacterial mats from small water bodies in a cold high-mountain desert of Eastern Pamir. Diversity was explored using amplicon-based sequencing targeting the V3-V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene, toxin potential using PCR-based methods (mcy, nda, ana, sxt), and toxins by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Molecular identification of cyanobacteria showed a high similarity of abundant taxa to Nostoc PCC-73102, Nostoc PCC-7524, Nodularia PCC-935 and Leptolyngbya CYN68. The PCRs revealed the presence of mcyE and/or ndaF genes in 11 samples and mcyD in six. The partial sequences of the mcyE gene showed high sequence similarity to Nostoc, Planktothrix and uncultured cyanobacteria. LC-MS/MS analysis identified six microcystin congeners in two samples and unknown peptides in one. These results suggest that, in this extreme environment, cyanobacteria do not commonly produce microcystins, anatoxins and cylindrospermopsins, despite the high diversity and widespread occurrence of potentially toxic taxa.
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17

Pound, Helena L., and Steven W. Wilhelm. "Tracing the active genetic diversity of Microcystis and Microcystis phage through a temporal survey of Taihu." PLOS ONE 15, no. 12 (December 28, 2020): e0244482. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0244482.

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Harmful algal blooms are commonly thought to be dominated by a single genus, but they are not homogenous communities. Current approaches, both molecular and culture-based, often overlook fine-scale variations in community composition that can influence bloom dynamics. We combined homology-based searches (BLASTX) and phylogenetics to distinguish and quantify Microcystis host and phage members across a summer season during a 2014 Microcystis- dominated bloom that occurred in Lake Tai (Taihu), China. We found 47 different genotypes of the Microcystis-specific DNA-dependent RNA polymerase (rpoB), which included several morphospecies. Microcystis flos-aquae and Microcystis wesenbergii accounted for ~86% of total Microcystis transcripts, while the more commonly studied Microcystis aeruginosa only accounted for ~7%. Microcystis genotypes were classified into three temporal groups according to their expression patterns across the course of the bloom: early, constant and late. All Microcystis morphospecies were present in each group, indicating that expression patterns were likely dictated by competition driven by environmental factors, not phylogeny. We identified three primary Microcystis-infecting phages based on the viral terminase, including a novel Siphoviridae phage that may be capable of lysogeny. Within our dataset, Myoviridae phages consistent with those infecting Microcystis in a lytic manner were positively correlated to the early host genotypes, while the Siphoviridae phages were positively correlated to the late host genotypes, when the Myoviridae phages express putative genetic markers for lysogeny. The expression of genes in the microcystin-encoding mcy cassette was estimated using mcyA, which revealed 24 Microcystis-specific genotypes that were negatively correlated to the early host genotypes. Of all environmental factors measured, pH best described the temporal shift in the Microcystis community genotypic composition, promoting hypotheses regarding carbon concentration mechanisms and oxidative stress. Our work expounds on the complexity of HAB events, using a well-studied dataset to highlight the need for increased resolution of community dynamics.
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18

Wei, X. K., Y. Z. Zhong, Y. Pan, X. N. Li, J. J. Liang, and T. R. Luo. "The N and P genes facilitate pathogenicity of the rabies virus G gene." Veterinární Medicína 63, No. 12 (December 3, 2018): 561–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.17221/63/2018-vetmed.

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To explore the effects of different gene combinations on the pathogenicity of the rabies virus (RABV), six chimeric RABV mutants, rRC-HL(G), rRC-HL(NG), rRC-HL(PG), rRC-HL(NP), rRC-HL(NM) and rRC-HL(NPG), were constructed using a reverse genetic technique based on an avirulent parental rRC-HL strain and a virulent parental GX074 isolate. These mutants were intracerebrally inoculated into adult mice. The results indicated that 10<sup>2</sup> ffu and 10<sup>6</sup> ffu of rRC-HL(G), rRC-HL(NG), rRC-HL(PG) and rRC-HL(NPG) were 100% lethal. In the case of intramuscular viral infection, none of the mice inoculated with 10<sup>2 </sup>ffu of any of the RABV mutants, including GX074, died; at 10<sup>6 </sup>ffu, rRC-HL(G) was lethal in 2/5 cases, rRC-HL(NG) was lethal in 1/5 cases and rRC-HL(PG) was lethal for 2/5 mice. The rRC-HL(NPG) mutant was fatal for 3/5 mice, as was the parental GX074. Furthermore, the LD<sub>50</sub> values of the chimeric RABV mutants were measured, with the results showing that the LD<sub>50</sub> values of both rRC-HL(NG) and rRC-HL(PG) were lower than that of rRC-HL(G), but higher than that of rRC-HL(NPG). Thus, the action of N + G, or P + G, or N + P + G gene combinations may be more pronounced than that of the G gene alone. Body weight changes and the clinical symptoms of the tested mice were consistent with pathogenicity. These data indicate that the N and P genes are involved in and facilitate the pathogenicity of the RABV G gene. These experiments provide further evidence that multi-gene cooperation is responsible for the virulence of RABV.
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19

Perez, Jose L., and Tinchun Chu. "Effect of Zinc on Microcystis aeruginosa UTEX LB 2385 and Its Toxin Production." Toxins 12, no. 2 (January 30, 2020): 92. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins12020092.

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Cyanobacteria harmful algal blooms (CHABs) are primarily caused by man-made eutrophication and increasing climate-change conditions. The presence of heavy metal runoff in affected water systems may result in CHABs alteration to their ecological interactions. Certain CHABs produce by-products, such as microcystin (MC) cyanotoxins, that have detrimentally affected humans through contact via recreation activities within implicated water bodies, directly drinking contaminated water, ingesting biomagnified cyanotoxins in seafood, and/or contact through miscellaneous water treatment. Metallothionein (MT) is a small, metal-sequestration cysteine rich protein often upregulated within the stress response mechanism. This study focused on zinc metal resistance and stress response in a toxigenic cyanobacterium, Microcystis aeruginosa UTEX LB 2385, by monitoring cells with (0, 0.1, 0.25, and 0.5 mg/L) ZnCl2 treatment. Flow cytometry and phase contrast microscopy were used to evaluate physiological responses in cultures. Molecular assays and an immunosorbent assay were used to characterize the expression of MT and MC under zinc stress. The results showed that the half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) was 0.25 mg/L ZnCl2. Flow cytometry and phase contrast microscopy showed morphological changes occurred in cultures exposed to 0.25 and 0.5 mg/L ZnCl2. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) analysis of selected cDNA samples showed significant upregulation of Mmt through all time points, significant upregulation of mcyC at a later time point. ELISA MC-LR analysis showed extracellular MC-LR (µg/L) and intracellular MC-LR (µg/cell) quota measurements persisted through 15 days, although 0.25 mg/L ZnCl2 treatment produced half the normal cell biomass and 0.5 mg/L treatment largely inhibited growth. The 0.25 and 0.5 mg/L ZnCl2 treated cells demonstrated a ~40% and 33% increase of extracellular MC-LR(µg/L) equivalents, respectively, as early as Day 5 compared to control cells. The 0.5 mg/L ZnCl2 treated cells showed higher total MC-LR (µg/cell) quota yield by Day 8 than both 0 mg/L ZnCl2 control cells and 0.1 mg/L ZnCl2 treated cells, indicating release of MCs upon cell lysis. This study showed this Microcystis aeruginosa strain is able to survive in 0.25 mg/L ZnCl2 concentration. Certain morphological zinc stress responses and the upregulation of mt and mcy genes, as well as periodical increased extracellular MC-LR concentration with ZnCl2 treatment were observed.
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20

Nesvadbová, M., and A. Knoll. "Evaluation of reference genes for gene expression studies in pig muscle tissue by real-time PCR." Czech Journal of Animal Science 56, No. 5 (May 30, 2011): 213–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.17221/1428-cjas.

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The selection of reference genes is essential for gene expression studies when using a real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Reference gene selection should be performed for each experiment because the gene expression level may be changed in different experimental conditions. In this study, the stability of mRNA expression was determined for seven genes: HPRT1, RPS18, NACA, TBP, TAF4B, RPL32 and OAZ1. The stability of these reference genes was investigated in the skeletal muscle tissue of pig foetuses, piglets and adult pigs using real-time quantitative PCR and SYBR green chemistry. The expression of stability of the used reference genes was calculated using the geNorm application. Different gene expression profiles among the age categories of pigs were found out. RPS18 has been identified as the gene with the most stable expression in the muscle tissue of all pig age categories. HPRT1 and RPL32 were found to have the highest stability in piglets and adult pigs, and in foetuses and adults pigs, respectively. The newly used reference gene, TAF4B, reached the highest expression stability in piglets.
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21

SARI, Ayşe Nur, Serap SÜZÜK, Onur KARATUNA, Dilara ÖĞÜNÇ, Ayşe Esra KARAKOÇ, Zeynep ÇİZMECİ, Hikmet Eda ALIŞKAN, et al. "Ülkemizde Klinik Enterobacteriaceae İzolatlarında Plazmit Aracılı Kolistin Direnç Genlerini (mcr-1 ve mcr-2) Araştıran Çok Merkezli Çalışmaya Ait Sonuçlar." Mikrobiyoloji Bulteni 51, no. 3 (July 10, 2017): 299–303. http://dx.doi.org/10.5578/mb.57515.

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22

Rosenberg, M., A. RayChaudhury, T. B. Shows, M. M. Le Beau, and E. Fuchs. "A group of type I keratin genes on human chromosome 17: characterization and expression." Molecular and Cellular Biology 8, no. 2 (February 1988): 722–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.8.2.722.

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The human type I keratins K16 and K14 are coexpressed in a number of epithelial tissues, including esophagus, tongue, and hair follicles. We determined that two genes encoding K16 and three genes encoding K14 were clustered in two distinct segments of chromosome 17. The genes within each cluster were tightly linked, and large parts of the genome containing these genes have been recently duplicated. The sequences of the two K16 genes showed striking homology not only within the coding sequences, but also within the intron positions and sequences and extending at least 400 base pairs 5' upstream and 850 base pairs 3' downstream from these genes. Despite the strong homologies between these two genes, only one of the genes encoded a protein which assembled into keratin filaments when introduced into simple epithelial cells. While there were no obvious abnormalities in the sequence of the other gene, its promoter seemed to be significantly weaker, and even a hybrid gene with the other gene's promoter gave rise to a much reduced mRNA level after gene transfection. To demonstrate that the functional K16 gene that we identified was in fact responsible for the K16 expressed in human tissues, we made a polyclonal antiserum which recognized our functional K16 gene product in both denatured and filamentous form and which was specific for bona fide human K16.
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23

Rosenberg, M., A. RayChaudhury, T. B. Shows, M. M. Le Beau, and E. Fuchs. "A group of type I keratin genes on human chromosome 17: characterization and expression." Molecular and Cellular Biology 8, no. 2 (February 1988): 722–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.8.2.722-736.1988.

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The human type I keratins K16 and K14 are coexpressed in a number of epithelial tissues, including esophagus, tongue, and hair follicles. We determined that two genes encoding K16 and three genes encoding K14 were clustered in two distinct segments of chromosome 17. The genes within each cluster were tightly linked, and large parts of the genome containing these genes have been recently duplicated. The sequences of the two K16 genes showed striking homology not only within the coding sequences, but also within the intron positions and sequences and extending at least 400 base pairs 5' upstream and 850 base pairs 3' downstream from these genes. Despite the strong homologies between these two genes, only one of the genes encoded a protein which assembled into keratin filaments when introduced into simple epithelial cells. While there were no obvious abnormalities in the sequence of the other gene, its promoter seemed to be significantly weaker, and even a hybrid gene with the other gene's promoter gave rise to a much reduced mRNA level after gene transfection. To demonstrate that the functional K16 gene that we identified was in fact responsible for the K16 expressed in human tissues, we made a polyclonal antiserum which recognized our functional K16 gene product in both denatured and filamentous form and which was specific for bona fide human K16.
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24

Özkaya, Esra, Celal Kurtuluş Buruk, İlknur Tosun, Bayram Toraman, Neşe Kaklıkkaya, and Faruk Aydın. "Klinik Enterobacterales İzolatlarında Plazmit Aracılı mcr Kolistin Direnç Geninin Araştırılması." Mikrobiyoloji Bulteni 54, no. 2 (April 15, 2020): 191–202. http://dx.doi.org/10.5578/mb.69021.

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25

Fischer, Annegret, and Benjamin A. Rybicki. "Granuloma genes in sarcoidosis." Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine 21, no. 5 (September 2015): 510–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/mcp.0000000000000189.

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26

Emerman, M., and H. M. Temin. "Quantitative analysis of gene suppression in integrated retrovirus vectors." Molecular and Cellular Biology 6, no. 3 (March 1986): 792–800. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.6.3.792.

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Previously, we described a retrovirus vector that contained two genes: a 5' gene under transcriptional control of the viral long terminal repeat and a 3' gene under transcriptional control of the herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase promoter. By using a biological assay, we found that expression of the 5' gene is suppressed when there was selection for the 3' gene and expression of the 3' gene is suppressed when there is selection for the 5' gene (M. Emerman and H. M. Temin, Cell 39:459-467, 1984). In the present study, we replaced the thymidine kinase promoter with stronger promoters, and we measured expression of the genes in the retrovirus vectors by enzyme activity and RNA analysis. We found that all of the vectors displayed gene suppression when analyzed biochemically, although not when analyzed biologically. The suppressed genes produced about 10 to 50% as much product as when they were selected. The amount of suppression depended on whether the suppressed gene was 5' or 3' to the selected gene and from which promoter the suppressed gene was transcribed. The amount of suppression correlated with a decrease in the amount of steady-state RNA transcribed from the suppressed gene's promoter.
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27

Lawrence, Jeffrey G., and John R. Roth. "Selfish Operons: Horizontal Transfer May Drive the Evolution of Gene Clusters." Genetics 143, no. 4 (August 1, 1996): 1843–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/143.4.1843.

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Abstract A model is presented whereby the formation of gene clusters in bacteria is mediated by transfer of DNA within and among taxa. Bacterial operons are typically composed of genes whose products contribute to a single function. If this function is subject to weak selection or to long periods with no selection, the contributing genes may accumulate mutations and be lost by genetic drift. From a cell's perspective, once several genes are lost, the function can be restored only if all missing genes were acquired simultaneously by lateral transfer. The probability of transfer of multiple genes increases when genes are physically proximate. From a gene's perspective, horizontal transfer provides a way to escape evolutionary loss by allowing colonization of organisms lacking the encoded functions. Since organisms bearing clustered genes are more likely to act as successful donors, clustered genes would spread among bacterial genomes. The physical proximity of genes may be considered a selfish property of the operon since it affects the probability of successful horizontal transfer but may provide no physiological benefit to the host. This process predicts a mosaic structure of modern genomes in which ancestral chromosomal material is interspersed with novel, horizontally transferred operons providing peripheral metabolic functions.
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28

Christakis, Nicholas A. "Medicine may change our genes." BMJ 336, no. 7653 (May 15, 2008): 1101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39580.445856.59.

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29

&NA;. "Genes may be the culprits." Inpharma Weekly &NA;, no. 838 (May 1992): 21. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00128413-199208380-00046.

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&NA;. "Genes may be the culprits." Reactions Weekly &NA;, no. 403 (May 1992): 4. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00128415-199204030-00009.

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31

Resendez, E., J. W. Attenello, A. Grafsky, C. S. Chang, and A. S. Lee. "Calcium ionophore A23187 induces expression of glucose-regulated genes and their heterologous fusion genes." Molecular and Cellular Biology 5, no. 6 (June 1985): 1212–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.5.6.1212.

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Using two cDNA clones which encode hamster genes specifically induced by glucose starvation, we demonstrated that an 8- and 30-fold increase, respectively, in the transcription rates of these genes was coordinately effected by calcium ionophore A23187 treatment, resulting in a similar increase in the steady-state levels of their mRNAs. This response was observed within several hours of ionophore treatment in several mammalian cell types and appeared to be specifically mediated by A23187 but not by other ionophores in general. To define the regulatory sequence which mediates this Ca2+-induced response, we showed by gene transfection techniques that the 5' flanking sequence of a rat glucose-regulated gene contained the region for induction by A23187. The system reported here offers attractive features for the study of specific gene regulation by Ca2+.
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32

Fields, S., D. T. Chaleff, and G. F. Sprague. "Yeast STE7, STE11, and STE12 genes are required for expression of cell-type-specific genes." Molecular and Cellular Biology 8, no. 2 (February 1988): 551–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.8.2.551.

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Cell type specialization in yeast haploids involves the mutually exclusive expression of one of two sets of genes, the a-specific and alpha-specific genes. We demonstrated that the products of the STE7, STE11, and STE12 genes were required for the expression of both gene sets. RNA levels transcribed from these gene sets were significantly decreased but not abolished in haploids containing a null mutation in the STE7, STE11, or STE12 gene. Transcript levels from the a- and alpha-specific gene sets were not further reduced in strains harboring mutations in all three STE genes, suggesting that STE7, STE11, and STE12 are required for the same aspect of transcription. We further showed that the requirement for these products was not the same for each member of a particular gene set. However, for any given a- or alpha-specific gene, the effect on RNA levels of any of the three ste mutations was similar.
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33

Suter, B., and E. Kubli. "tRNA(Tyr) genes of Drosophila melanogaster: expression of single-copy genes studied by S1 mapping." Molecular and Cellular Biology 8, no. 8 (August 1988): 3322–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.8.8.3322.

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Six Drosophila melanogaster tRNA(Tyr) genes have been isolated and sequenced. They contained introns of different sequences and two size classes: 20 or 21 base pairs (bp) (five genes) and 113 bp (one gene). However, the sequences coding for the mature tRNA(Tyr) were identical in all six genes. The 113-bp intron-containing gene was a single-copy gene. Hence, its primary transcript could be traced by S1 mapping. The gene was turned on during embryogenesis and continually expressed to various degrees during the following developmental stages. Thus, S1 mapping is a feasible method to follow the transcriptional activity of individual genes with identical mature products, provided that their primary transcripts are unique. The six genes were organized in two clusters of three and two genes, respectively (each containing a 20- or a 21-bp intron; cytological localization, 85A), and a single-copy gene (113-bp intron; cytological localization, 28C). We show that four of the six tRNA(Tyr) genes characterized were localized in putative 5' control regions of developmentally controlled genes transcribed by polymerase II.
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34

Chalupová, P., V. Dvořáková, A. Knoll, A. Stratil, H. Bartenschlager, R. Stupka, and J. Čítek. "Polymorphism, linkage mapping, and association analysis with carcass traits of four porcine candidate genes selected from gene-expression profiles of Czech Large White and Wild Boar muscles." Czech Journal of Animal Science 59, No. 3 (March 18, 2014): 116–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.17221/7291-cjas.

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Genes that are expressed in skeletal muscles may play a role in prenatal muscle development and postnatal muscle growth and can be considered candidates for economically important traits. Four porcine genes that were differentially expressed in skeletal muscles of Czech Large White and Wild Boar (SORT1, EMP3, IL18, and BTG2) were selected to search for polymorphism, linkage assignment, and association analysis with carcass traits. Through comparative sequencing of portions of the genes numerous polymorphisms were revealed (SORT1 &ndash; 21, EMP3 &ndash; 6, IL18 &ndash; 41, BTG2 &ndash; 9). Linkage analysis in a Meishan &times; Pietrain F<sub>2</sub> pedigree showed the positions of the genes relative to other genes and markers on the respective chromosomes &ndash; SORT1 on SSC4, EMP3 on SSC6, IL18 and BTG2 on SSC9. Preliminary association analysis in pig commercial crosses with selected SNPs showed associations with several carcass traits at nominal P value of &lt; 0.05, which may indicate their involvement in muscle growth and fat deposition. The tested polymorphisms may not be causal for the associations, but they may be in linkage disequilibrium with causative mutations. &nbsp;
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35

Bazalii, A. V., I. R. Horak, G. V. Pasichnyk, S. V. Komisarenko, and L. B. Drobot. "Transcriptional regulation of NOX genes expression in human breast adenocarcinoma MCF-7 cells is modulated by adaptor protein Ruk/CIN85." Ukrainian Biochemical Journal 88, no. 1 (February 29, 2016): 119–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/ubj88.01.119.

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36

Reinhart, Bonnie, Mariam Eljanne, and J. Richard Chaillet. "Shared Role for Differentially Methylated Domains of Imprinted Genes." Molecular and Cellular Biology 22, no. 7 (April 1, 2002): 2089–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.22.7.2089-2098.2002.

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ABSTRACT For most imprinted genes, a difference in expression between the maternal and paternal alleles is associated with a corresponding difference in DNA methylation that is localized to a differentially methylated domain (DMD). Removal of a gene's DMD leads to a loss of imprinting. These observations suggest that DMDs have a determinative role in genomic imprinting. To examine this possibility, we introduced sequences from the DMDs of the imprinted Igf2r, H19, and Snrpn genes into a nonimprinted derivative of the normally imprinted RSVIgmyc transgene, created by excising its own DMD. Hybrid transgenes with sequences from the Igf2r DMD2 were consistently imprinted, with the maternal allele being more methylated than the paternal allele. Only the repeated sequences within DMD2 were required for imprinting these transgenes. Hybrid transgenes containing H19 and Snrpn DMD sequences and ones containing sequences from the long terminal repeat of a murine intracisternal A particle retrotransposon were not imprinted. The Igf2r hybrid transgenes are comprised entirely of mouse genomic DNA and behave as endogenous imprinted genes in inbred wild-type and mutant mouse strains. These types of hybrid transgenes can be used to elucidate the functions of DMD sequences in genomic imprinting.
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37

Emerman, M., and H. M. Temin. "Quantitative analysis of gene suppression in integrated retrovirus vectors." Molecular and Cellular Biology 6, no. 3 (March 1986): 792–800. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.6.3.792-800.1986.

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Previously, we described a retrovirus vector that contained two genes: a 5' gene under transcriptional control of the viral long terminal repeat and a 3' gene under transcriptional control of the herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase promoter. By using a biological assay, we found that expression of the 5' gene is suppressed when there was selection for the 3' gene and expression of the 3' gene is suppressed when there is selection for the 5' gene (M. Emerman and H. M. Temin, Cell 39:459-467, 1984). In the present study, we replaced the thymidine kinase promoter with stronger promoters, and we measured expression of the genes in the retrovirus vectors by enzyme activity and RNA analysis. We found that all of the vectors displayed gene suppression when analyzed biochemically, although not when analyzed biologically. The suppressed genes produced about 10 to 50% as much product as when they were selected. The amount of suppression depended on whether the suppressed gene was 5' or 3' to the selected gene and from which promoter the suppressed gene was transcribed. The amount of suppression correlated with a decrease in the amount of steady-state RNA transcribed from the suppressed gene's promoter.
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38

Gumucio, D. L., K. Wiebauer, R. M. Caldwell, L. C. Samuelson, and M. H. Meisler. "Concerted evolution of human amylase genes." Molecular and Cellular Biology 8, no. 3 (March 1988): 1197–205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.8.3.1197.

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Cosmid clones containing 250 kilobases of genomic DNA from the human amylase gene cluster have been isolated. These clones contain seven distinct amylase genes which appear to comprise the complete multigene family. By sequence comparison with the cDNAs, we have identified two pancreatic amylase genes and three salivary amylase genes. Two truncated pseudogenes were also recovered. Intergenic distances of 17 to 22 kilobases separate the amylase gene copies. Within the past 10 million years, duplications, gene conversions, and unequal crossover events have resulted in a very high level of sequence similarity among human amylase gene copies. To identify sequence elements involved in tissue-specific expression and hormonal regulation, the promoter regions of the human amylase genes were sequenced and compared with those of the corresponding mouse genes. The promoters of the human and mouse pancreatic amylase genes are highly homologous between nucleotide -160 and the cap site. Two sequence elements thought to influence pancreas-specific expression of the rodent genes are present in the human genes. In contrast, similarity in the 5' flanking sequences of the salivary amylase genes is limited to several short sequence elements whose positions and orientations differ in the two species. Some of these sequence elements are also associated with other parotid-specific genes and may be involved in their tissue-specific expression. A glucocorticoid response element and a general enhancer element are closely associated in several of the amylase promoters.
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39

Adam, R. D., T. E. Nash, and T. E. Wellems. "Telomeric location of Giardia rDNA genes." Molecular and Cellular Biology 11, no. 6 (June 1991): 3326–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.11.6.3326.

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Giardia lamblia telomeres have been isolated from a library enriched for repaired chromosome ends by (i) screening with a Plasmodium falciparum telomere and (ii) differential hybridization with Bal 31-digested and total G. lamblia DNA. Analysis of three clones isolated by this strategy has identified multiple tandem repeats of the 5-mer TAGGG. An oligonucleotide containing these repeats recognizes Bal 31-sensitive bands in Southern hybridizations and detects all G. lamblia chromosomes in pulsed-field gel electrophoresis separations. An abrupt transition from the G. lamblia rDNA sequence to telomeric repeats has been found in all three clones. In two of the clones the transition occurs at the same site, near the beginning of the large subunit rDNA sequence. In the third clone the transition occurs at a site in the intergenic spacer sequence between the rDNA genes. Hybridization of an rDNA probe to a pulsed-field separation of G. lamblia chromosomes indicates that rDNA genes are present on several chromosomes but vary in location from isolate to isolate. These results suggest that rRNA genes are clustered at telomeric locations in G. lamblia and that these clusters are mobile.
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40

Hull, M. W., J. Erickson, M. Johnston, and D. R. Engelke. "tRNA genes as transcriptional repressor elements." Molecular and Cellular Biology 14, no. 2 (February 1994): 1266–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.14.2.1266.

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Eukaryotic genomes frequently contain large numbers of repetitive RNA polymerase III (pol III) promoter elements interspersed between and within RNA pol II transcription units, and in several instances a regulatory relationship between the two types of promoter has been postulated. In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, tRNA genes are the only known interspersed pol III promoter-containing repetitive elements, and we find that they strongly inhibit transcription from adjacent pol II promoters in vivo. This inhibition requires active transcription of the upstream tRNA gene but is independent of its orientation and appears not to involve simple steric blockage of the pol II upstream activator sites. Evidence is presented that different pol II promoters can be repressed by different tRNA genes placed upstream at varied distances in both orientations. To test whether this phenomenon functions in naturally occurring instances in which tRNA genes and pol II promoters are juxtaposed, we examined the sigma and Ty3 elements. This class of retrotransposons is always found integrated immediately upstream of different tRNA genes. Weakening tRNA gene transcription by means of a temperature-sensitive mutation in RNA pol III increases the pheromone-inducible expression of sigma and Ty3 elements up to 60-fold.
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41

Kim, Y. K., and A. S. Lee. "Transcriptional activation of the glucose-regulated protein genes and their heterologous fusion genes by beta-mercaptoethanol." Molecular and Cellular Biology 7, no. 8 (August 1987): 2974–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.7.8.2974.

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The sulfhydryl-reducing agent beta-mercaptoethanol preferentially stimulates the synthesis of glucose-regulated proteins (GRPs) in mammalian cells. The rapid and large increase in GRPs is due to transcriptional activation of GRP94 and GRP78 genes, resulting in a rapid increase in the steady-state levels of GRP transcripts. From analysis of 5'-deletion mutants, the region of beta-mercaptoethanol responsiveness in the GRP78 promoter was mapped within 450 nucleotides upstream of the TATA sequence. This same general region was demonstrated to be important for induction of the GRP78 gene by the calcium ionophore A23187, glucose starvation, and a temperature-sensitive mutation in a K12 cell line defective in protein glycosylation.
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42

Nakaar, V., A. O. Dare, D. Hong, E. Ullu, and C. Tschudi. "Upstream tRNA genes are essential for expression of small nuclear and cytoplasmic RNA genes in trypanosomes." Molecular and Cellular Biology 14, no. 10 (October 1994): 6736–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.14.10.6736.

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An interesting feature of trypanosome genome organization involves genes transcribed by RNA polymerase III. The U6 small nuclear RNA (snRNA), U-snRNA B (the U3 snRNA homolog), and 7SL RNA genes are closely linked with different, divergently oriented tRNA genes. To test the hypothesis that this association is of functional significance, we generated deletion and block substitution mutants of all three small RNA genes and monitored their effects by transient expression in cultured insect-form cells of Trypanosoma brucei. In each case, two extragenic regulatory elements were mapped to the A and B boxes of the respective companion tRNA gene. In addition, the tRNA(Thr) gene, which is upstream of the U6 snRNA gene, was shown by two different tests to be expressed in T. brucei cells, thus confirming its identity as a gene. This association between tRNA and small RNA genes appears to be a general phenomenon in the family Trypanosomatidae, since it is also observed at the U6 snRNA loci in Leishmania pifanoi and Crithidia fasciculata and at the 7SL RNA locus in L. pifanoi. We propose that the A- and B-box elements of small RNA-associated tRNA genes serve a dual role as intragenic promoter elements for the respective tRNA genes and as extragenic regulatory elements for the linked small RNA genes. The possible role of tRNA genes in regulating small RNA gene transcription is discussed.
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43

Abrams, E., L. Neigeborn, and M. Carlson. "Molecular analysis of SNF2 and SNF5, genes required for expression of glucose-repressible genes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae." Molecular and Cellular Biology 6, no. 11 (November 1986): 3643–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.6.11.3643.

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The SNF2 and SNF5 genes are required for derepression of SUC2 and other glucose-repressible genes of Saccharomyces cerevisiae in response to glucose deprivation. Previous genetic evidence suggested that SNF2 and SNF5 have functionally related roles. We cloned both genes by complementation and showed that the cloned DNA was tightly linked to the corresponding chromosomal locus. Both genes in multiple copy complemented only the cognate snf mutation. The SNF2 gene encodes a 5.7-kilobase RNA, and the SNF5 gene encodes a 3-kilobase RNA. Both RNAs contained poly(A) and were present in low abundance. Neither was regulated by glucose repression, and the level of SNF2 RNA was not dependent on SNF5 function or vice versa. Disruption of either gene at its chromosomal locus still allowed low-level derepression of secreted invertase activity, suggesting that these genes are required for high-level expression but are not directly involved in regulation. Further evidence was the finding that snf2 and snf5 mutants failed to derepress acid phosphatase, which is not regulated by glucose repression. The SNF2 and SNF5 functions were required for derepression of SUC2 mRNA.
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44

Buschman, E., and P. Gros. "Functional analysis of chimeric genes obtained by exchanging homologous domains of the mouse mdr1 and mdr2 genes." Molecular and Cellular Biology 11, no. 2 (February 1991): 595–603. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.11.2.595.

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A full-length cDNA clone for the mouse mdr1 gene can confer multidrug resistance when introduced by transfection into otherwise drug-sensitive cells. In the same assay, a full-length cDNA clone for a closely related member of the mouse mdr gene family, mdr2, fails to confer multidrug resistance. To identify the domains of mdr1 which are essential for multidrug resistance and which may be functionally distinct in mdr2, we have constructed chimeric cDNA molecules in which discrete domains of mdr2 have been introduced into the homologous region of mdr1 and analyzed these chimeras for their capacity to transfer drug resistance. The two predicted ATP-binding domains of mdr2 were found to be functional, as either could complement the biological activity of mdr1. Likewise, a chimeric molecule in which the highly sequence divergent linker domain of mdr2 had been introduced in mdr1 could also confer drug resistance. However, the replacement of either the amino- or carboxy-terminus transmembrane (TM) domain regions of mdr1 by the homologous segments of mdr2 resulted in inactive chimeras. The replacement of as few as two TM domains from either the amino (TM5-6) or the carboxy (TM7-8) half of mdr1 by the homologous mdr2 regions was sufficient to destroy the activity of mdr1. These results suggest that the functional differences detected between mdr1 and mdr2 in our transfection assay reside within the predicted TM domains.
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45

Weissman, J. D., and D. S. Singer. "Striking similarities between the regulatory mechanisms governing yeast mating-type genes and mammalian major histocompatibility complex genes." Molecular and Cellular Biology 11, no. 8 (August 1991): 4228–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.11.8.4228.

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Expression of a mammalian major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I gene is in part regulated by a silencer DNA sequence element which binds a complex of silencer factors. This negative regulatory system is shown to be strikingly similar to the yeast alpha 2 mating-type repression system. A moderate DNA sequence homology exists between the MHC class I silencer DNA element and the yeast alpha 2 operator. Mammalian silencer factors specifically bind to the yeast alpha 2 operator DNA and also specifically interact with a yeast alpha 2-binding protein. Furthermore, the alpha 2 operator functions as a silencer element in mammalian cells when placed upstream of a MHC class I promoter.
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46

Ezzell, C. "Genes May Shuffle in Developing Brain." Science News 140, no. 14 (October 5, 1991): 212. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3975778.

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47

JANCIN, BRUCE. "Genes May Mark Unsuspected Melanoma Risk." Internal Medicine News 42, no. 13 (July 2009): 24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1097-8690(09)70474-3.

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48

Triendl, Robert. "Genes may solve hormone-disrupter debate." Nature 409, no. 6818 (January 2001): 274. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/35053303.

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49

M., A. S. "`Housekeeping' Genes May Have Biotech Applications." Science 258, no. 5088 (December 4, 1992): 1581. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.258.5088.1581.

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50

Stroh, M. "Genes May Help Reset Circadian Clock." Science News 141, no. 13 (March 28, 1992): 196. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3976606.

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