Journal articles on the topic 'Mercator projection (Cartography)'

En 1569, le cartographe hollandais Gérard Mercator publiait une projection qui allait révolutionner la navigation maritime. Bien que l’importance de la projection de Mercator soit soulignée dans la documentation existante, la façon dont elle en est venue à jouer un rôle prépondérant dans la production de cartes du monde en cartographie thématique et en cartographie de référence n’a pas retenu l’attention. L’institutionnalisation de la projection de Mercator dans la cartographie de l’Europe occidentale et des États-Unis découle du rôle joué par les navigateurs, les sociétés et les organismes scientifiques, ainsi que les producteurs de cartes de référence et de cartes thématiques de même que d’atlas à l’usage du public. Les données, que l’auteure soumet à une analyse de contenu, proviennent du registre de publication de cartes du monde individuelles et apparaissant dans les atlas, et elles sont comparées et confrontées aux données historiques de sources complémentaires. L’étude révèle que l’utilisation impropre de la projection de Mercator a commencé après 1700, au moment où elle a été rattachée aux travaux des scientifiques auprès des navigateurs et à la création de la cartographie thématique. Au cours du dix-huitième siècle, la projection de Mercator a été diffusée dans les publications et les rapports destinés aux sociétés de géographie qui décrivaient les explorations financées par l’État. Au dix-neuvième siècle, l’influence de scientifiques bien connus faisant usage de la projection de Mercator a filtré dans les publications destinées au grand public. L’utilisation de la projection de Mercator dans la production de cartes du monde en cartographie de référence et en cartographie thématique est un choix qui résultait de la validation indirecte de cette projection par les milieux scientifique et universitaire depuis le dix-huitième siècle jusque tard au dix-neuvième siècle.

As developments in the field of map projections occur (e.g., the deriving of a new map projection), it would be reasonable to expect that those developments that are important from a teaching standpoint would be included in cartography textbooks. However, researchers have not examined whether map projection material presented in cartography textbooks is keeping pace with developments in the field and whether that material is important for cartography students to learn. To provide such an assessment, I present the results of a content analysis of projection material discussed in 24 cartography textbooks published during the twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. Results suggest that some material, such as projection properties, was discussed in all textbooks across the study period. Other material, such as methods used to illustrate distortion patterns, and the importance of datums, was either inconsistently presented or rarely mentioned. Comparing recent developments in projections to the results of the content analysis, I offer three recommendations that future cartography textbooks should follow when considering what projection material is important. First, textbooks should discuss the importance that defining a coordinate system has in the digital environment. Second, textbooks should summarize the results from experimental studies that provide insights into how map readers understand projections and how to choose appropriate map projections. Third, textbooks should review the impacts of technology on projections, such as the web Mercator projection, programming languages, and the challenges of projecting raster data.

The history of loxodrome is described in detail. The inaccuracies and errors related to loxodrome including its definition and significance are shown and clarified with the help of examples from the present cartographic literature. Facts usually omitted in cartography are presented, i.e. uncertainty of definition using two points and real picture in the Mercator projection. Problems related to the length of loxodrome and its parts are numerically solved and graphically presented. Loxodrome offers unsolved issues even in present days.

The science of cartography should provide a historical mission, that is navigation, and also meet modern agendas including significantly expanding opportunities for BIM technologies, integrating functions of GIS and CAD systems. In this regard, cartography should be considered a fundamental basis for modern trends while creating digital twins of spatial objects. The practical part of the provided experiments included data collecting aimed at Moscow Saints Petersburg railway infrastructure, the calculation of optimal parameters of the oblique Mercator projection in the Hotine version for the given object, and the construction of a 3D railway track model. This research investigated the principles of unique cartographic projections, strictly focused on the certain functioning objects. The research can helps many users and designers of digital twins of spatial objects pay their attention to the applied cartography specifics concerning these issues and also take into account the recommendations while creating Building Information Modelling (BIM) and Infrastructure Information Modelling (IIM) as well.

Objective. Study of ancient cartographic documents in order to clarify the principle of working with a portolan map based on the RUMB metric base. Methodology. Analytical, graphic, mathematical, geodesic. Scientific novelty. For the first time, a table of interrelation of units of measurement of time, angles and distances in the metric base of RUMB is shown. It was found that the so-called portolan maps were built on the basis of RUMB, and their projection is similar to the oblique Mercator projection with a cylindrical axis oriented along the earth’s magnetic axis, with an additional network of rhomb rectangular coordinates, which allows the map to be used at any position of the poles. The Mercator projection is a simplified version of it with one coordinate system. Practical implications. It is shown that dividing the clock face, equator and meridians of the Earth into the same number of parts allows determining the coordinates of points on the Earth’s surface using any of the known parameters, which greatly simplifies the solution of geodetic and navigation problems. Key words: units of measurement, metric base, degree, bearing, portolan map, rose card, projection, coordinate.

An assessment of the navigational accuracy of the Mercator world map of 1569 is made, aimed at better understanding how the information was adapted from the contemporary cartography. At the time the map was engraved, navigational charts were constructed on the basis of astronomically-observed latitudes, magnetic courses and estimated distances between places. Before this information could be incorporated into the new world map it should be first transformed in such a way that the longitudinal spacings between places were restored to their correct values, as defined on the surface of the Earth. The question of whether Mercator performed such transformations or just considered that the positions were approximately correct has hitherto never been addressed in the literature. It is demonstrated in this article that Mercator was not fully aware of the complexity of the contemporary charts – which he considered to implicitly comprise a square grid of meridians and parallels – and that all planimetric information was directly imported to the novel world map without correction. It is further shown that the Mercator projection was not compatible with the navigational methods of the time.

AbstractThe late critical geographer Brian Harley forewarned that modern cartography had come to control and even ‘imprison’ spatial understandings of the earth. Where does this leave international lawyers when they encounter a quintessential ‘World Map’? Quite bluntly: tied to an inscriptive institution that has embodied the modern legibility and visualization of earth space. When speaking about the global arrangements of economic and political power constituted through law, what emerges, therefore, is the need for an expanded spatial literacy among international lawyers that critically engages the graphic legacy and influence of the geometric map. To enhance that literacy, I reach beyond the doctrinal field to engage a powerful spatial critique that has thus far encompassed scholarship across geography, international relations (IR) and sociology. A critique that took impetus over 20 years ago with John Agnew's assertion that modern social science had become captured by a ‘territorial trap’. The article attempts to enrich that critique with Mark Salter's insight on material power, Marshall McLuhan's emphasis on the medium of communication, and Bruno Latour's critique of cartographic naturalism. Specifically, I introduce the concept of cartogenesis as a way of underlining the deeper legacy and consequence of modern cartography, and specifically how the map medium should be grasped as a historical actant that has inscribed a particular ‘ground map’ of international authority. Lastly, the article looks at how geometric mapping now confronts new inscriptive ordering in the forms of transnational lists and contracts, which assert a growing scale of authority over earth space to an extent not seen since the Mercator Projection was recognized as an overriding geographic model.

<p><strong>Abstract.</strong> Maps are a means of communication with their own language. This contribution makes a methodological proposal for a tool for to analyse the cartographic language of thematic maps and atlases. Based on the work of Jacques Bertin and on approaches of the Visual Studies, this methodology works on decoding maps in terms of their basic elements, the signs and graphic objects that compose them. As a tool it should allow comparative research on cartographic productions, both, synchronically and diachronically. It suggests two analytical schemes, one for maps and the other for complex map-editions, e.g. atlases.</p><p> On the example of spatial entities (state territories, natural areas etc.), the first part of this contribution introduces the semiotic analysis-scheme for thematic maps. It shows how to deal systematically with signs, signatures and graphic objects on maps. Such analyses should produce the fundament for comparative approaches, which allow to detect typical patterns in cartography and to identify elements of cartographic languages.</p><p> We are interested in the cartographic languages of maps used in atlases. To do this we have chosen a quantitative analysis of the visual content, maps, diagrams and images. The quantitative method makes it possible to analyse a large corpus of maps and atlases, thus making it possible to make comparisons between contents both diachronically and synchronically, i.e. comparisons in time and space. This is an approach relatively rarely used in cartography. There are few studies that produce a quantitative analysis of cartographic content. Among the existing ones, that of Alexandre Kent and especially that of Muelhenhaus on the Goode atlas series. We are following in the footsteps of these studies. To do this, we decided to adopt a semiological approach to the study of maps. Of course, we cannot talk about maps and semiology without mentioning Jacques Bertin and his book: graphic semiology: diagrams, networks, maps (1963) in which he tried to define a “grammar” by establishing rules of good cartographic practice, even if the book is not exclusively reduced to the map.</p><p> The book itself does not contain any reference, but it can be said that graphic semiology is itself derived from linguistic semiology, developed in particular by Ferdinand Saussure. However, although Bertin's work has influenced many cartographers in the design of maps, the method has been little used in the cartographic analysis itself. Semiology is an approach that has been used mainly in the analysis of images and diagrams rather than in cartography. Although it is true that iconographic analysis studies in semiology claim more Barthes and Saussure than Bertin.</p><p> The map can also be considered as an image. Several iconographic analysis studies have thus integrated the map as an object of study. This is the case, for example, of engelhardt who, in his <i>thesis</i> “<i>the language of graphics: a framework for the analysis of syntax and meaning in maps, charts and diagram</i>” (2002), focuses on several types of iconography, even if the map remains a central element of his analysis. Another example is the work of André Lavarde, who in his article “<i>la flèche : le signe qui anime les schémas</i>” (1996) focuses on the history of the use of the arrow in diagrams, while evoking its use in geographical maps. There are therefore bridges between iconographic and cartographic analysis.</p><p> This research is therefore a continuation of the work of Bertin, Mulhenhaus and to a certain extent Engelhardt. The coding system we have developed for our cartographic analysis is divided into three parts and divided tehemselves into several categories. Each category corresponds to a column in the table. From there, there are two ways to fill in the columns. In the first case by filling in the field with the requested information such as the title of a map. Or in a second case to enter 0; 1; or 2 depending on whether the information that corresponds to the absence, presence or uncertainty of the requested information. So if the map coded uses the Mercator projection then it will be entered 1 in the column “map projection: cylindrical projection” and 0 in the column “map projection: compromise”.</p><p> The table is composed of three parts. The first part concerns the general information of the coded map (image 1). This is for example the name of the atlas, the page, the chapter in which the map is located. Then more general information about the map itself is coded like for example its title, theme, scale, type of projection used, etc. This makes it possible to collect a set of basic data. It should be noted that, as mentioned above, we do not only code maps but also other forms of visual representations of space that can be found in atlases. For example, there are images, satellite photos or diagrams that can represent different geographical areas. If the coded object is not a map, this is specified. There is a category provided for this purpose. When coding, cartography-specific elements, such as map projection, are therefore not taken into account. Not all the columns in our table are intended to be filled by each map or coded image. The codification process is therefore flexible. Although the code does not focus only on maps, they represent the vast majority of the content of the atlases studied. This is why we refer more to the “map” rather than to the “visual representation of space”. However, even if they are in the minority, it is important in the analysis to take into account representations of space other than cartography.</p><p> The second part of the table focuses on the signs used by the maps. First of all, we have chosen to divide them into three categories: symbols that are related to the point of the line and the surface. These are the three elementary figures of geometry that Bertin calls implantations. It is from these three types of locations that the different symbols are created. We have distinguished them between the thematic symbols, which are there to illustrate the theme of the map, to convey its message and the Background symbol present to help the reader to orientate himself in space. This is the case, for example, of the equator's path, which is rarely thematic, but rather serves as a geographical point of reference. Of course, the thematic symbols vary according to the theme of the map. Thus, territorial borders can be considered thematic if it is a political map, but will be considered Background information if it is present on a map representing global forest cover. The purpose of this part is to have as much content as possible on the elements that make a map.</p><p> The third and last part of the table refers to visual variables. To be interested in visual variables is to be interested in the interactions between symbols. It is on this part that we rely most on Bertin's work. We have thus taken 5 of the 7 variables he defined. The orientation and the two dimensions of the plan were excluded from our study because they are constant in the cartographic production. It would therefore be irrelevant to record them each time. This is not the case for the remaining components: size, value, texture, shape, and colour. These are elements that may be present in cartography but are not individually necessary. These visual variables form the basic grammar of the “cartographic language”. Studying the visual variables is a way for us to observe how the different signs interact with each other and to see how an information is convey. These visual rules have been established in the 1960s, therefore it the relevance of using this framework to study historical map can be questioned. But Bertin did not design his rules from scratch, he relied on previous mapping practices. It is therefore interesting to observe how often they have been used.</p><p> The second part deals with map themes and regional structures of atlases. Using principles of Visual Studies, it suggests to observe atlases as a whole as cultural products, each subject to a visual programme that determines the frameworks of its expressions and its claim for representativeness. By comparing elements like projection, scale, maps-themes, regional sequences etc. systematically, one may unveil the specific interpretations of world views which are contained in the atlas’ concepts. As some atlases are published in a long series of editions, they become interesting research objects in an evolutionary perspective.</p><p> In a diachronic perspective the coding scheme suggested here, focussing themes and regional subdivisions of atlases, builds the fundament for longitudinal studies. Both methodological parts should make cartographic and atlas-studies more compatible to cultural and historical research approaches.</p><p> Taking the example of a few maps from French atlases from nineteen centuries to the early 2000s the second part of this contribution wants to give an idea, how this methodology can be used to study the evolution of cartographic language over time under the influence of the global condition and how French cartographers faced the challenge of representing a growing interconnected world and which graphical tools they developed.</p>

Abstract. The LiDAR point clouds are usually processed in Universal Transvers Mercator projection. The transformation to a national coordinate system is frequently made with low accuracy with the help of the generic transformation implemented in the actual softwares. An accurate and precise transformation for LiDAR files in the national coordinate systems of Romania (planimetric system Stereographic 1970 and altimetric system Black Sea 1975) is not yet available. The National Center for Cartography (NCC) from Romania developed a software for precise transformation, but it works only for certain patterns of the text files and for a maximum number of points of about 1 million. Because of this, the use of point clouds in precision work was not possible, using only extracts of low-density grid points in text format. In this research we develop an algorithm which use the precise transformation of NCC to realise an accurate transformation of the LiDAR point clouds in the national coordinate systems. The algorithm is then implemented in an innovative software to transform the LiDAR *LAS files, using the common version 1.2. The software is a batch processing application, which it can process big LiDAR data without blocking. Moreover, the application is capable to apply with accuracy and precision the last published national quasigeoid to the LiDAR point files. In the end, the obtained LiDAR point cloud are more suitable to be used in any domain, because of the accurate and precise transformation in the Romanian coordinate systems.

Abstract. Although cartographic products have been produced for thousands of years, cartography as a science has only been established in the early 20th century. Great works of cartography include, for instance, the conic map projections by Ptolemy, the Tabula Rogeriana by Idrisi, the Waldseemüller map, and the Mercator map. Numerous cartographers, predominantly mathematicians, have shaped the theory of map projections throughout the centuries.With the advent of geographic information systems (GIS) in the 1960s and the rapid developments of digital technologies, cartography found itself in the middle of an identity crisis. For some time, it was not clear whether cartography would become obsolete and be replaced by GIS mapping technologies or whether GIS is a novel manifestation of cartography. During this period various misconceptions about the role of maps and mapping as well as uncertainty about the future developments of mapping in general added to this confusion.This contribution elaborates the major characteristics of cartography versus other disciplines, in particular geography and GIS, and takes a look at possible future directions and developments with regard to the theory of cartography as well as novel and future display technologies. Personal observations of the author during his professional life since the early 1980s illustrate these developments.

For decades, cartographers and cognitive scientists have speculated about the influence of map projections on mental representations of the world. The development of Web 2.0 and web mapping services at the beginning of the 21st century—such as Google Maps, OpenStreetMap, and Baidu Map—led to an enormous spread of cartographic data, which is available to every Internet user. Nevertheless, the cartographic properties of these map services, and, in particular, the selected map projection or the Web Mercator projection, are questionable. The goal of this study is to investigate if the global-scale mental map of young people has been influenced by the increasing availability of web maps and the Web Mercator projection. An application was developed that allowed participants of Belgium and the US to scale the land area of certain countries and continents compared to Europe or the conterminous United States. The results show that the participants’ estimation of the actual land area is quite accurate. Moreover, an indication of the existence of a Mercator effect could not be discovered. To conclude, the young people’s mental map of the world does not appear to be influenced by a specific map projection but by personal characteristics. These elements are varied and require further analysis.

Nowadays Marine Geographical Information Systems (MGIS) play an essential role in several research activities, the most part of them related to solve Geoscience problems. The nautical maps, containing most of the information used by the marine navigators, are used as cartographic base of MGIS and widely referred to Mercator projection. Remotely sensed images can be introduced in MGIS to improve the study outcomes even if they are in a different cartographic representation (generally Universal Transverse of Mercator, UTM). The adaptation of already georeferred remotely sensed images to Mercator projection requires particular care, moreover when also geodetic data are different (i.e. local datum and global datum). This paper is aimed to offer an easy-to-use work-flow that could be adopted every time remotely sensed images are to be introduced in MGIS and overlaid to nautical maps. Particularly the work addresses the implementation and evaluation of reprojection of Landsat 8 imageries, regarding both the gulfs of Naples and Salerno (Italy): a transformation from UTM WGS84 to Mercator Roma40 is applied. The result accuracy encourages the adoption of the proposed work-flow.

Nicholas Crane has constructed a compelling narrative of the story of Gerard Mercator, the early cartographer who we remember for the Mercator Projection. Crane has written an easy-to-read but well-researched volume on a most unusual individual who lived in a dynamic period of European history and geography.

Coastal and Marine Geographic Information Systems (CMGISs) permit to collect, manage, and analyze a great amount of heterogeneous data concerning coastal, sea, and ocean environments, e.g., nautical charts, topographic maps, remotely sensed images. To integrate those heterogeneous layers in CMGIS, particular attention is necessary to ensure the perfect geo-localization of data, which is a basic requirement for the correct spatial analysis. In fact, the above-mentioned types of information sources are usually available in different cartographic projections, geodetic datum, and scale of representation. Therefore, automatic conversions supplied by Geographic Information System (GIS) software for layer overlay do not produce results with adequate positional accuracy. This paper aims to describe methodological aspects concerning different data integration in CMGIS in order to enhance its capability to handle topics of coastal and marine applications. Experiments are carried out to build a CMGIS of the Campania Region (Italy) harmonizing different data (maps and satellite images), which are heterogeneous for datum (World Geodetic System 1984 and European Datum 1950), projection (Mercator and Universal Transverse of Mercator), and scale of representation (large and medium scale). Results demonstrate that automatic conversion carried out by GIS software are insufficient to ensure levels of positional accuracy adequate for large scale representation. Therefore, additional operations such as those proposed in this work are necessary.

The article describes basic data about the features of creating and operating of NATO maps. The article provides informationabout scale standards for NATO topographic maps. The structure of topographic maps, the order of their creation, mainpurposes, tasks, requirements according to NATO standards are considered. Topographic maps at scales of 1:25 000, 1:50 000and 1: 100 000 are created by NATO countries in accordance with national requirements while maintaining their traditionaltransition to the creation of topographic maps, but adhering to a single NATO standard for mandatory mapping of WGS -84 andUTM grids, the printing of explanation symbols and abbreviations in English and application of geographical names in Latin. Atpresent, there is a coherent NATO geopolitics for the creation of topographic special maps (including digital maps), the basicprinciple of which is that each NATO member is responsible for providing the necessary cartographic materials to its troops andNATO forces on its territory and to the globe. for planning and conducting military operations. A 1: 250,000 scale map is used tostudy and evaluate in detail individual, relatively small but important areas, when crossing water obstacles, during hostilities inlarge settlements, as well as when designing and constructing large engineering structures. Projections of topographic maps ofscale 1: 250 000 are considered, specifics of delineation and designations adopted for the map, features of the content of th etopographic map according to NATO standards. The maps are created in the Universal Transversal Mercator Projection (UTM),the Universal Polar Stereographic Projection (UPS) and the Lambert Conformal Conic Projection. The article presents a system ofgraphic symbols and symbols of NATO.

The elaboration of maps is such an old activity that made a mistakes with the humanity's own history. This shows the importance that the map allways had for the man. lt was objectified to present in summarized form some considerations concerning as form of representation of the curved surface of the Earth on a plan. This article made a larger detail of the Universal Transverse of Mercator - UTM projection. Projection this, recommended, in 1951, for the International Geodesic Association for use in the whole world as a form for the international cartographic standard, in big scale. In Brazil, the UTM system became adopted in 1955, for the Management of Geographical Service of the Army (DSG)

This paper discusses the issue of the influence of cartographic Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) data conversion into feature-based automatic registration. Automatic registration of data is a multi-stage process, it is based on original software tools and consists of: (1) Conversion of data to the raster form, (2) register of TLS data in pairs in all possible combinations using the SURF (Speeded Up Robust Features) and FAST (Features from Accelerated Segment Test) algorithms, (3) the quality analysis of relative orientation of processed pairs, and (4) the final bundle adjustment. The following two problems, related to the influence of the spherical image, the orthoimage and the Mercator representation of the point cloud, are discussed: The correctness of the automatic tie points detection and distribution and the influence of the TLS position on the completeness of the registration process and the quality assessment. The majority of popular software applications use manually or semi-automatically determined corresponding points. However, the authors propose an original software tool to address the first issue, which automatically detects and matches corresponding points on each TLS raster representation, utilizing different algorithms (SURF and FAST). To address the second task, the authors present a series of analyses: The time of detection of characteristic points, the percentage of incorrectly detected points and adjusted characteristic points, the number of detected control and check points, the orientation accuracy of control and check points, and the distribution of control and check points. Selection of an appropriate method for the TLS point cloud conversion to the raster form and selection of an appropriate algorithm, considerably influence the completeness of the entire process, and the accuracy of data orientation. The results of the performed experiments show that fully automatic registration of the TLS point clouds in the raster forms is possible; however, it is not possible to propose one, universal form of the point cloud, because a priori knowledge concerning the scanner positions is required. If scanner stations are located close to one another in raster images or in spherical images, Mercator projections are recommended. In the case where fragments of the surface are measured under different angles from different distances and heights of the TLS, orthoimages are suggested.

The article examines errors of the planned position of the points of the educational and research site “Fortuna” of the Chernihiv Polytechnic National University (Ukraine), located in a forested area. Kinematic positioning has been performed using a GNSS receiver GeoMax Zenith 10/20 in real time mode. The network of permanent satellite GNSS stations System NET has been used as a coordinate basis. RTK Master Auxiliary Corrections (MAX) technology has been used to form the corrective amendments. The calculation of RTK corrections has been performed using the software package Leica GNSS Spider v4.3. The Transverse Mercator cartographic projection has been used to determine the flat rectangular coordinates in the USK-2000 system. The values of the coordinates determined in the RTK mode have been compared with the coordinates obtained by the method of electronic polygonometry, which are estimated to be 3 times more accurate. Coordinate differences have formed error vectors. As a result of analysis of the vector field, a stable tendency has been established: the deviation of the planned coordinates of the site points, determined by the method of GNSS-observations in real time mode and located in the forest park zone, in the direction of the base station.

AbstractThe study area is focused on the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench, North Pacific Ocean. This region is geologically complex, notable for the lithosphere activity, tectonic plates subduction and active volcanism. The submarine geomorphology is complicated through terraces, slopes, seamounts and erosional processes. Understanding geomorphic features of such a region requires precise modelling and effective visualization of the high-resolution data sets. Therefore, current research presents a Generic Mapping Tools (GMT) based algorithm proposing a solution for effective data processing and precise mapping: iterative module-based scripting for the automated digitizing and modelling. Methodology consists of the following steps: topographic mapping of the raster grids, marine gravity and geoid; semi-automatic digitizing of the orthogonal cross-section profiles; modelling geomorphic trends of the gradient slopes; computing raster surfaces from the xyz data sets by modules nearneighbor and XYZ2grd. Several types of the cartographic projections were used: oblique Mercator, Mercator cylindrical, conic equal-area Albers, conic equidistant. The cross-section geomorphic profiles in a perpendicular direction across the two selected segments of the trench were automatically digitized. Developed algorithm of the semi-automated digitizing of the profiles enabled to visualize gradients of the slope steepness of the trench. The data were then modelled to show gradient variations in its two segments. The results of the comparative geomorphic analysis of northern and southern transects revealed variations in different parts of the trench. Presented research provided more quantitative insights into the structure and settings of the submarine landforms of the hadal trench that still remains a question for the marine geology. The research demonstrated the effectiveness of the GMT: a variety of modules, approaches and tools that can be used to produce high-quality mapping and graphics. The GMT listings are provided for repeatability.

Aim. The purpose of the work is to process archival cartographic materials and remote sensing data for the interpretation of objects of historical and cultural heritage (OHCH) of Cherkasy, including those that have not been preserved. Method. One of the possible technological schemes for research is offered. According to her, the first step was to analyze the input data of the study, among which were: a map of Cherkasy in 1895 at a scale of 1:42000; German aerial image of 1944; a fragment of a space image of Cherkasy obtained from the GeoEye-1 satellite in 2018. Geometric correction of the input materials was performed in the Mercator projection and the WGS84 coordinate system, in which the transformed image was obtained. The next step was to vectorize the objects of historical and cultural heritage of Cherkasy, according to the list obtained on the city’s website. There are two types of objects: point and polygonal. When vectorizing polygonal objects, the historical boundaries were specified with the help of archival maps and aerial images. Special symbols have been developed for each of the types of historical and cultural heritage sites, according to the proposed classification. In addition, an attributive database of these objects was created, which had the following structure: number of the passport of object, the name of the object, the address of the OHCH, the number of the decision to take under protection, information about the OHCH. Also, the obtained vector data was exported to the exchange format with the extension kmz and an online version of the thematic map was created on the basis of the free GISFile resource. Results. As a result of the conducted researches, the thematic GIS of the objects of historical and cultural heritage of Cherkasy was created, which are plotted on the space image of high spatial resolution, obtained in 2018. An on-line version of the GIS of Cherkasy historical and cultural heritage sites has been created on the basis of the free GISFile cartographic service, with the possibility of analyzing the location of these objects and building optimal tourist routes. Scientific novelty. Possible algorithms for creating offline and on-line versions of thematic GIS are proposed. Practical value. The obtained results of mapping the objects of historical and cultural heritage of Cherkasy can be used by the structures of protection of objects of historical and cultural heritage of Cherkasy at the Ministry of Culture.

Abstract The history of the development of military aeronautical charts began immediately before the First World War. The first charts created at that time did not differ much from topographic maps. Air planes were fairly slow back then and had a small range of action, which meant that the charts were developed at the scale of 1:200,000. When speed of aircraft increased, it soon turned out that this scale was too large. Therefore, many countries began to create charts with smaller scales: 1:300,000 and 1:500,000. The International Map of the World 1:1,000,000 (IMW) was frequently used for continental flights prior to the outbreak of the Second World War, while 1:3,500,000 and 1:5,000,000 maps were commonly used for intercontinental flights. The Second World War brought a breakthrough in the field of aeronautical chart development, especially after 7 December 1941, when the USA entered into the war. The Americans created more than 6000 map sheets and published more than 100 million copies, which covered all continents. In their cartographic endeavours, they were aided foremost by the Brits. On the other hand, the Third Reich had more than 1,500 officers and about 15,000 soldiers and civil servants involved in the development of maps and other geographic publications during the Second World War. What is more, the Reich employed local cartographers and made use of local source materials in all the countries it occupied. The Germans introduced one new element to the aeronautical charts – the printed reference grid which made it easier to command its air force. The experience gained during the Second World War and local conflicts was for the United States an impulse to undertake work on the standardization of the development of aeronautical charts. Initially, standardization work concerned only aeronautical charts issued by the US, but after the establishment of NATO, standardization began to be applied to all countries entering the Alliance. The currently binding NATO STANAGs (Standardization Agreements) distinguish between operational charts and special low-flight charts. The charts are developed in the WGS-84 coordinate system, where the WGS-84 ellipsoid of rotation is the reference surface. The cylindrical transverse Mercator projection was used for the scale of 1:250,000, while the conformal conic projection was used for other scales. The first aeronautical charts issued at the beginning of the 20th century contained only a dozen or so special symbols concerning charts’ navigational content, whereas currently the number of symbols and abbreviations found on such charts exceeds one hundred. The updating documents are published every 28 days in order to ensure that aeronautical charts remain up-to-date between releases of their subsequent editions. It concerns foremost aerial obstacles and air traffic zones. The aeronautical charts published by NATO have scales between 1:50,000 and 1:500,000 and the printed Military Grid Reference System (MGRS), while the aeronautical charts at scales between 1:250,000 and 1:2,000,000 contain the World Geographic Reference System (GEOREF). Nowadays, modern military air planes are characterised by their exceptional combat capabilities in terms of speed, range and manoeuvrability. Aside from aircraft, contemporary armed forces make increasingly frequent use of aerial robots, drones and unmanned cruise missiles. This is why, there has been a noticeable increase, especially in NATO, in the amount of work devoted to the standardization and development of aeronautical charts, as well as deepening of knowledge of navigation and aeronautical information.

<p><strong>Abstract.</strong> Glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) is an ongoing phenomenon that characterizes the landscape of the High Coast (63°04'N, 18°22'E, Sweden) / Kvarken archipelago (63°16'N, 21°10'E, Finland) UNESCO World Heritage site. GIA occurs as the Earth’s crust that was depressed by the continental ice sheet during the last glacial period is slowly rebounding towards isostatic equilibrium. The maximum rate of land uplift in the area is more than eight millimetres per year, which &amp;ndash; along with the very different topographical reliefs of the opposite coasts &amp;ndash; makes the region an excellent study area for land uplift as a phenomenon. As there is a marine area between the coasts, shore displacement is an essential part of the phenomenon in the study area.</p><p>The cartographic representation of GIA and shore displacement has classically relied on static maps representing isobases of the uplift rates and of ancient shorelines. However, to dynamically visualize and communicate the continuity and the nature of the phenomena, an animated map is required. To create a visually balanced, seamless animation, we need to create high-resolution image frames that represent digital elevation models (DEMs) together with extracted shorelines of different moments of time. To create these frames, we developed a mathematical model to transform the DEM in a given time for the past ~9300 years. We used the most recent LiDAR-derived DEMs of Finland and Sweden, and a bathymetric model of the Gulf of Bothnia as our initial data, along with a land uplift rate surface derived from geophysical measurements. We compared the current uplift rates with the shoreline observations of the ancient Baltic Sea stages, Litorina Sea and Ancylus Lake, and created a linear model between the elevations of the shorelines and the present-day uplift rates, as there was a near-linear correlation in both cases. Based on the current uplift rates and the elevations and the dating of the ancient shorelines, we derived an exponential model to describe the non-linear correlation between the elapsed time and the occurred land uplift. Near the present time, we adapted the formula proposed by Ekman (2001) to make the model more robust closer to the present day.</p><p>We assumed that although the uplift rate varies in time, the spatial relation of uplift rates remains the same. Furthermore, as the land uplift is an exponentially decelerating phenomenon occurring with a significantly lower annual rate than shortly after the de-glaciation (Eronen et al. 2001, Nordman et al. 2015), and with most of the total uplift already having occurred (Ekman 1991), we assumed a constant rate of uplift from the present day to the near geological future. We did not consider potential sea level changes caused by human-driven climate change in the predictions, as the geological time scale vastly exceeds the time range of the climate models. Neither did we take into account the historical transgression phases, as they did not appear dominating in the area.</p><p>The elevation and bathymetry data were harmonized and resampled into 4K (3840&amp;thinsp;&amp;times;&amp;thinsp;2160) pixel dimensions to utilize the best commercially available screen resolutions and to avoid unnecessary sub-pixel level computations. This resulted in a spatial pixel size of about 200 metres. The initial spatial resolution of the DEMs of Finland and Sweden was 2 metres and 1 metre, respectively, while the bathymetric data had a spatial pixel size of 400 metres. This, along with the fact that the bathymetric data was partly modelled and inaccurate near the coastlines, meant that it had to be oversampled to generate plausible coastal bathymetry and to allow any future estimations of shore displacement. All the datasets were resampled to EPSG:3857 Pseudo-Mercator projection to facilitate any future use in web map applications. As the visualized area is only about 430 kilometres in the north-south direction, the use of this projection did not introduce cartographic issues.</p><p>The rendered frames required by the animation were produced with a programmatic conversion of raster files to RGB-images. The visualization of shore displacement was implemented by a discontinuity in elevation dependent colour scale at sea level. The bathymetry was visualized with a continuous colour scale in shades of blue until the elevation of zero metres. Elevations above zero were visualized with a colour scale starting from green to create an impression of a discrete shoreline (Figure 1).</p><p>The whole process from computing the DEMs to rendering the frames was implemented in Python, without the need for traditional GUI operated GIS or image processing software. The raster data was read and processed with GDAL and NumPy libraries, and the visualization was carried out using Matplotlib and Python Imaging Library. Each DEM was given the same elevation based colour scale and an individually created hillshading that was blended with the image by multiplication. The whole process was carried out as an open source solution.</p><p>The interval between the calculated frames was set to five years as, particularly at the Swedish coast, the shore displacement can appear abrupt with a longer time interval. The frame duration was set to 0.05 seconds, which means a 100-second duration for an animation of 10&amp;thinsp;000 years.</p><p>The resulting DEM reconstructions show good agreement with comparable data, such as the Litorina reconstructions by the Geological Survey of Finland (GTK). Also, the mathematical model appears to be in line with previous reconstructions conducted in the area (e.g. Nordman et al. 2015). So far, any continuous series of paleogeographic DEM reconstructions comparable to ours has not been published for this area. The animation provides an understandable way of perceiving the continuous but decelerating nature of the land uplift phenomenon and also highlights the differences in the post-glacial history of Finnish and Swedish coasts. To further improve the visualization, we must consider the removal of post-glacially developed features in the present day DEM, e.g. the various rivers that can both cause bias in the shore displacement and uplift estimations and appear visually distractive. In the very early frames of the animation, the retracting ice sheet must also be present. Also, a balanced addition of other cartographic elements, such as present-day hydrography and place names, can further improve the overall presentation.</p>

Globally, maps are our primary source of comprehensive information about the shape, size and arrangement of Earth features. Maps are the only way we can get a unique and comprehensive view of the world. Unfortunately, globally, all maps are somehow deformed, affecting our perception and understanding of the various geometrical properties of the world. Cartographic projection is a way of mapping points from an ellipsoid to a plane and as such is the basis for making a mathematical map basis. The two projections most used in our geospatial are the Gauss-Krüger projection and the UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) projection. The paper deals with Helmert's transformation of these two projections.

La communication proposée aura pour but de s’interroger sur la notion de « carte mentale ». Qu’est-ce qu’une carte mentale ? Comment se construit-elle ? Comment et pourquoi faire des recherches sur les cartes mentales? Cette réflexion théorique sera accompagnée d’une étude sur les représentations cartographiques de l’empire britannique au tournant du vingtième siècle. Comment retrouver les cartes mentales de l’empire britannique au moment de son apogée à partir des discours des géographes et des cartes présentes dans les atlas, les manuels scolaires et les revues des sociétés de géographie? Tout d’abord, ces cartes présentent un empire relié au monde grâce à de nombreux liens de communication. C’est un empire qui est compris comme un véritable résumé du monde. Les cartes affirment aussi la puissance symbolique d’un empire associé à la couleur rouge, couleur qui confère une certaine homogénéité à cette construction impériale et qui suggère ainsi une identité impériale. Cependant, si de nombreuses cartes construisent l’image d’un empire unifié, certaines laissent entrevoir la diversité des statuts des différents territoires qui en font partie. D’autres encore tentent de représenter, aux côtés de l’empire formel en rouge, un empire informel commercial, c’est-à-dire la partie invisible de l’iceberg. Enfin, la plupart des cartes de l’empire britannique utilisent la projection de Mercator. Quelle image de l’empire est transmise par cette projection et quelles sont les tentatives entreprises par les géographes du début du vingtième siècle pour changer cette image? L’analyse de ces variations autour des portraits cartographiques de l’empire britannique permettra ainsi de voir comment les cartes influencent la perception d’un espace dont les territoires sont éparpillés sur les cinq continents. Cette étude conduira enfin à considérer les cartes comme des « lieux de mémoire », comme des images qui contribuent à inscrire des territoires dans les mémoires.At the end of the nineteenth century, the maps of Africa underwent a complete revolution. The blanks that they used to show were covered in a few years by the colours of the European powers colonizing the continent. The aim of this article is to study the perception of that cartographic revolution by mapreaders at the time, including one of the most famous: Joseph Conrad. In his work Heart of Darkness, published in 1899, at the close of a century of geographical progress, he dealt both with the blanks on the maps of Africa and the European colours that replaced them. His fascination for maps led him to create a very powerful literary map of Africa where the rainbow colours of the Europeans are surrounded by darkness. That oxymoronic image enables him not only to symbolically reflect a consciousness of space but also of time, summarizing the proud certainties of the imperialism and nationalism of European powers with their colours and announcing the uncertainties and the darkness of the first half of the twentieth century. Ultimately, this article aims at showing that it is necessary to replace the literary work of Joseph Conrad in its historical context in order to understand how much his inspiration was linked both to his own experience and to a zeitgeist shared by his contemporaries.