Academic literature on the topic 'Measurement points density'

Abstract In geodetic measurements of deformations in shell cooling towers, an important factor is to optimize the number of points representing the exterior surface of the shell. The conducted analyses of damage to such structures proved that cooling towers exhibited shell deformation consisting of irregular vertical waves (three concavities and two convexities), as well as seven horizontal waves. On this basis, it is claimed that, in accordance with the Shannon theorem, the correct representation of the generated waves requires the measurement of the cooling tower shell in a minimum of 12 vertical and 14 horizontal sections. Such density of the points may not be sufficient to represent local imperfections of the shell. The article presents the results of test measurements and their analysis, which were conducted to verify the assumptions as to the optimal number of measurement points for the shell of a cooling tower. The evaluation was based on a comparative analysis of the data obtained by the Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) method, creating a very detailed model of geometric imperfections in an actual cooling tower with a height of 100 m. Based on the data obtained by the TLS method, point grids of various density were generated. An additional measurement of the cooling tower shell deformation was performed using a precise electronic total station with reflectorless measurement option. Therefore, it was possible to assess the accuracy of measurements by laser scanning in relation to measurements obtained by reflectorless total stations.

In the study, the acoustic comfort conditions of the interiors of the Trabzon Ortahisar Municipality Building were evaluated depending on the noise level values. Noise level measurements were made indoors in Ortahisar Municipality of Ortahisar District, the center of Trabzon, and acceptable values and measurement results were compared. First, the current architectural project of Ortahisar Municipality was obtained from the Survey Project Directorate to determine the measurement points. The causes of indoor noise and density conditions in the units were evaluated by making on-site observations. Then, measurement points were determined on the project in line with the data obtained. Four measurements of 15 minutes each between 10.00-11.00 hours at the specified measurement points were completed in 24 working days. The values of the noise level measurement results depending on the frequencies were obtained. In the last stage of the study, the noise level measurement values obtained were compared with the acceptable values specified in the relevant standards. As a result of the study, it was determined that the noise level measurement results were generally above acceptable values in the background at medium and high frequencies.

AbstractMonitoring displacement at transport infrastructure using Sentinel‑1 Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) faces challenges due to the sensor’s medium spatial resolution, which limits the pixel coverage over the infrastructure. Therefore, carefully selecting coherent pixels is crucial to achieve a high density of reliable measurement points and to minimize noisy observations. This study evaluates the effectiveness of various pixel selection methods for displacement monitoring within transport infrastructures. We employ a two-step InSAR time series processing approach. First, high-quality first-order pixels are selected using temporal phase coherence (TPC) to estimate and correct atmospheric contributions. Then, a combination of different pixel selection methods is applied to identify coherent second-order pixels for displacement analysis. These methods include amplitude dispersion index (ADI), TPC, phase linking coherence (PLC), and top eigenvalue percentage (TEP), targeting both point-like scatterer (PS) and distributed scatterer (DS) pixels. Experiments are conducted in two case studies: one in Germany, characterized by dense vegetation, and one in Spain, with sparse vegetation. In Germany, the density of measurement points was approximately 30 points/km², with the longest segment of the infrastructure without any coherent pixels being 2.8 km. In Spain, the density of measurement points exceeded 500 points/km², with the longest section without coherent pixels being 700 meters. The results indicate that despite the challenges posed by medium-resolution data, the sensor is capable of providing adequate measurement points when suitable pixel selection methods are employed. However, careful consideration is necessary to exclude noisy pixels from the analysis. The findings highlight the importance of choosing a proper method tailored to infrastructure characteristics. Specifically, combining TPC and PLC methods offers a complementary set of pixels suitable for displacement measurements, whereas ADI and TEP are less effective in this context. This study demonstrates the potential of Sentinel‑1 InSAR for capturing both regional-scale and localized displacements at transport infrastructure.

This paper details an approach to select measurement point locations for the inverse boundary element method. An accurate reconstruction of the vibration requires a well conditioned acoustic transfer matrix, which depends on measurement point selection. Matrix techniques can be used to regularize the solution though they often lead to poor reconstruction rank. A technique to determine the number of measurement points required, and their placement, prior to measurement has been developed using three criteria: uniqueness, completeness, and measurement point density. With this technique, the reconstruction error and the number of measurements can be minimized.

The existence of Internet-connected navigation and infotainment systems is becoming a truth that will easily lead to a remarkable growth in bandwidth demand by in-vehicle users. In Examples the applications of vehicular communication proliferate, and range from the updating of road maps to the repossession of nearby points of interest, downloading of touristic information and multimedia files. This content downloading system will induce the vehicular user to use the resource to the same extent as today’s mobile customers. By this approach communication-enabled vehicles are paying attention in downloading different contents from Internet-based servers. We summarize the performance limits of such a vehicular multimedia content downloading system by modeling the content downloading process as an effective problem and developing the overall system throughput with density measurement. Results highlight the methods where the Roadside infrastructure i.e., access points are working at different capabilities irrespective of vehicle density, the vehicle-to-vehicle communication

A mathematical model is proposed to measure population density using a formula called the population density index ( PDI). The population density index model includes a measure of interperson distance and is scaled for geometric area. The population density model measures population density with greater precision and flexibility than the conventional population density model. The population density index model is designed for small-scale projects involving as few as two and as many as one hundred density points. The derivation of the model is presented, along with an example of its use in a research project at the Naval Underwater Systems Center.

A practical technique is investigated for the determination of dynamic stresses in pipelines through the use of finite element method (FEM) and field measurement vibrations at selected points. Numerical simulation of a randomly loaded pipeline structure is used to establish the validity of the technique in the time domain. The analysis is carried out for a fixed-hinged pipe model. The results show that lack of coincidence between the vibration measurement points (VMPs) and the exciting force, or the use of only translational vibration measurements (TVMs) produce an approximate stress picture. The extent of the “error” in these cases is found to depend on the density of the VMPs and the proximity between these points and the exciting force location. A safety-related risk assessment is applied to find the minimum distance between measuring points that is needed to meet design codes reliability specifications.

A practical technique is investigated for the determination of dynamic stresses in pipelines through the use of finite element method (FEM) and field measurement vibrations at selected points. Numerical simulation of a harmonically loaded pipeline structure is used to establish the validity of the technique in the frequency domain. The analysis is carried out for a fixed-hinged pipe model. The results show that lack of coincidence between the vibration measurement points (VMPs) and the exciting force, or the use of only translational vibration measurements (TVMs) produce an approximate stress picture. The extent of the “error” in these cases is found to depend on the density of the VMPs and the proximity between these points and the exciting force location. A safety-related risk assessment is applied to find the minimum distance between measuring points that is needed to meet design codes reliability specifications.

Rail transit tunnels span long distances, are large-scale structures and pass through complicated geological conditions; thus, the risk of uneven settlement cannot be ignored. To address this issue, a method for diagnosing the uneven settlement of regional railway tunnels based on the spatial correlation of high-density strain measurement points is proposed in this study. First, with the distributed optical fiber sensing technology, a method for determining the intervals of strain measurement points with strong spatial correlations is proposed based on a support vector machine. Second, combined with the statistical analysis of the influence range of the uneven settlement of a tunnel, an algorithm for diagnosing the uneven settlement of regional railway tunnels based on the spatial correlation of high-density strain measurement points is proposed. Finally, the effectiveness of the proposed method is verified by numerical simulation and actual tunnel data.

Parts must be measured to evaluate the manufacturing accuracy in order to check whether their dimension is in expected tolerance. In engineering, parts with free-form surfaces are generally measured by high-precision coordinate-measuring machines. The measurement accuracy is usually improved by increasing the density of measurement points, which is time-consuming and costly. In this article, a novel sampling method of measurement points for free-form surface inspection is proposed. First, surface inspection is simplified into the inspection of a number of section curves of the surface. Second, B-spline curves constructed with an iterative method are employed to approximate these section curves. Subsequently, data points necessary to construct the B-spline curves are taken as the measurement points. Finally, the proposed method is compared with other two sampling methods. The results indicate that the proposed method greatly reduced the number of measurement points without decreasing the precision of surface modeling.

This thesis describes the development and testing of two apparatuses; a vibrating wire viscometer to measure the viscosity of fluids over a wide range of temperature and pressure; and a microwave cavity resonator to measure dew points, gas phase densities, and liquid drop out volumes. Viscosity and density of downhole fluids are very important properties as their values can determine the economic viability of a petroleum reservoir. A vibrating wire viscometer has been developed with an electrically insulating tensioning mechanism. It has been used with two wires, of diameters (0.05 and 0.150) mm, to measure the viscosity of methylbenzene and two reference fluids with viscosities of (10 and 100) mPa·s at T = 298 K and p = 0.1 MPa, at temperatures in the range (298 to 373) K and pressures up to 40 MPa, where the viscosity covers the range (0.3 to 100) mPa·s, with a standard uncertainty < 0.6 %. The results differ from literature values by < ±1 %. The results demonstrate that increasing the wire diameter increases the upper operating viscosity range of the vibrating wire viscometer, a result anticipated from the working equations. For the microwave cavity resonator, the method is based on the measurements of the resonance frequency of the lowest order inductive-capacitance mode. The apparatus is capable of operating at temperatures up to 473 K and pressures below 20 MPa. This instrument has been used to measure the dew pressures of {0.4026CH4 + 0.5974C3H8} at a temperature range from 315 K up to the cricondentherm ˜ 340 K. The measured dew pressures differ by less than 0.5 % from values obtained by interpolation of those reported in the literature, which were determined from measurements with experimental techniques that have quite different potential sources of systematic error than the radio-frequency resonator used here. Dew pressures estimated from both NIST 14 and the Peng-Robinson equation of state lie within < ±1 % of the present results at temperature between (315 and 337) K while predictions obtained from the Soave-Redlich-Kwong cubic equation of state deviate from our results by 0.4 % at T = 315 K and these differences increase smoothly with increasing temperature to be -2.4 % at T = 337 K. Densities derived from dielectric permittivity measurements in the gas phase lie within < 0.6 % of the values calculated from the Soave-Redlich-Kwong cubic equation of state and about 1 % from values obtained with the Harvey and Prausnitz correlation based on a mixture reduced density. The calculations with Kiselev and Ely parametric crossover equation of state (based on Patel-Teja EOS) gave deviations < 0.7 %. Liquid volume fractions, in the 2-phase region, were measured from (0.5 to 7) cm3 in a total volume of about 50 cm3 at different isochors. The measured liquid volume fractions differ from values obtained with the Soave-Redlich-Kwong cubic equation of state by between 0 and 3 % at T < 326 K and about 8 % on approach to the critical region. The large deviations observed in the critical region were anticipated because of the known poor performance of the cubic equations of state with regard to the calculation of the liquid density in the vicinity of the critical temperature.

The two-point in situ method is a technique for measuring the room constant of a semi-reverberant room and the sound power of a source in that room simultaneously using two measurement positions. Using a reference directivity source, where the directivity factor along any given axis of the source has been measured, one is able to use the Hopkins-Stryker equation to measure both the room constant and the sound power level of another source rather simply. Using both numerical and experimental data, it was found that by using generalized energy density (GED) as a measurement quantity, the results were more accurate than those using squared pressure. The results also improved when one measurement position was near the source and the other measurement position was far from the source. This resulted in strong contribution of both the direct and reverberant fields in each of the measurement positions. Another improvement to the two-point method was the use of a local, spatial average around the measurement position. The assumptions in the Hopkins-Stryker equation rely on this average and it was found that a small local spatial average improved the measurements. However, this improvement was greater for squared pressure than for GED. Several source sound power levels and room constants were measured to show that these measurements are improved by using the suggested techniques.

Bones are multifunctional passive organs of movement that supports soft tissue and directly attached muscles. They also protect internal organs and are a reserve of calcium, phosphorus and magnesium. Each bone is covered with periosteum, and the adjacent bone surfaces are covered by articular cartilage. Histologically, the bone is an organ composed of many different tissues. The main component is bone tissue (cortical and spongy) composed of a set of bone cells and intercellular substance (mineral and organic), it also contains fat, hematopoietic (bone marrow) and cartilaginous tissue. Bones are a tissue that even in adult life retains the ability to change shape and structure depending on changes in their mechanical and hormonal environment, as well as self-renewal and repair capabilities. This process is called bone turnover. The basic processes of bone turnover are: • bone modeling (incessantly changes in bone shape during individual growth) following resorption and tissue formation at various locations (e.g. bone marrow formation) to increase mass and skeletal morphology. This process occurs in the bones of growing individuals and stops after reaching puberty • bone remodeling (processes involve in maintaining bone tissue by resorbing and replacing old bone tissue with new tissue in the same place, e.g. repairing micro fractures). It is a process involving the removal and internal remodeling of existing bone and is responsible for maintaining tissue mass and architecture of mature bones. Bone turnover is regulated by two types of transformation: • osteoclastogenesis, i.e. formation of cells responsible for bone resorption • osteoblastogenesis, i.e. formation of cells responsible for bone formation (bone matrix synthesis and mineralization) Bone maturity can be defined as the completion of basic structural development and mineralization leading to maximum mass and optimal mechanical strength. The highest rate of increase in pig bone mass is observed in the first twelve weeks after birth. This period of growth is considered crucial for optimizing the growth of the skeleton of pigs, because the degree of bone mineralization in later life stages (adulthood) depends largely on the amount of bone minerals accumulated in the early stages of their growth. The development of the technique allows to determine the condition of the skeletal system (or individual bones) in living animals by methods used in human medicine, or after their slaughter. For in vivo determination of bone properties, Abstract 10 double energy X-ray absorptiometry or computed tomography scanning techniques are used. Both methods allow the quantification of mineral content and bone mineral density. The most important property from a practical point of view is the bone’s bending strength, which is directly determined by the maximum bending force. The most important factors affecting bone strength are: • age (growth period), • gender and the associated hormonal balance, • genotype and modification of genes responsible for bone growth • chemical composition of the body (protein and fat content, and the proportion between these components), • physical activity and related bone load, • nutritional factors: – protein intake influencing synthesis of organic matrix of bone, – content of minerals in the feed (CA, P, Zn, Ca/P, Mg, Mn, Na, Cl, K, Cu ratio) influencing synthesis of the inorganic matrix of bone, – mineral/protein ratio in the diet (Ca/protein, P/protein, Zn/protein) – feed energy concentration, – energy source (content of saturated fatty acids - SFA, content of polyun saturated fatty acids - PUFA, in particular ALA, EPA, DPA, DHA), – feed additives, in particular: enzymes (e.g. phytase releasing of minerals bounded in phytin complexes), probiotics and prebiotics (e.g. inulin improving the function of the digestive tract by increasing absorption of nutrients), – vitamin content that regulate metabolism and biochemical changes occurring in bone tissue (e.g. vitamin D3, B6, C and K). This study was based on the results of research experiments from available literature, and studies on growing pigs carried out at the Kielanowski Institute of Animal Physiology and Nutrition, Polish Academy of Sciences. The tests were performed in total on 300 pigs of Duroc, Pietrain, Puławska breeds, line 990 and hybrids (Great White × Duroc, Great White × Landrace), PIC pigs, slaughtered at different body weight during the growth period from 15 to 130 kg. Bones for biomechanical tests were collected after slaughter from each pig. Their length, mass and volume were determined. Based on these measurements, the specific weight (density, g/cm3) was calculated. Then each bone was cut in the middle of the shaft and the outer and inner diameters were measured both horizontally and vertically. Based on these measurements, the following indicators were calculated: • cortical thickness, • cortical surface, • cortical index. Abstract 11 Bone strength was tested by a three-point bending test. The obtained data enabled the determination of: • bending force (the magnitude of the maximum force at which disintegration and disruption of bone structure occurs), • strength (the amount of maximum force needed to break/crack of bone), • stiffness (quotient of the force acting on the bone and the amount of displacement occurring under the influence of this force). Investigation of changes in physical and biomechanical features of bones during growth was performed on pigs of the synthetic 990 line growing from 15 to 130 kg body weight. The animals were slaughtered successively at a body weight of 15, 30, 40, 50, 70, 90, 110 and 130 kg. After slaughter, the following bones were separated from the right half-carcass: humerus, 3rd and 4th metatarsal bone, femur, tibia and fibula as well as 3rd and 4th metatarsal bone. The features of bones were determined using methods described in the methodology. Describing bone growth with the Gompertz equation, it was found that the earliest slowdown of bone growth curve was observed for metacarpal and metatarsal bones. This means that these bones matured the most quickly. The established data also indicate that the rib is the slowest maturing bone. The femur, humerus, tibia and fibula were between the values of these features for the metatarsal, metacarpal and rib bones. The rate of increase in bone mass and length differed significantly between the examined bones, but in all cases it was lower (coefficient b &lt;1) than the growth rate of the whole body of the animal. The fastest growth rate was estimated for the rib mass (coefficient b = 0.93). Among the long bones, the humerus (coefficient b = 0.81) was characterized by the fastest rate of weight gain, however femur the smallest (coefficient b = 0.71). The lowest rate of bone mass increase was observed in the foot bones, with the metacarpal bones having a slightly higher value of coefficient b than the metatarsal bones (0.67 vs 0.62). The third bone had a lower growth rate than the fourth bone, regardless of whether they were metatarsal or metacarpal. The value of the bending force increased as the animals grew. Regardless of the growth point tested, the highest values were observed for the humerus, tibia and femur, smaller for the metatarsal and metacarpal bone, and the lowest for the fibula and rib. The rate of change in the value of this indicator increased at a similar rate as the body weight changes of the animals in the case of the fibula and the fourth metacarpal bone (b value = 0.98), and more slowly in the case of the metatarsal bone, the third metacarpal bone, and the tibia bone (values of the b ratio 0.81–0.85), and the slowest femur, humerus and rib (value of b = 0.60–0.66). Bone stiffness increased as animals grew. Regardless of the growth point tested, the highest values were observed for the humerus, tibia and femur, smaller for the metatarsal and metacarpal bone, and the lowest for the fibula and rib. Abstract 12 The rate of change in the value of this indicator changed at a faster rate than the increase in weight of pigs in the case of metacarpal and metatarsal bones (coefficient b = 1.01–1.22), slightly slower in the case of fibula (coefficient b = 0.92), definitely slower in the case of the tibia (b = 0.73), ribs (b = 0.66), femur (b = 0.59) and humerus (b = 0.50). Bone strength increased as animals grew. Regardless of the growth point tested, bone strength was as follows femur &gt; tibia &gt; humerus &gt; 4 metacarpal&gt; 3 metacarpal&gt; 3 metatarsal &gt; 4 metatarsal &gt; rib&gt; fibula. The rate of increase in strength of all examined bones was greater than the rate of weight gain of pigs (value of the coefficient b = 2.04–3.26). As the animals grew, the bone density increased. However, the growth rate of this indicator for the majority of bones was slower than the rate of weight gain (the value of the coefficient b ranged from 0.37 – humerus to 0.84 – fibula). The exception was the rib, whose density increased at a similar pace increasing the body weight of animals (value of the coefficient b = 0.97). The study on the influence of the breed and the feeding intensity on bone characteristics (physical and biomechanical) was performed on pigs of the breeds Duroc, Pietrain, and synthetic 990 during a growth period of 15 to 70 kg body weight. Animals were fed ad libitum or dosed system. After slaughter at a body weight of 70 kg, three bones were taken from the right half-carcass: femur, three metatarsal, and three metacarpal and subjected to the determinations described in the methodology. The weight of bones of animals fed aa libitum was significantly lower than in pigs fed restrictively All bones of Duroc breed were significantly heavier and longer than Pietrain and 990 pig bones. The average values of bending force for the examined bones took the following order: III metatarsal bone (63.5 kg) &lt;III metacarpal bone (77.9 kg) &lt;femur (271.5 kg). The feeding system and breed of pigs had no significant effect on the value of this indicator. The average values of the bones strength took the following order: III metatarsal bone (92.6 kg) &lt;III metacarpal (107.2 kg) &lt;femur (353.1 kg). Feeding intensity and breed of animals had no significant effect on the value of this feature of the bones tested. The average bone density took the following order: femur (1.23 g/cm3) &lt;III metatarsal bone (1.26 g/cm3) &lt;III metacarpal bone (1.34 g / cm3). The density of bones of animals fed aa libitum was higher (P&lt;0.01) than in animals fed with a dosing system. The density of examined bones within the breeds took the following order: Pietrain race&gt; line 990&gt; Duroc race. The differences between the “extreme” breeds were: 7.2% (III metatarsal bone), 8.3% (III metacarpal bone), 8.4% (femur). Abstract 13 The average bone stiffness took the following order: III metatarsal bone (35.1 kg/mm) &lt;III metacarpus (41.5 kg/mm) &lt;femur (60.5 kg/mm). This indicator did not differ between the groups of pigs fed at different intensity, except for the metacarpal bone, which was more stiffer in pigs fed aa libitum (P&lt;0.05). The femur of animals fed ad libitum showed a tendency (P&lt;0.09) to be more stiffer and a force of 4.5 kg required for its displacement by 1 mm. Breed differences in stiffness were found for the femur (P &lt;0.05) and III metacarpal bone (P &lt;0.05). For femur, the highest value of this indicator was found in Pietrain pigs (64.5 kg/mm), lower in pigs of 990 line (61.6 kg/mm) and the lowest in Duroc pigs (55.3 kg/mm). In turn, the 3rd metacarpal bone of Duroc and Pietrain pigs had similar stiffness (39.0 and 40.0 kg/mm respectively) and was smaller than that of line 990 pigs (45.4 kg/mm). The thickness of the cortical bone layer took the following order: III metatarsal bone (2.25 mm) &lt;III metacarpal bone (2.41 mm) &lt;femur (5.12 mm). The feeding system did not affect this indicator. Breed differences (P &lt;0.05) for this trait were found only for the femur bone: Duroc (5.42 mm)&gt; line 990 (5.13 mm)&gt; Pietrain (4.81 mm). The cross sectional area of the examined bones was arranged in the following order: III metatarsal bone (84 mm2) &lt;III metacarpal bone (90 mm2) &lt;femur (286 mm2). The feeding system had no effect on the value of this bone trait, with the exception of the femur, which in animals fed the dosing system was 4.7% higher (P&lt;0.05) than in pigs fed ad libitum. Breed differences (P&lt;0.01) in the coross sectional area were found only in femur and III metatarsal bone. The value of this indicator was the highest in Duroc pigs, lower in 990 animals and the lowest in Pietrain pigs. The cortical index of individual bones was in the following order: III metatarsal bone (31.86) &lt;III metacarpal bone (33.86) &lt;femur (44.75). However, its value did not significantly depend on the intensity of feeding or the breed of pigs.

With the gradual improvement of China’s railway net, the opening of international railways as well as the continuous growth of railway operating mileage, the workload of remeasuring railways is increasing. The traditional methods of remeasuring railways can not meet current high-speed and high-density operating conditions anymore in terms of safety, efficiency and quality, so a safer and more efficient measurement method is urgently needed.This thesis integrated various sensors on a self-mobile instrument, such as 3D laser scanner, digital image sensor and GNSS_IMU, designing a set of intelligent and integrated self-mobile scanning measurement system. This thesis proposed region growing segmentation based on the reflection intensity of point cloud. Through the secondary development of CAD, the menu for automatic processing of self-mobile scanning measurement system is designed to realize rail automatic segmentation, extraction of rail top points, fitting of plane parameters of railway line, calculation of curve elements and mileage management.The results show that self-mobile scanning measurement system overcomes the shortcomings of traditional railway measurement to some extent, and realizes intelligent measurement of railways.

A surfacing technique has been developed to provide clinicians with a realistic and accurate representation of the scoliotic trunk. A projection pattern, imposed upon a relatively featureless back, provides a random distribution of discrete three dimensional data points representing the trunk surface. Although measurements can be made from these points, a realistic model is necessary to assess the subjective extent of the deformity and to enhance usage by clinicians. A triangulation technique using connecting lines limited by the data density created a bounded surface mesh that could be quickly rendered and manipulated during analysis. Errors due to data acquisition were reduced by a local median filter. The maximum amount that a data point may be altered was restricted to the measurement error (2 mm), ensuring that the surfacing technique did not significantly alter the back shape. Subsequent Gouraud shading, ambient and diffuse lighting created a realistic surface. The algorithm is O(n), with the implication that doubling the number of data points will only double the processing time. The display, shading, lighting and rotation of a trunk surface with 2000 discrete points took 20 seconds on a 486-66 MHz PC and was three times faster on a IBM RISC 6000 workstation. This surface visualization package has enhanced the overall clinical assessment of the trunk deformity.

In the age of electric vehicle (EV) proliferation, a robust charging infrastructure is vital for sustainable urban mobility. This chapter proposes a systematic plan for deploying EV charging points in urban areas, leveraging blockchain for efficiency. The strategy considers population density, traffic, and existing infrastructure, advocating for both public and private stations in residential and commercial areas. Standardized charging technologies are recommended for compatibility and cost reduction. Integration with smart grids enhances energy distribution efficiency, offering dynamic pricing and real-time monitoring. An energy meter ensures accurate usage measurement, with clients able to track consumption via mobile devices. A proof of concept, SmartFly, demonstrates blockchain verification. This holistic approach aims to promote EV adoption, curbing emissions and fostering sustainable urban mobility.

The definition of ‘long-term’ requires reference to the generation time and the scale over which environmental variation of interest operates. A long-term (large temporal scale) population study of an annually reproducing insect would be expected to include annual population estimates over at least ten years. An equivalent study of an amoeba, which can reproduce daily, might be completed in a few weeks. However, if the focus of a long-term study is the role of seasonal variation in determining population number, then it is likely that a study will need at least twenty-five years of data, irrespective of the size of the organism and the generation time. This chapter reviews a range of time series analytical techniques and presents R code listings for measuring synchrony and species associations, detecting break-points in time series and measuring community stability. Statistical methods to assess if a species has gone extinct are described. Techniques for detecting density dependence in time series are reviewed. Temporal β‎-diversity is defined as the shift in the identities and/or the abundances of named taxa in a specified assemblage over two or more time points. The measurement of temporal β‎-diversity is discussed. Numerous R code listings are presented.

Combination method of strain-rate cycling tests and application of ultrasonic oscillations was conducted for KCl:Sr2+ (0.035, 0.050, 0.065 mol.% in the melt) single crystals at low temperatures. The measurement of strain-rate sensitivity (λ) of flow stress under the application of ultrasonic oscillatory stress provides useful information on the interaction between a mobile dislocation and impurities (Sr2+ ions) during plastic deformation and the variation of λ with stress decrement (Δτ) due to oscillation has stair-like shape: The first plateau place ranges below the first bending point (τp1) at low stress decrement and the second one extends from the second bending point (τp2) at high stress decrement. The value of λ decreases with the Δτ between the two bending points. The τp1 is considered to represent the effective stress due to impurities when a dislocation begins to break-away from the impurities with the help of thermal activation during plastic deformation. Annealing the impure crystal by heat treatment, τp1 decreases obviously at low temperature and the critical temperature Tc, at which τp1 is zero, also becomes slightly smaller. Furthermore, it was investigated whether a change in the state of a small amount of impurities has an influential factor of the flow parameters (e.g., the activation energy, the density of forest dislocations) from the data analyzed in terms of Δτ vs. λ curve.

Ultrasound has many uses in areas of medicine associated with anaesthesia. It is used for imaging, visualisation of needle and catheter positioning, therapy and, together with the Doppler effect, for measurement of flow velocity. Real-time information can be obtained with ease, and with the low energies used, diagnostic equipment exposures are not thought to be a safety issue, either for the operator or the patient. Ultrasound is a form of mechanical energy that consists of high frequency vibrations at frequencies above human hearing range (&gt; 20 kHz) and up to frequencies in the tens of MHz range. The frequencies used are dependent on issues such as the penetration and resolution required. It is thought that low intensity ultrasound passes through living tissue without altering tissue function. Higher energy can produce heating and cavitation, both of which can alter cell function. Ultrasound is generated by electrically inducing a deformation in a piezoelectric crystal, which compresses and decompresses the medium to which it is coupled at a rate equal to the frequency of the driving voltage. The pressure changes travel through the medium in a longitudinal direction and the distance between the points of maximum pressure, or compression, is known as the wavelength. Figure 10.2 shows the relationship between the period of the wave and the wavelength. The length of this distance is dependent on the elasticity (compressibility) and the density of the medium, and the delay between the movement of adjacent particles in the medium. As shown in the figure, the wavelength (λ) and the transmission frequency (f) are related to the propagation velocity c by c = f λ. The magnitude of the wave is the difference between the maximum and minimum pressure values. The wave propagates by movement of particles: it cannot travel in a vacuum and it does not ionise the medium through which it travels. The propagation of an ultrasound wave is not constant throughout the body. Various parts allow the passage of the wave at different velocities. Also the wave is attenuated differently by the various tissue types. For example, in soft tissues the ultrasound wave has a velocity of between 1460 and 1630 m s−1 whereas in bone it is 2700–4100 m s−1.

This chapter summarises the International System of Units (SI Units) applicable to the analysis of organic compounds and drug molecules. By using practical examples and problem-solving exercises, units of measurements including length, mass, temperature, time, volume, and density, and calculations based on moles (e.g. mole fraction, mole percentage, molality, molarity, and normality) are included. The solubility of organic compounds is reviewed by defining parameters such as solutes, solvents, solvation and dissolution, and other physical property measurements such as boiling point, density, and melting point. Underpinning topics outlined in the various chapters, acid–base properties with definitions, principles and applications in chemical measurements, and common reactions of organic compounds are scrutinised.

Abstract The measurements of DC and AC coupon current densities were conducted to assess the corrosion risk due to AC and DC interference on cathodically protected steel pipelines. As a result, the risks of AC stray current corrosion and DC stray current corrosion were appropriately assessed with respect to the cathodic protection criteria based on DC and AC current densities that were developed by the authors. These corrosion risks were then successfully eliminated using solid-state DC decoupling devices and transformer-rectifiers. Coupon current density measurement was therefore proven to be effective to assess not only AC stray current corrosion risk but also DC stray current corrosion risk. It is effective to install steel coupons at critical points having higher corrosion risks where the pipelines are buried in proximity to overhead high-voltage AC power transmission lines, AC-powered rail transit systems, DC-powered rail transit systems and foreign cathodically protected metallic structures.

Abstract This document describes a means of calculating a credible corrosion rate for establishing integrity reassessment intervals for a pipeline that has sustained corrosion-caused metal loss. The method uses corrosion pit depths determined at a point in time by either direct measurement or inferred indirectly from inspection data or a combination of both. The history of the pipeline can be used to determine logical points in time for the corrosion to have initiated. Probability density functions are used to represent the time of corrosion initiation and pit depth data, and through a Monte Carlo simulation the 80 percent upper confidence bound corrosion rate is determined.

Abstract This paper explores the use of remote monitoring systems and web-based data analysis to track corrosion rates in real time. Combining monitoring systems with electrical resistance (ER) or linear polarization resistance (LPR) corrosion probes allows measurement of corrosion rate more frequently. Real time transmission of the field data at more frequent intervals provides a greater number of data measurements. Increased data density enables faster and more accurate evaluation of corrosion rate trends. Interactive, web-based analysis provides the user with a tool that allows tracking of corrosion rates in real time. Additionally, corrosion rate changes can be easily isolated to evaluate the effects of environmental or mitigative factors. Corrosion probe measurements are affected by many factors, including temperature, sensitivity, environmental changes, etc. Individual measurements may appear inconsistent. Typically, a number of historic measurements are averaged to produce a trend. Data analysis tools provide the user with real-time data trending capability. Interactive graphic data analysis enables the user to view the corrosion rate using a variable number of historic measurements to include in creating a rolling average corrosion rate. The user may also view and compare corrosion rates between any two points in history and view cumulative metal loss to evaluate probe life consumption. Relevant applications include monitoring corrosion rates in soils, tanks, casings, pipelines, atmospheric environments, solutions, and offshore immersed structures.

Abstract The corrosion effects of high AC current density on pipelines are known. The installation of mitigation systems to reduce high AC levels has flourished. Monitoring of AC has increased to protect pipelines from this threat. AC current density has been calculated using AC voltage, soil resistivity, and holiday size (diameter). Soil resistivity is generally measured using the Wenner 4-point or similar method, but this testing is not done frequently. Subsequent current density calculations using the soil resistivity value may be subject to error due to resistivity changes. Additionally, soil resistivity should be taken into account in many aspects of corrosion control. Using coupons and monitoring equipment, AC current density can be measured directly, along with AC voltage, and stored at frequent intervals. This combination of measurements provides an opportunity to track changes in soil resistivity. By using the tested soil resistivity, the diameter of the coupon, and the measurement of AC voltage from the pipeline, a “benchmark” AC current density measurement can be calculated. This calculation, where the only variable is the AC voltage measurement, can be compared with the real-time current density measurement from the bonded coupon. The change in current density measured at the coupon will be directly proportional to the change in soil resistivity. The change in soil resistivity can then be calculated using the difference between the two current density values. This paper will look a data derived from sites that demonstrate this evaluation of soil resistivity and how this data may be applied in other aspects of cathodic protection and pipeline integrity management.

The selection of sensor locations during dynamic testing of integrally bladed disks (Blisks) is discussed for measuring experimental mode shapes. As-manufactured geometries of the experimental Blisk are obtained in point-cloud form via a structured light optical measurement system. The nominal finite element mesh of the Blisk is then “morphed” to the average sector of as-measured, point-cloud geometry through a mesh metamorphosis algorithm. A ray-tracing algorithm is developed for selecting observable degrees of freedom (DOFs) of the morphed mesh to an overhead laser scanning vibrometer. This set of DOFs is then down-selected since measuring tens-of-thousands of points is in-feasible during experimental testing. This selection is carried out using a Cyclic Effective Independence Method that exploits a Blisk’s cyclic symmetry to greatly reduce computational expenses. Furthermore, the approach allows for selecting points belonging to specific engine order excitations typical in engine operating environments that can be excited during bench top traveling wave testing. Measurement point locations are compared for three cyclic symmetry finite element models: a nominal coarse mesh density, a nominal fine mesh density, and a fine mesh density morphed to average sector geometries.

Abstract Vibration testing of an Integrally Bladed Rotor (IBR) is often completed through Traveling Wave Excitation (TWE) bench tests composed of multiple, simultaneously excited inputs. Often, each blade has many output locations. For IBRs with many blades, as often found in the high pressure compressor, the total number of outputs can be several orders of magnitude. Formulation of a full output spectral density matrix from all measurements will then contain an exponential number of values at each frequency bin that can be detrimental to computational resources during the spectral density matrix formulation as well as down-stream system identification algorithms. An online algorithm is proposed for collecting and analyzing TWE data to reduce the large, computationally burdensome data sets into a manageable number of subsets for subsequent system identification. Furthermore, a frequency domain decomposition technique is also proposed for system identification that also attempts to reduce the data size through singular value decomposition. Identified system poles can be averaged from each subset, but mode shapes require stitching each subset together to identify the full mode shape at all output locations. The developed approaches are tested on synthetic TWE data and compared to baseline system identification results obtained using the full spectral density matrix. Results indicate the data subsets accurately compare to the baseline without much loss in accuracy.

A practical technique is investigated for the determination of dynamic stresses in pipelines through the use of Finite Element Method (FEM) and field measurement vibrations at selected points. Numerical simulation of a harmonically loaded pipeline structure is used to establish the validity of the technique in the frequency domain. The analysis is carried out for a fixed-hinged pipe model. The results show that lack of coincidence between the vibration measurement points (VMPs) and the exciting force, or the use of only translational vibration measurements (TVMs) produce an approximate stress picture. The extent of the “error” in these cases is found to depend on the density of the VMPs and the proximity between these points and the exciting force location. A safety-related risk assessment is applied to find the minimum distance between measuring points that is needed to meet design codes reliability specifications.

The paper presents the theoretical justification and software for an effective method of data identification in intelligent control systems, which is based on the use of the stages of clustering and classification of objects represented by their parametric description. The author proposed a method of data clustering with fixation of cluster boundary points based on the principle of finding their surface tension. The application of this method of cluster analysis allows to increase the efficiency of identification of objects in control systems using the SVM type classifier. The SVM (Support Vector Machine) type classifier is currently the most advanced and, due to the use of generalized decision functions, is able to operate with both linear and non-linearly distributed images of objects in the parameter space. Today, a significant number of cluster analysis methods and algorithms are known. They can be divided into classical, based on the general algorithm of Fu K.S., and the latest, based on taking into account the nature and structure of data and the purpose of their use. Examples of such methods include: k-means, density-based (DBSCAN), Mean-Shift, using Gaussian mixture models (GMM), methods of hierarchical agglomerative clustering (HAC) . Their common drawback is that they form clusters of points in the parameter space, but do not fix their boundary points. The last characteristic (the presence of marked cluster boundary points) is very useful when building classifiers that implement the task of object identification. In this paper, the author proposed and theoretically substantiated the method of clustering with the definition of surface points by analogy with the physical principle of surface tension of a liquid. The work developed an algorithm for the implementation of this method, as well as software in the Python language in the form of the ClusterBorderFinder application. The author's certificate was obtained for the developed program.

SMA is to be designed based on SMA volumetric properties in terms of air voids content (Va), voids in the mineral aggregate (VMA), and adequate stone-on-stone contact. For construction quality assurance (QA) purposes, INDOT currently accepts SMAs based on aggregate gradation and asphalt binder content. Thus, there is a discrepancy between SMA design criteria and construction acceptance. To better align design and construction, it is necessary to consider SMA volumetric properties in the use of QA. For HMA mixtures, INDOT has already transitioned from volumetric QA acceptance procedures to PWL. Today, SMA still uses adjustment points not based on robust statistics for QA acceptance. SMA QA samples and QA data sets were collected from projects constructed in 2019 and tested in the laboratory. The Hamburg Wheel Track Test (HWTT) was performed on the 2019 QA samples to evaluate SMA rutting performance. Additionally, the PWL for HMA was applied to the 2019 SMA QA data to see if the HMA PWL method would work for SMA. Possible SMA QA measurements were compared to past QA data and HMA QA measurements. In addition, Voids in the Coarse Aggregate (VCA) was evaluated as a possible SMA QA measurement. Finally, using the suitable QA measurements for SMA, a PWL parameter study was performed to find PWL that provides a Pay Factor (PF) equivalent to the current SMA Adjustment Point (AP) PF. The current SMA QA measurements (binder content, gradation, and density) are recommended for Indiana's SMA PWL. Based on the results of applying PWL to SMA QA data for the last four years, SMA PWL specification limits are recommended. Also, the SMA PF equations are suggested to get the SMA PWL to have PF equivalent to the current AP PF.

Large standoff magnetometry is an emerging non-destructive magnetic test method, which is remote, passive, and non-contact. It is based on the inverse magnetostrictive effect and, therefore, has potential for detection of magnetic anomalies produced by elevated stresses in steel pipelines and ferromagnetic structures. Changes in the local pipeline stress state may arise due to corrosion, cracking, mechanical damage, ground movement (geohazards), or external loading. Laboratory measurements were performed on macroscopic steel samples in the elastic stress regime to investigate the potential for stress detection in steel. The effects of the pipe samples' orientation when degaussed, the generation of a reproducible magnetization state, rotation relative to Earth's magnetic north and then pressurization were also investigated. Three of the seven pipe samples were pressurized with water at 21 MPa (3000 psi), and the effects on the magnetic flux density was measured on the samples' surface in different orientations in Earth's magnetic field. Four-point bending and pressurization was applied to two pipe samples. The results indicate that Earth's magnetic field and its relative orientation with respect to the pipe has a measurable effect on the magnetic state of a pipe, and the resulting magnitude of changes in measured flux density when stress is applied. Changing the orientation of a pipe after degaussing and then applying pressure will also cause more significant changes in the measured magnetic flux density. Pressurization is shown to be the cause of larger changes in magnetization when compared to the effects of bending. The implications for detecting potentially damaging elastic stresses on pipelines using above-ground inspection, large standoff magnetometry, are examined.

This study explored new vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) technology in construction work zones (CWZ), where speeding, unsafe driving behaviors, and drivers' failure to obey traffic signs contribute significantly to elevated accident rates and fatalities. The objective of this research to advance CWZ safety by evaluating the potential of 3-axis magnetometers attached to a moving cart and traversing over a pavement-assisted passive sensing system can improve vehicle lateral positioning and warning in CWZ. Secondly, to develop a process to implement a programmable ferromagnetic oxide material for roadway coatings to interface with vehicles containing magnetometers on a field site. The research testing used a custom-built cart equipped with multiple 3-axis magnetometer to detect EM signals from invisible markings composed of 10% and 20% CrO₂, that were created to alert for speed, lane merges, and lane-keeping. The invisible marking strips were oriented and positioned in various ways to test the repeatability and ability to reliable detect a signal and signature that could be interpreted with automated algorithm. The experimental test results were acquired in a parking and signal-processing technique was established that normalized the raw signals, removed background EM signals not related to the created EM signatures, filtered high- and low-frequency noise, and took the derivative of the EM flux density with respect to the number of points. The V2I signals in the Y and Z-axes occasionally failed to exceed the minimum threshold set for the experiments, but the X-axis signals consistently exceeded the minimum value of ±200nT throughout the testing. The minimum threshold signals were used to calculate the speed of the cart, indicate a lane merge, and determine the lateral lane position of the cart. The detected speed signals closely correlated with the GPS speed measurements on the cart as well as provided accurate cart positioning and maneuvering actions. This pilot study demonstrated the potential of V2I communication specifically EM pavement signatures to enhance CWZ safety and provide detectable and actionable feedback to the vehicle.

Channel Islands National Park (CHIS) has conducted long-term ecological monitoring of the kelp forests around San Miguel, Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, Anacapa and Santa Barbara Islands since 1982. The original permanent transects were established at 16 sites between 1981 and 1986 with the first sampling beginning in 1982, this being the 33rd year of monitoring. An additional site, Miracle Mile, was established at San Miguel Island in 2001 by a commercial fisherman with assistance from the park. Miracle Mile was partially monitored from 2002 to 2004, and then fully monitored (using all KFM protocols) since 2005. In 2005, 16 additional permanent sites were established to collect baseline data from inside and adjacent to four marine reserves that were established in 2003. Sampling results from all 33 sites mentioned above are included in this report. Funding for the Kelp Forest Monitoring Program (KFM) in 2014 was provided by the National Park Service (NPS). The 2014 monitoring efforts utilized 49 days of vessel time to conduct 1,040 dives for a total of 1,059 hours of bottom time. Population dynamics of a select list of 71 “indicator species” (consisting of taxa or categories of algae, fish, and invertebrates) were measured at the 33 permanent sites. In addition, population dynamics were measured for all additional species of fish observed at the sites during the roving diver fish count. Survey techniques follow the CHIS Kelp Forest Monitoring Protocol Handbook (Davis et al. 1997) and an update to the sampling protocol handbook currently being developed (Kushner and Sprague, in progress). The techniques utilize SCUBA and surface-supplied-air to conduct the following monitoring protocols: 1 m2 quadrats, 5 m2 quadrats, band transects, random point contacts, fish transects, roving diver fish counts, video transects, size frequency measurements, and artificial recruitment modules. Hourly temperature data were collected using remote temperature loggers at 32 sites, the exception being Miracle Mile where there is no temperature logger installed. This annual report contains a brief description of each site including any notable observations or anomalies, a summary of methods used, and monitoring results for 2014. All the data collected during 2014 can be found in the appendices and in an Excel workbook on the NPS Integrated Resource Management Applications (IRMA) portal. In the 2013 annual report (Sprague et al. 2020) several changes were made to the appendices. Previously, annual report density and percent cover data tables only included the current year’s data. Now, density and percent cover data are presented in graphical format and include all years of available monitoring data. Roving diver fish count (RDFC), fish size frequency, natural habitat size frequency, and Artificial Recruitment Module (ARM) size frequency data are now stored on IRMA at https://irma.nps.gov/DataStore/Reference/Profile/2259651. The temperature data graphs in Appendix L include the same graphs that were used in past reports, but include additional violin plot sections that compare monthly means from the current year to past years. In addition to the changes listed above, the layout of the discussion section was reordered by species instead of by site. The status of kelp forests differed among the five park islands. This is a result of a combination of factors including but not limited to, oceanography, biogeography and associated differences in species abundance and composition, as well as sport and commercial fishing pressure. All 33 permanent sites were established in areas that had or were historically known to have had kelp forests in the past. In 2014, 15 of the 33 sites monitored were characterized as developing kelp forest, kelp forest or mature kelp forest. In addition, three sites were in a state of transition. Two sites were part kelp forest and part dominated by Strongylocentrotus purpuratus...

The quantification of 99mTc labeled biomarkers can add unique value in many different settings, ranging from clinical trials of investigation new drugs to the treatment of individual patients with marketed therapeutics. For example, goals of precision medicine include using companion radiopharmaceutical diagnostics as just-in-time, predictive biomarkers for selecting patients to receive targeted treatments, customizing doses of internally administered radiotherapeutics, and assessing responses to treatment. This Profile describes quantitative outcome measures that represent proxies of target concentration or target mass in topographically specific volumes of interest (VOIs). These outcome measures are usually expressed as the percent injected dose (i.e., radioactivity) per mL of tissue (%ID/mL), a standard uptake value ratio (SUVr), or a target-to-background ratio (TBR). In this profile, targeting is not limited to any single mechanism of action. Targeting can be based on interaction with a cell surface protein, an intracellular complex after diffusion, protein-mediated transport, endocytosis, or mechanical trapping in a capillary bed, as in the case of transarterial administration of embolic microspheres. Regardless, the profile focuses on quantification in well-defined volumes of interest. Technetium-99m based dopamine transporter imaging agents, such as TRODAT, are nearly direct links with some aspects of the predecessor profile on 123I-ioflupane for neurodegenerative disorders. (See www.qibawiki.rsna.org ) Cancer is often a base case of convenience for new material in this profile, but the intent is to create methods that can be useful in other therapeutic areas where the diseases are characterized by spatially-limited anatomical volumes, such as lung segments, or multifocal aggregations of targets, such as white blood cell surface receptors on pulmonary nodules in patients with sarcoidosis. Neoplastic masses that can be measured with x-ray computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are the starting point. However, the intent is to create a profile that can be extrapolated to diseases in other therapeutic areas that are also associated with focal, or multi-focal pathology, such as pulmonary granulomatous diseases of autoimmune or infectious etiology, non-oncological diseases of organs such as polycystic kidney disease, and the like. The criteria for measurability are based on the current resolution of most SPECT-CT systems in clinical practice, and are independent of criteria for measurability in other contexts. For this SPECT profile, conformance requires that a “small” VOI must be greater than 30 mL to be measurable. It is understood that much smaller VOIs can sometimes exhibit high conspicuity on SPECT, but these use cases are beyond the scope of this profile and will not be tested for conformance in this version. It is left to individual stakeholders to show the extent to which they can achieve conformance when measuring VOIs less than 30 mL. The detection of smaller changes during clinical trials of large groups can be achieved by referring to the QIBA companion guidance on powering trials. The Claims (Section 2) asserts that compliance with the specifications described in this Profile will produce cross sectional estimates of the concentration of radioactivity [kBq/mL] in a volume of interest (VOI) or a target-to-background ratio (TBR) within a defined confidence interval (CI), and distinguish true biological change from system variance (i.e., measurement error) in individual patients or clinical trials of many patients who will be studied longitudinally with 99mTc SPECT agents. Both claims are founded on observations that target density varies between patients with the same disease as well as within patients with multi-focal disease. The Activities (Section 3) describes the requirements that are placed on the Actors who need to achieve the Claim. Section 3 specifies what the actors must do in order to estimate the amount of radioactivity in a volume of interest, expressed in kBq/mL (ideal) or as a TBR (acceptable) within a 95% CI surrounding the true value. Measurands such as %ID/mL are targets for nonclinical studies in animal models that use terminal sacrifice to establish ground truth for imaging studies. TBRs can be precarious, as the assumptions that depend on the physiology of the background regions matching the volume of interest can be hard to accept sometimes. It is up to each individual stakeholder to qualify the background regions used in their own use case. This profile qualifies only a few in some very limited contexts as examples. The Assessment Procedures (Section 4) for evaluating specific requirements are defined as needed. The requirements are focused on achieving sufficient accuracy and avoiding unnecessary variability of the measurements. The clinical performance target is to achieve a 95% confidence interval for concentration in units of kBq/mL (kilobequerels per milliliter) or %ID/mL (percent injected dose per milliliter) or TBR with both a reproducibility and a repeatability of +/- 8% within a single individual under zero-biological-change conditions. This document is intended to help clinicians basing decisions on these biomarkers, imaging staffs generating measurements of these biomarkers, vendors who are developing related products, purchasers of such products, and investigators designing trials. Note that this document only states requirements to achieve the claims, not “requirements on standard of care” nor compliance with any particular protocol for treating participants in clinical trial settings. Conformance to this Profile is secondary to properly caring for patients or adhering to the requirements of a protocol. QIBA Profiles addressing other imaging biomarkers using CT, MRI, PET and Ultrasound can be found at www.qibawiki.rsna.org.