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Narcizo, Fabricio Batista, Fernando Eustáquio Dantas dos Santos, and Dan Witzner Hansen. "High-Accuracy Gaze Estimation for Interpolation-Based Eye-Tracking Methods." Vision 5, no. 3 (2021): 41. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/vision5030041.
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This study investigates the influence of the eye-camera location associated with the accuracy and precision of interpolation-based eye-tracking methods. Several factors can negatively influence gaze estimation methods when building a commercial or off-the-shelf eye tracker device, including the eye-camera location in uncalibrated setups. Our experiments show that the eye-camera location combined with the non-coplanarity of the eye plane deforms the eye feature distribution when the eye-camera is far from the eye’s optical axis. This paper proposes geometric transformation methods to reshape the eye feature distribution based on the virtual alignment of the eye-camera in the center of the eye’s optical axis. The data analysis uses eye-tracking data from a simulated environment and an experiment with 83 volunteer participants (55 males and 28 females). We evaluate the improvements achieved with the proposed methods using Gaussian analysis, which defines a range for high-accuracy gaze estimation between −0.5∘ and 0.5∘. Compared to traditional polynomial-based and homography-based gaze estimation methods, the proposed methods increase the number of gaze estimations in the high-accuracy range.
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Li, Zhaowei, Peiyuan Guo, and Chen Song. "A Review of Main Eye Movement Tracking Methods." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1802, no. 4 (2021): 042066. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1802/4/042066.
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Sangeetha, S. K. B. "A survey on Deep Learning Based Eye Gaze Estimation Methods." September 2021 3, no. 3 (2021): 190–207. http://dx.doi.org/10.36548/jiip.2021.3.003.
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In recent years, deep-learning systems have made great progress, particularly in the disciplines of computer vision and pattern recognition. Deep-learning technology can be used to enable inference models to do real-time object detection and recognition. Using deep-learning-based designs, eye tracking systems could determine the position of eyes or pupils, regardless of whether visible-light or near-infrared image sensors were utilized. For growing electronic vehicle systems, such as driver monitoring systems and new touch screens, accurate and successful eye gaze estimates are critical. In demanding, unregulated, low-power situations, such systems must operate efficiently and at a reasonable cost. A thorough examination of the different deep learning approaches is required to take into consideration all of the limitations and opportunities of eye gaze tracking. The goal of this research is to learn more about the history of eye gaze tracking, as well as how deep learning contributed to computer vision-based tracking. Finally, this research presents a generalized system model for deep learning-driven eye gaze direction diagnostics, as well as a comparison of several approaches.
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Meksuła, Dariusz, Konrad Mikołajczyk, Małgorzata Plechawska-Wójcik, and Magdalena Borys. "The use of eye-tracking methods for evaluation of responsive web application." Journal of Computer Sciences Institute 6 (March 30, 2018): 20–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.35784/jcsi.634.
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The purpose of this article is to present the eye-tracking method in the context of evaluation of responsive web application dedicated to manage students practices. To determine usability of the application the eye-tracking method has been chosen due to its high objectivity. Using this method one can unequivocally determine the user gaze direction, which interface elements enchained his attention and which ones were completely skipped. As part of the work were prepared scenarios with tasks for the research participants, questionnaires and time of the tasks execution where measured. Collected data were presented as heat maps and scanpaths. The paper covers also actual review of bibliography of the eye-tracking area and detailed description of the eye-tracking method. What is more the paper gives description of test subject, conducted test and discusses results.
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Vass, Caroline, Dan Rigby, Kelly Tate, Andrew Stewart, and Katherine Payne. "An Exploratory Application of Eye-Tracking Methods in a Discrete Choice Experiment." Medical Decision Making 38, no. 6 (2018): 658–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0272989x18782197.
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Background. Discrete choice experiments (DCEs) are increasingly used to elicit preferences for benefit-risk tradeoffs. The primary aim of this study was to explore how eye-tracking methods can be used to understand DCE respondents’ decision-making strategies. A secondary aim was to explore if the presentation and communication of risk affected respondents’ choices. Method. Two versions of a DCE were designed to understand the preferences of female members of the public for breast screening that varied in how risk attributes were presented. Risk was communicated as either 1) percentages or 2) icon arrays and percentages. Eye-tracking equipment recorded eye movements 1000 times a second. A debriefing survey collected sociodemographics and self-reported attribute nonattendance (ANA) data. A heteroskedastic conditional logit model analyzed DCE data. Eye-tracking data on pupil size, direction of motion, and total visual attention (dwell time) to predefined areas of interest were analyzed using ordinary least squares regressions. Results. Forty women completed the DCE with eye-tracking. There was no statistically significant difference in attention (fixations) to attributes between the risk communication formats. Respondents completing either version of the DCE with the alternatives presented in columns made more horizontal (left-right) saccades than vertical (up-down). Eye-tracking data confirmed self-reported ANA to the risk attributes with a 40% reduction in mean dwell time to the “probability of detecting a cancer” ( P = 0.001) and a 25% reduction to the “risk of unnecessary follow-up” ( P = 0.008). Conclusion. This study is one of the first to show how eye-tracking can be used to understand responses to a health care DCE and highlighted the potential impact of risk communication on respondents’ decision-making strategies. The results suggested self-reported ANA to cost attributes may not be reliable.
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Baghdadi, Golnaz, and Ali Motie Nasrabadi. "Investigating classification methods to improve eye-tracking systems operation." International Journal of Biomedical Engineering and Technology 10, no. 2 (2012): 145. http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/ijbet.2012.049365.
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Goldberg, Joseph H. "Eye Movement-Based Interface Evaluation: What can and Cannot be Assessed?" Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting 44, no. 37 (2000): 625–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/154193120004403721.
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Interface evaluation by eye tracking-derived data is discussed in this review and synthesis paper. While analysis of eye movements during interface use is becoming more popular, there is little basis for justification of eye tracking methods. A review of traditional interface assessment methods and criteria is provided, to establish areas where eye tracking may potentially impact interface evaluations. Studies are then reviewed, that have used eye tracking-derived measures for performance assessment as interfaces are manipulated. A synthesis is then provided, suggesting that eye tracking-based analysis could have a positive impact in evaluations of consistency, resources, visual clarity, and flexibility, and should have difficulty in ascertaining interface compatibility and locus of control.
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Wilson, Katie A., Pamela L. Heinselman, and Ziho Kang. "Exploring Applications of Eye Tracking in Operational Meteorology Research." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 97, no. 11 (2016): 2019–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/bams-d-15-00148.1.
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Abstract Eye-tracking technology can observe where and how someone’s eye gaze is directed, and therefore provides information about one’s attention and related cognitive processes in real time. The use of eye-tracking methods is evident in a variety of research domains, and has been used on few occasions within the meteorology community. With the goals of Weather Ready Nation in mind, eye-tracking applications in meteorology have so far supported the need to address how people interpret meteorological information through televised forecasts and graphics. However, eye tracking has not yet been applied to learning about forecaster behavior and decision processes. In this article, we consider what current methods are being used to study forecasters and why we believe eye tracking is a method that should be incorporated into our efforts. We share our first data collection of an NWS forecaster’s eye gaze data, and explore the types of information that these data provide about the forecaster’s cognitive processes. We also discuss how eye-tracking methods could be applied to other aspects of operational meteorology research in the future, and provide motivation for further exploration on this topic.
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Godfroid, Aline, Paula Winke, and Kathy Conklin. "Exploring the depths of second language processing with eye tracking: An introduction." Second Language Research 36, no. 3 (2020): 243–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0267658320922578.
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In this paper, we review how eye tracking, which offers millisecond-precise information about how language learners orient their visual attention, can be used to investigate a variety of processes involved in the multifaceted endeavor of second language acquisition (SLA). In particular, we review the last 15 years of research in SLA, in which applied linguists have exploited the information gleaned from eye-tracking metrics to advance the field. As we explain, eye-tracking researchers within SLA have diversified which aspects of SLA they investigate and are entering new territory by pairing eye-tracking metrics with other data-collection methods for data-triangulation purposes. Eye tracking in SLA is also an inherently interdisciplinary endeavor, for which research partnerships with computer scientists hold special promise in the areas of automated language assessment and the evaluation of cognitive functioning and processing. We describe how the papers in this special issue on eye tracking in Second Language Research push the boundaries by: (a) ensuring greater standardization of how eye tracking is used in SLA (Godfroid and Hui, 2020); (b) embedding eye-tracking metrics within a mixed-methods design for more valid and complete data interpretation (Andringa, 2020; Michel et al., 2020); (c) using eye trackers to investigate the nuanced differences in cognitive processes involved across multimodal input and feedback types in SLA (Conklin et al., 2020; McDonough et al., 2020).
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Vladimirov, I. Yu, and A. V. Chistopolskaya. "Eye-tracking and cognitive monitoring as the methods of insight process objectification." Experimental Psychology (Russia) 12, no. 1 (2019): 167–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.17759/exppsy.2019120113.
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Current article highlights the results of the research of specific mechanisms of insight problem solving. It is based on the analysis of eye movement record data made by eye-tracker. The recorded data included average pupil diameter [mm] and fixation duration [ms]; the distribution of averaged eye movement values within the areas of interest during the manipulations with problem space was analyzed. The eye movement data was compared to the cognitive monitoring method data. The specificity of insight problems in comparison with non-insight (algorithmized) problems was validated. Several qualitative features of insight problem solving and the organization of problem space were revealed. Additionally, the priority of visual processing during insight problem solving was discovered: fixation duration increased in the “main problem” AOI.
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Lim, Jia Zheng, James Mountstephens, and Jason Teo. "Emotion Recognition Using Eye-Tracking: Taxonomy, Review and Current Challenges." Sensors 20, no. 8 (2020): 2384. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s20082384.
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The ability to detect users’ emotions for the purpose of emotion engineering is currently one of the main endeavors of machine learning in affective computing. Among the more common approaches to emotion detection are methods that rely on electroencephalography (EEG), facial image processing and speech inflections. Although eye-tracking is fast in becoming one of the most commonly used sensor modalities in affective computing, it is still a relatively new approach for emotion detection, especially when it is used exclusively. In this survey paper, we present a review on emotion recognition using eye-tracking technology, including a brief introductory background on emotion modeling, eye-tracking devices and approaches, emotion stimulation methods, the emotional-relevant features extractable from eye-tracking data, and most importantly, a categorical summary and taxonomy of the current literature which relates to emotion recognition using eye-tracking. This review concludes with a discussion on the current open research problems and prospective future research directions that will be beneficial for expanding the body of knowledge in emotion detection using eye-tracking as the primary sensor modality.
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Pentus, Kristian, Kerli Ploom, Tanel Mehine, Madli Koiv, Age Tempel, and Andres Kuusik. "Mobile and stationary eye tracking comparison – package design and in-store results." Journal of Consumer Marketing 37, no. 3 (2020): 259–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jcm-04-2019-3190.
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Purpose This paper aims to test the similarity of the results of on-screen eye tracking compared to mobile eye tracking in the context of first fixation location on stimuli. Design/methodology/approach Three studies were conducted altogether with 117 participants, where the authors compared both methods: stationary eye tracking (Tobii Pro X2-60) and mobile eye tracking (Tobii Pro Glasses 2). Findings The studies revealed that the reported average first fixation locations from stationary and mobile eye tracking are different. Stationary eye tracking is more affected by a centre fixation bias. Based on the research, it can be concluded that stationary eye tracking is not always suitable for studying consumer perception and behaviour because of the centre viewing bias. Research limitations/implications When interpreting the results, researchers should take into account that stationary eye tracking results are affected by a centre fixation bias. Previous stationary eye tracking research should be interpreted with the centre fixation bias in mind. Some of this previous work should be retested using mobile eye tracking. If possible small-scale pilot studies should be included in papers to show that the more appropriate method, less affected by attention biases, was chosen. Practical implications Managers should trust research where the ability of package design to attract attention on a shelf is tested using mobile eye tracking. The authors suggest using mobile eye tracking to optimise store shelf planograms, point-of-purchase materials, and shelf layouts. In package design, interpretations of research using stationary eye tracking should consider its centre fixation bias. Managers should also be cautious when interpreting previous stationary eye tracking research (both applied and scientific), knowing that stationary eye tracking is more prone to a centre fixation bias. Originality/value While eye tracking research has become more and more popular as a marketing research method, the limitations of the method have not been fully understood by the field. This paper shows that the chosen eye tracking method can influence the results. No such comparative paper about mobile and stationary eye tracking research has been done in the marketing field.
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Lund, Haakon. "Eye tracking in library and information science: a literature review." Library Hi Tech 34, no. 4 (2016): 585–614. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/lht-07-2016-0085.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to present a systematic literature review of the application of eye-tracking technology within the field of library and information science. Eye-tracking technology has now reached a level of maturity, which makes the use of the technology more accessible. Subsequently, a growing interest in employing eye tracking as a methodology within library and information science research must be anticipated. Design/methodology/approach The review follows the guidelines set in the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses recommendations. Two reference databases are searched for relevant references: Library and Information Science Abstracts and Library, Information Science and Technology Abstracts. The main selection criteria are peer-reviewed literature that describes the experimental setting, including which eye-tracking equipment was used, the number of test persons and reports on the eye-tracking measures. Furthermore, this study will report which other methods were applied in combination with eye tracking. Findings The number of published research utilizing eye-tracking technologies within library and information science (LIS) is still limited although an increase in the use of eye-tracking technologies is observed during recent years. Originality/value To the knowledge of the author, this is the first systematic review on eye-tracking technology and application in LIS.
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Boros, Ildikó Fruzsina, László Sipos, and Attila Gere. "Eye-tracking analysis of leafy vegetables." Review on Agriculture and Rural Development 6, no. 1-2 (2018): 32–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.14232/rard.2017.1-2.32-37.
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There is a great supply of leafy vegetables on the market; hence capturing consumer’s attention (and decision) is critically important. Several scientific publications deal with consumer choices and the newest technology to capture consumer attention is eye-tracking. Eye-trackers are commonly used in Western Europe and Asia also, where it is an important and widely-used tool during product developments and the creation of marketing strategies. In Hungary, there are only a few publications about eye-tracking applications in vegetable growing and food industry. In our research, photographs about sorrel, lamb lettuce, spinach, leaf lettuce and dandelion leafs were analysed by eye-tracking technology and the eye movements of the participants during their decision making process of leafy vegetables were captured and evaluated. The eye-tracking analyses were carried out in the Sensory Laboratory of the Faculty of Food Sciences of Szent István University, using a Tobii X2-60 eye-tracker and Tobii Studio (version 3.0.5, Tobii Technology AB, Sweden) software. We aimed to answer the following research questions: Are there any connections between the eye movements of participants and their decisions? What amount of visual attention can be registered during the decision making process? Furthermore, the following metrics were measured and evaluated: fixation durations on the leafy vegetables, number of returns to products, pathways of visual attention, time until the final decision making and motivation of their final decisions. Measurement of the subconscious consumer decision making processes is way easier using eye-trackers compared to the traditional questionnaire-based methods, because it is hard or impossible to control our eye movements. Eye-tracking can be used successfully for understanding the expectations and decisions of the consumers.
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Rozanski, Evelyn P., Keith S. Karn, Anne R. Haake, Anthony M. Vigliotti, and Jeff B. Pelz. "Simplified Eye Tracking Enhances Problem Understanding and Solution Discovery in Usability Testing." Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting 49, no. 24 (2005): 2090–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/154193120504902405.
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Identifying problems and generating recommendations for product user interface redesign are primary goals of usability testing. Typical methods seem inadequate for the deep understanding of usability problems needed for developing effective solutions. Sporadically over the past 50 years, usability teams have tracked user eye movements to achieve this deeper understanding, but high cost and complexity have prevented the widespread use of this technology. We investigated whether simplified eye tracking techniques, in combination with traditional usability testing methods, could enhance problem discovery and understanding. These techniques included: using a video-based eye tracking system, tracking only a few participants, and encoding gaze durations (not individual fixations) on only a few areas of interest. For each of three interface versions, we studied twelve participants with traditional usability testing techniques and eye tracked just two. Eye tracking yielded discovery of additional usability problems and detailed characterizations which led to more focused and appropriate solutions.
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Kennedy, Alan. "Book Review: Eye Tracking: A Comprehensive Guide to Methods and Measures." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 69, no. 3 (2016): 607–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2015.1098709.
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Prokop, Michal, Ladislav Pilař, and Ivana Tichá. "Impact of Think-Aloud on Eye-Tracking: A Comparison of Concurrent and Retrospective Think-Aloud for Research on Decision-Making in the Game Environment." Sensors 20, no. 10 (2020): 2750. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s20102750.
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Simulations and games bring the possibility to research complex processes of managerial decision-making. However, this modern field requires adequate methodological procedures. Many authors recommend the use of a combination of concurrent think-aloud (CTA) or retrospective think-aloud (RTA) with eye-tracking to investigate cognitive processes such as decision-making. Nevertheless, previous studies have little or no consideration of the possible differential impact of both think-aloud methods on data provided by eye-tracking. Therefore, the main aim of this study is to compare and assess if and how these methods differ in terms of their impact on eye-tracking. The experiment was conducted for this purpose. Participants were 14 managers who played a specific simulation game with CTA use and 17 managers who played the same game with RTA use. The results empirically prove that CTA significantly distorts data provided by eye-tracking, whereas data gathered when RTA is used, provide independent pieces of evidence about the participants’ behavior. These findings suggest that RTA is more suitable for combined use with eye-tracking for the purpose of the research of decision-making in the game environment.
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Wang, Chengshun, Yufen Chen, Shulei Zheng, Yecheng Yuan, and Shuang Wang. "Research on Generating an Indoor Landmark Salience Model for Self-Location and Spatial Orientation from Eye-Tracking Data." ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information 9, no. 2 (2020): 97. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijgi9020097.
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Landmarks play an essential role in wayfinding and are closely related to cognitive processes. Eye-tracking data contain massive amounts of information that can be applied to discover the cognitive behaviors during wayfinding; however, little attention has been paid to applying such data to calculating landmark salience models. This study proposes a method for constructing an indoor landmark salience model based on eye-tracking data. First, eye-tracking data are taken to calculate landmark salience for self-location and spatial orientation tasks through partial least squares regression (PLSR). Then, indoor landmark salience attractiveness (visual, semantic and structural) is selected and trained by landmark salience based on the eye-tracking data. Lastly, the indoor landmark salience model is generated by landmark salience attractiveness. Recruiting 32 participants, we designed a laboratory eye-tracking experiment to construct and test the model. Finding 1 proves that our eye-tracking data-based modelling method is more accurate than current weighting methods. Finding 2 shows that significant differences in landmark salience occur between two tasks; thus, it is necessary to generate a landmark salience model for different tasks. Our results can contribute to providing indoor maps for different tasks.
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Thibeault, Mark, Monica Jesteen, and Andrew Beitman. "Improved Accuracy Test Method for Mobile Eye Tracking in Usability Scenarios." Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting 63, no. 1 (2019): 2226–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1071181319631083.
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Eye tracking has been used in usability testing for many years to gain objective measurements to inform label, instruction, and product design. With many different testing environments, possible participants, hardware, and software, key metrics can vary greatly. These metrics can also vary for different studies, so a standardized test method, metrics, and calculation method are proposed in this study. The Tobii Pro Glasses 2 is a mobile eye tracker that does not significantly affect user mobility compared to other eye-trackers. This study aims to build a testing method, which can modify to better fit the varying conditions found in usability testing. This study was performed with Tobii Pro Glasses 2; however, this test method can be used with any mobile eye tracking units. Even with poor testing conditions, this test method results in reliable metrics which can be utilized to inform expectation and decisions with eye tracking. These methods are recommended to be performed prior to eye tracking testing to determine testing-specific performance.
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Sipatchin, Alexandra, Siegfried Wahl, and Katharina Rifai. "Eye-Tracking for Clinical Ophthalmology with Virtual Reality (VR): A Case Study of the HTC Vive Pro Eye’s Usability." Healthcare 9, no. 2 (2021): 180. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9020180.
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Background: A case study is proposed to empirically test and discuss the eye-tracking status-quo hardware capabilities and limitations of an off-the-shelf virtual reality (VR) headset with embedded eye-tracking for at-home ready-to-go online usability in ophthalmology applications. Methods: The eye-tracking status-quo data quality of the HTC Vive Pro Eye is investigated with novel testing specific to objective online VR perimetry. Testing was done across a wide visual field of the head-mounted-display’s (HMD) screen and in two different moving conditions. A new automatic and low-cost Raspberry Pi system is introduced for VR temporal precision testing for assessing the usability of the HTC Vive Pro Eye as an online assistance tool for visual loss. Results: The target position on the screen and head movement evidenced limitations of the eye-tracker capabilities as a perimetry assessment tool. Temporal precision testing showed the system’s latency of 58.1 milliseconds (ms), evidencing its good potential usage as a ready-to-go online assistance tool for visual loss. Conclusions: The test of the eye-tracking data quality provides novel analysis useful for testing upcoming VR headsets with embedded eye-tracking and opens discussion regarding expanding future introduction of these HMDs into patients’ homes for low-vision clinical usability.
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Wu, Tunhua, Ping Wang, Shengnan Yin, and Yezhi Lin. "A New Human Eye Tracking Algorithm of Optimized TLD Based on Improved Mean-Shift." International Journal of Pattern Recognition and Artificial Intelligence 31, no. 03 (2017): 1755007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218001417550072.
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In this paper, an improved Mean-shift algorithm was integrated with standard tracking–learning–detection (TLD) model tracker for improving the tracking effects of standard TLD model and enhancing the anti-occlusion capability and the recognition capability of similar objectives. The target region obtained by the improved Mean-shift algorithm and the target region obtained by the TLD model tracker are integrated to achieve favorable tracking effects. Then the optimized TLD tracking system was applied to human eye tracking. In the tests, the model can be self-adopted to partial occlusion, such as eye-glasses, closed eyes and hand occlusion. And the roll angle can approach 90[Formula: see text], raw angle can approach 45[Formula: see text] and pitch angle can approach 60[Formula: see text]. In addition, the model never mistakenly transfers the tracking region to another eye (similar target on the same face) in longtime tracking. Experimental results indicate that: (1) the optimized TLD model shows sound tracking stability even when targets are partially occluded or rotated; (2) tracking speed and accuracy are superior to those of the standard TLD and some mainstream tracking methods. In summary, the optimized TLD model show higher robustness, stability and better responding to complex eye tracking requirement.
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Purucker, Christian, Jan R. Landwehr, David E. Sprott, and Andreas Herrmann. "Clustered insights." International Journal of Market Research 55, no. 1 (2013): 105–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.2501/ijmr-2013-009.
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Analysis of eye-tracking data in marketing research has traditionally relied upon regions of interest (ROIs) methodology or the use of heatmaps. Clear disadvantages exist for both methods. Addressing this gap, the current research applies spatiotemporal scan statistics to the analysis and visualisation of eye tracking data. Results of a sample experiment using anthropomorphic car faces demonstrate several advantages provided by the new method. In contrast to traditional approaches, scan statistics provide a means to scan eye tracking data automatically in space and time with differing gaze clusters, with results able to be comprehensively visualised and statistically assessed.
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Segall, Noa, Jeffrey M. Taekman, Jonathan B. Mark, Gene Hobbs, and Melanie C. Wright. "Coding and Visualizing Eye Tracking Data in Simulated Anesthesia Care." Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting 51, no. 11 (2007): 765–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/154193120705101134.
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Eye tracking can be a valuable tool for collecting data about perception and attention in task performance, but its use in human factors research has been limited. This may be due to the fact that the coding and visualization of eye tracking data can be difficult and time-consuming. In this paper we introduce a video-coding application for coding and analyzing eye tracking data. We discuss various methods for visualizing these data for the purposes of identifying patterns or trends that can then be more formally analyzed. We also present several visualization examples from the simulated anesthesia care environment.
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Bozkir, Efe, Onur Günlü, Wolfgang Fuhl, Rafael F. Schaefer, and Enkelejda Kasneci. "Differential privacy for eye tracking with temporal correlations." PLOS ONE 16, no. 8 (2021): e0255979. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255979.
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New generation head-mounted displays, such as VR and AR glasses, are coming into the market with already integrated eye tracking and are expected to enable novel ways of human-computer interaction in numerous applications. However, since eye movement properties contain biometric information, privacy concerns have to be handled properly. Privacy-preservation techniques such as differential privacy mechanisms have recently been applied to eye movement data obtained from such displays. Standard differential privacy mechanisms; however, are vulnerable due to temporal correlations between the eye movement observations. In this work, we propose a novel transform-coding based differential privacy mechanism to further adapt it to the statistics of eye movement feature data and compare various low-complexity methods. We extend the Fourier perturbation algorithm, which is a differential privacy mechanism, and correct a scaling mistake in its proof. Furthermore, we illustrate significant reductions in sample correlations in addition to query sensitivities, which provide the best utility-privacy trade-off in the eye tracking literature. Our results provide significantly high privacy without any essential loss in classification accuracies while hiding personal identifiers.
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Koester, Thomas, Jesper E. Brøsted, Jeanette J. Jakobsen, Heike P. Malmros, and Niels K. Andreasen. "The Use of Eye-Tracking in Usability Testing of Medical Devices." Proceedings of the International Symposium on Human Factors and Ergonomics in Health Care 6, no. 1 (2017): 192–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2327857917061042.
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The study presented here was made in collaboration with a medical device manufacturer. Normally, the device manufacturer uses verbal self-reporting protocols, interviews and observations in their formative usability tests during product development. The objective of our study was to investigate whether the use of eye-tracking technology can contribute to the data collection and bring new data and knowledge into the product development. The use of eye-tracking provided five unique insights and findings. Although the evaluated significance of them varied, a couple of findings stands out as important, indicating that the use of eye-trackers can indeed contribute positively to the results obtained from a usability test based on traditional ethnographic methods. It should be noted that use of eye-tracking requires additional time, resources and technical skills including optimal light conditions. However, with the promising perspectives in mind, eye-tracking is recommendable as an additional tool for usability studies.
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Kollert, A., M. Rutzinger, M. Bremer, K. Kaufmann, and T. Bork-Hüffer. "MAPPING OF 3D EYE-TRACKING IN URBAN OUTDOOR ENVIRONMENTS." ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences V-4-2021 (June 17, 2021): 201–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/isprs-annals-v-4-2021-201-2021.
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Abstract. New geospatial technologies and ubiquitous sensing allow new insights into people’s spatial practices and experiences of public spaces. These tools offer new data streams for analysis and interpretation of social phenomena. Mobile augmented reality tools such as smartphones and wearables merge the experience of entangled online and offline spaces in citizen’s daily life. This paper demonstrates a concept that combines eye-tracking tools with innovative mapping in order to enhance the interpretability of real outdoor environmental experiences. Through videogrammetry, a participants’ head posture can be reconstructed. Subsequently the fixations measured through eye-tracking are projected onto a 3D point cloud of the surrounding environment. The presented methodological approach is implemented in the interdisciplinary project DigitAS – The Digital, Affects and Space – which investigates the perception of public places as spaces of recreation, security or fear. The project’s Mixed Methods approach combined qualitative, mobile, in-situ and reconstructive methods with eye-tracking in an outdoor setting. Potentials of the geospatial mapping concept for social science research is discussed.
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Grigaliūnaitė, Viktorija, and Lina Pilelienė. "Neinvazinių galvos smegenų elektrinio aktyvumo tyrimų metodų ir žvilgsnio sekimo sistemos taikymo galimybės reklamos efektyvumo vertinimui." Management Theory and Studies for Rural Business and Infrastructure Development 37, no. 2 (2015): 212–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.15544/mts.2015.19.
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The application of the non-invasive brain electrical activity and eye-tracking research methods for the assessment of advertising effectiveness are being analyzed in the article. Traditional marketing research methods are not always sufficient for the complete assessment of advertising effectiveness, thus neuromarketing research methods are often applied to clarify it. Nevertheless, due to the absence of the methodologies of neuromarketing research methods application for evaluating marketing activities, it is important to reveal the possibilities of applying the specific methods for the assessment of advertising effectiveness. The aim of this article is to determine the possibilities of applying non-invasive brain electrical activity and eye-tracking research methods for the evaluation of advertising effectiveness. While achieving the aim of the article, the logical analysis and synthesis of the scientific literature is applied. As a research result, the guidelines for the selection of non-invasive brain electrical activity and eye-tracking research methods for the assessment of advertising effectiveness are formed. Latter guidelines are relevant for the organizations performing neuromarketing researches in both academic and business levels.
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Volkov, A. K., and V. V. Ionov. "THE IMPROVEMENT OF PROFESSIONAL TRAINING ORGANIZATION OF THE X-RAY SCREENING SYSTEMS OPERATORS BY USING THE EYE MOVEMENTS REGISTRATION SYSTEM AND METHODS OF CLUSTER AND DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS." Civil Aviation High TECHNOLOGIES 21, no. 3 (2018): 45–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.26467/2079-0619-2018-21-3-45-36.
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The X-ray screening systems operators’ professional training is based on the CBT (computer-based training) principle, which has algorithms of adaptive training. These algorithms in existing computer simulators include feedback mechanisms on the basis of trainability exponents – such as the frequency of detecting dangerous objects, the frequency of false alarms and detection time. Further enhancement of the operators’ simulator training effectiveness is associated with the integration of psychophysiological mechanisms providing monitoring of their functional state. Based on the analysis of the particularities of x-ray screening systems operators’ professional training associated with the formation of competences in dangerous objects visual search, the most perspective method is the Eye tracking technology. Domestic and foreign studies of the eye movements characteristics while solving professional tasks in training process are actively developed in various areas. There are no studies of visual search peculiarities in domestic practice in contrast to exterior studies. This research is aimed at considering the usage of Eye tracking technology in the training of x-ray screening systems operators. As the result of the experimental research with the use of mobile eye-tracker Sensomotoric Instruments Eye Tracking Glasses 2.0 the statistical data of eye movement parameters of two groups of subjects with different levels of training have been received. The application of cluster and discriminant analyses methods allowed to identify General classes of these parameters, as well as to obtain the discriminants functions for each group under examination. The theoretical significance of the peculiarities of the operators’ eye movement studies is to identify the patterns of prohibited items visual search. The practical importance of implementation of Eye tracking technology and statistical analysis methods is to increase the reliability of assessment the level of formed competence of x-ray screening systems’ operators in visual search, as well as to develop the potential system of operators’ state monitoring and assessing their visual fatigue.
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Asaad, Malke, Jacob K. Dey, Ahmad Al-Mouakeh, et al. "Eye-Tracking Technology in Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery: A Systematic Review." Aesthetic Surgery Journal 40, no. 9 (2020): 1022–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/asj/sjz328.
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Abstract Background The use of eye-tracking technology in plastic surgery has gained popularity over the past decade due to its ability to assess observers’ visual preferences in an objective manner. Objectives The goal of this study was to provide a comprehensive review of eye-tracking studies in plastic and reconstructive surgery, which can aid in the design and conduct of high-quality eye-tracking studies. Methods Through application of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines, a comprehensive search of articles published on eye-tracking across several databases was conducted from January 1946 to January 2019. Inclusion criteria included studies evaluating the use of eye-tracking technology in the field of plastic and reconstructive surgery. The resulting publications were screened by 2 independent reviewers. Results A total of 595 articles were identified, 23 of which met our inclusion criteria. The most common application of eye-tracking was to assess individuals with cleft lip/palate (9 studies). All 19 studies that evaluated fixation patterns among conditions vs controls reported significant differences between the 2 groups. Five out of 7 studies assessing visual data between preoperative and postoperative patients identified significant differences between the preoperative and postoperative groups, whereas 2 studies did not. Nine studies examined the relation between severity indices, attractiveness scores, or personality ratings and gaze patterns. Correlation was found in 7 out of the 9 studies. Conclusions This systematic review demonstrates the utility of eye-tracking technology as a quantifiable objective assessment and emerging research tool for evaluating outcomes in several domains of plastic and reconstructive surgery.
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Barz, Michael, and Daniel Sonntag. "Automatic Visual Attention Detection for Mobile Eye Tracking Using Pre-Trained Computer Vision Models and Human Gaze." Sensors 21, no. 12 (2021): 4143. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21124143.
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Processing visual stimuli in a scene is essential for the human brain to make situation-aware decisions. These stimuli, which are prevalent subjects of diagnostic eye tracking studies, are commonly encoded as rectangular areas of interest (AOIs) per frame. Because it is a tedious manual annotation task, the automatic detection and annotation of visual attention to AOIs can accelerate and objectify eye tracking research, in particular for mobile eye tracking with egocentric video feeds. In this work, we implement two methods to automatically detect visual attention to AOIs using pre-trained deep learning models for image classification and object detection. Furthermore, we develop an evaluation framework based on the VISUS dataset and well-known performance metrics from the field of activity recognition. We systematically evaluate our methods within this framework, discuss potentials and limitations, and propose ways to improve the performance of future automatic visual attention detection methods.
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Takahashi, Ryo, Hiromasa Suzuki, Jouh Yeong Chew, Yutaka Ohtake, Yukie Nagai, and Koichi Ohtomi. "A system for three-dimensional gaze fixation analysis using eye tracking glasses." Journal of Computational Design and Engineering 5, no. 4 (2017): 449–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcde.2017.12.007.
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Abstract Eye tracking is a technology that has quickly become a commonplace tool for evaluating package and webpage design. In such design processes, static two-dimensional images are shown on a computer screen while a subject's gaze where he or she looks is measured via an eye tracking device. The collected gaze fixation data are then visualized and analyzed via gaze plots and heat maps. Such evaluations using two-dimensional images are often too limited to analyze gaze on three-dimensional physical objects such as products because users look at them not from a single point of view but rather from various angles. Therefore in this study we propose methods for collecting gaze fixation data for a three-dimensional model of a given product and visualizing corresponding gaze plots and heat maps also in three dimensions. To achieve our goals, we used a wearable eye-tracking device, i.e., eye-tracking glasses. Further, we implemented a prototype system to demonstrate its advantages in comparison with two-dimensional gaze fixation methods. Highlights Proposing a method for collecting gaze fixation data for a three-dimensional model of a given product. Proposing two visualization methods for three dimensional gaze data; gaze plots and heat maps. Proposed system was applied to two practical examples of hair dryer and car interior.
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Laeng, Bruno, Takashi Suegami, and Samira Aminihajibashi. "Wine labels: an eye-tracking and pupillometry study." International Journal of Wine Business Research 28, no. 4 (2016): 327–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijwbr-03-2016-0009.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper was to investigate how attention to wine labels related to preference by using quantitative measures of gaze and of the diameter of the eye pupil. We assessed whether eye fixations could predict choices and willingness to pay and whether pupil size could index the aesthetic value of wine labels. More specific goals were to identify which elements of a wine label captured attention the most and to assess whether an authentic label would be preferred by naïve consumers over other alternative labels, also designed by the same studio but excluded from the market. Design/methodology/approach Infrared eye-tracking was used to measure the amount of time spent on a specific label among four that were simultaneously shown on the computer screen. Participants also made explicit decisions about preferred labels and provided price estimates. Pupillometry was used for labels shown in isolation to obtain a physiological index of their arousing effect and aesthetic appeal. Eye fixations provided an index of what was selected by attention, whereas changes in the pupillary diameter indexed how intensively attention was focused on an item. Findings A strong positive relationship was found between the dwelling of gaze over a specific label and the degree in which a wine bottle was preferred and (virtually) chosen. The pictorial elements of the labels were fixated the most, whereas verbal information was looked at the least. Attractiveness scores of each bottle collected with one independent group of observers were able to predict the willingness to pay in another group. Moreover, pupil size changed non-linearly in relation to the hedonic values of the wine labels, indicating greater responses to the most as well as least attractive labels (i.e. for the most arousing labels). Research limitations/implications A limitation of the present experiments was that only choices and behavior of wine “novices” were probed; hence, the present findings might not be generalized to other segments (e.g. wine connoisseurs). Moreover, the present study could not specify which visual properties of a label affect preference, aesthetic value and estimates of price, as the study of these effects would require a large number and variety of label stimuli. Practical implications Eye monitoring methods could assist marketing studies of preferences and decision-making. Both wine label designers and wine producers could benefit from eye-tracking methods to improve label selection and optimize the design process of a wine label. Originality/value Although both eye-tracking and pupillometry have been used to the investigate aesthetic preferences for at least the past 50 years, the measurement of pupil diameter and eye movements to study attributes of (authentic) wine labels and their effectiveness is entirely novel. The present study confirms that measures based on eye-tracking combined to explicit choices or ratings provide complementary types of market-relevant information. Both methods provide objective, quantitative, information of the effect of the labels on consumers that is independent but predictive of actual choices and verbally reported preferences. Moreover, they appear to index different processes, pupillometry being a proxy of aesthetic value and gaze a reliable index of choice. Thus, the present findings can be of value to the academic researcher as well as industry and design practitioners.
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Wang, Zhen Ya, He Shan Liu, Hui Hui Shi, and Hua Liu. "The Research of Automobile Design Evaluation Method Based on the Eye Tracking System Technology." Advanced Materials Research 230-232 (May 2011): 654–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.230-232.654.
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Automobile design evaluation is the concrete application of the existing evaluation methods in the automobile design area to obtain concrete conclusions. This paper through the study of eye tracking technology and product design evaluation, then use examples to analyze and demonstrate the application of eye tracking in the automobile design evaluation, in order to summarize a product design evaluation process.
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Sakurai, Keiko, Mingmin Yan, Koichi Tanno, and Hiroki Tamura. "Gaze Estimation Method Using Analysis of Electrooculogram Signals and Kinect Sensor." Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience 2017 (2017): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2017/2074752.
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A gaze estimation system is one of the communication methods for severely disabled people who cannot perform gestures and speech. We previously developed an eye tracking method using a compact and light electrooculogram (EOG) signal, but its accuracy is not very high. In the present study, we conducted experiments to investigate the EOG component strongly correlated with the change of eye movements. The experiments in this study are of two types: experiments to see objects only by eye movements and experiments to see objects by face and eye movements. The experimental results show the possibility of an eye tracking method using EOG signals and a Kinect sensor.
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KUNKA, BARTOSZ, ANDRZEJ CZYZEWSKI, and AGNIESZKA KWIATKOWSKA. "AWARENESS EVALUATION OF PATIENTS IN VEGETATIVE STATE EMPLOYING EYE-GAZE TRACKING SYSTEM." International Journal on Artificial Intelligence Tools 21, no. 02 (2012): 1240007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218213012400076.
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Application of eye-gaze tracking system to awareness evaluation is demonstrated. Hitherto awareness evaluation methods are presented. The assumptions of proposed method based on analysis of visual activity of patients in vegetative state are demonstrated. The eye-gaze tracking system "Cyber-Eye" developed at the Multimedia Systems Department employed to conducted experiments is presented. Research described in the paper indicates that awareness level of 13 of 15 tested patients was misdiagnosed before the new method of awareness evaluation is introduced.
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Bertram, Raymond. "Eye movements and morphological processing in reading." Methodological and Analytic Frontiers in Lexical Research (Part II) 6, no. 1 (2011): 83–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/ml.6.1.04ber.
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In this article, I will give an overview of eye tracking studies on morphological processing since 2005 and a few earlier studies. An earlier survey article of Pollatsek and Hyönä (2006) covers almost all studies until then, but a number of interesting articles have been left undiscussed or were published after 2005. Before that, I will discuss (a) the advantages of studying morphological processing by means of eye tracking; (b) methodological issues related to eye movement experiments on morphological processing; (c) the dependent measures one can extract from the eye movement record and how they can be used in assessing the time course of morphological processing; (d) the boundary paradigm that has been used in morphological processing studies. I will argue that eye tracking should be used more often in morphological processing research, since it allows for studying morphologically complex words in a natural way and at the same time its rich data output allows for deeper levels of analyses than some other methods do.
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Zhu, Bo, Peng Yun Zhang, Jian Nan Chi, and Tian Xia Zhang. "Gaze Estimation Based on Single Camera." Advanced Materials Research 655-657 (January 2013): 1066–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.655-657.1066.
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A new gaze tracking method used in single camera gaze tracking system is proposed. The method can be divided into human face and eye location, human features detection and gaze parameters extraction, and ELM based gaze point estimation. In face and eye location, a face detection method which combines skin color model with Adaboost method is used for fast human face detection. In eye features and gaze parameters extraction, many image processing methods are used to detect eye features such as iris center, inner eye corner and so on. And then gaze parameter which is the vector from iris center to eye corner is obtained. After above an ELM based gaze point on the screen estimation method is proposed to establish the mapping relationship between gaze parameter and gaze point. The experimental results illustrate that the method in this paper is effective to do gaze estimation in single camera gaze tracking system.
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Gwizdka, Jacek, Yan Zhang, and Andrew Dillon. "Using the eye-tracking method to study consumer online health information search behaviour." Aslib Journal of Information Management 71, no. 6 (2019): 739–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ajim-02-2019-0050.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to introduce eye tracking as a method for capturing direct and indirect measures of online human information search behaviour. The unique contribution of eye-tracking data in studying information behaviour is examined in the context of health information research. Design/methodology/approach The need for multiple methods of data collection when examining human online health information behaviour is described and summarised. The nature of human eye movements in information use and reading is outlined and the emergence and application of contemporary eye-tracking technology are explained. Findings The paper summarises key contributions and insights that eye tracking has provided across multiple studies, with examples of both direct data on fixations and gaze durations as well as theoretical assessments of relevance and knowledge gain. Originality/value The paper provides a basic introduction to the application of a unique method for information research in general and online health information search in particular and provides readers with an awareness of how such data are captured and interpreted.
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Sharma, Saryu, Hana Kim, Havan Harris, Amanda Haberstroh, Heather Harris Wright, and Kathrin Rothermich. "Eye Tracking Measures for Studying Language Comprehension Deficits in Aphasia: A Systematic Search and Scoping Review." Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 64, no. 3 (2021): 1008–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/2020_jslhr-20-00287.
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Aim The aim of this scoping review is to identify the eye tracking paradigms and eye movement measures used to investigate auditory and reading comprehension deficits in persons with aphasia (PWA). Method MEDLINE via PubMed, Cochrane, CINAHL, Embase, PsycINFO, OTseeker, Scopus, Google Scholar, Grey Literature Database, and ProQuest Search (Dissertations & Theses) were searched for relevant studies. The Covidence software was used to manage the initial and full-text screening process for the search. Results and Discussion From a total of 1,803 studies, 68 studies were included for full-text screening. In addition, 418 records from gray literature were also screened. After full-text screening, 16 studies were included for this review—12 studies for auditory comprehension in PWA and four studies for reading comprehension in PWA. The review highlights the use of common eye tracking paradigms used to study language comprehension in PWA. We also discusse eye movement measures and how they help in assessing auditory and reading comprehension. Methodological challenges of using eye tracking are discussed. Conclusion The studies summarized in this scoping review provide evidence that the eye tracking methods are beneficial for studying auditory and reading comprehension in PWA.
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Roberts, Leah, and Anna Siyanova-Chanturia. "USING EYE-TRACKING TO INVESTIGATE TOPICS IN L2 ACQUISITION AND L2 PROCESSING." Studies in Second Language Acquisition 35, no. 2 (2013): 213–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0272263112000861.
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Second language (L2) researchers are becoming more interested in both L2 learners’ knowledge of the target language and how that knowledge is put to use during real-time language processing. Researchers are therefore beginning to see the importance of combining traditional L2 research methods with those that capture the moment-by-moment interpretation of the target language, such as eye-tracking. The major benefit of the eye-tracking method is that it can tap into real-time (or online) comprehension processes during the uninterrupted processing of the input, and thus, the data can be compared to those elicited by other, more metalinguistic tasks to offer a broader picture of language acquisition and processing. In this article, we present an overview of the eye-tracking technique and illustrate the method with L2 studies that show how eye-tracking data can be used to (a) investigate language-related topics and (b) inform key debates in the fields of L2 acquisition and L2 processing.
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Niehorster, Diederick C., Raimondas Zemblys, Tanya Beelders, and Kenneth Holmqvist. "Characterizing gaze position signals and synthesizing noise during fixations in eye-tracking data." Behavior Research Methods 52, no. 6 (2020): 2515–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13428-020-01400-9.
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AbstractThe magnitude of variation in the gaze position signals recorded by an eye tracker, also known as its precision, is an important aspect of an eye tracker’s data quality. However, data quality of eye-tracking signals is still poorly understood. In this paper, we therefore investigate the following: (1) How do the various available measures characterizing eye-tracking data during fixation relate to each other? (2) How are they influenced by signal type? (3) What type of noise should be used to augment eye-tracking data when evaluating eye-movement analysis methods? To support our analysis, this paper presents new measures to characterize signal type and signal magnitude based on RMS-S2S and STD, two established measures of precision. Simulations are performed to investigate how each of these measures depends on the number of gaze position samples over which they are calculated, and to reveal how RMS-S2S and STD relate to each other and to measures characterizing the temporal spectrum composition of the recorded gaze position signal. Further empirical investigations were performed using gaze position data recorded with five eye trackers from human and artificial eyes. We found that although the examined eye trackers produce gaze position signals with different characteristics, the relations between precision measures derived from simulations are borne out by the data. We furthermore conclude that data with a range of signal type values should be used to assess the robustness of eye-movement analysis methods. We present a method for generating artificial eye-tracker noise of any signal type and magnitude.
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Katz, Trixie A., Danielle D. Weinberg, Claire E. Fishman, et al. "Visual attention on a respiratory function monitor during simulated neonatal resuscitation: an eye-tracking study." Archives of Disease in Childhood - Fetal and Neonatal Edition 104, no. 3 (2018): F259—F264. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2017-314449.
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ObjectiveA respiratory function monitor (RFM) may improve positive pressure ventilation (PPV) technique, but many providers do not use RFM data appropriately during delivery room resuscitation. We sought to use eye-tracking technology to identify RFM parameters that neonatal providers view most commonly during simulated PPV.DesignMixed methods study. Neonatal providers performed RFM-guided PPV on a neonatal manikin while wearing eye-tracking glasses to quantify visual attention on displayed RFM parameters (ie, exhaled tidal volume, flow, leak). Participants subsequently provided qualitative feedback on the eye-tracking glasses.SettingLevel 3 academic neonatal intensive care unit.ParticipantsTwenty neonatal resuscitation providers.Main outcome measuresVisual attention: overall gaze sample percentage; total gaze duration, visit count and average visit duration for each displayed RFM parameter. Qualitative feedback: willingness to wear eye-tracking glasses during clinical resuscitation.ResultsTwenty providers participated in this study. The mean gaze sample captured wa s 93% (SD 4%). Exhaled tidal volume waveform was the RFM parameter with the highest total gaze duration (median 23%, IQR 13–51%), highest visit count (median 5.17 per 10 s, IQR 2.82–6.16) and longest visit duration (median 0.48 s, IQR 0.38–0.81 s). All participants were willing to wear the glasses during clinical resuscitation.ConclusionWearable eye-tracking technology is feasible to identify gaze fixation on the RFM display and is well accepted by providers. Neonatal providers look at exhaled tidal volume more than any other RFM parameter. Future applications of eye-tracking technology include use during clinical resuscitation.
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Raghuveera, T., S. Vidhushini, and M. Swathi. "Comparative Study of CAMSHIFT and RANSAC Methods for Face and Eye Tracking in Real-Time Video." International Journal of Intelligent Information Technologies 13, no. 2 (2017): 63–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/ijiit.2017040104.
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Real-Time Facial and eye tracking is critical in applications like military surveillance, pervasive computing, Human Computer Interaction etc. In this work, face and eye tracking are implemented by using two well-known methods, CAMSHIFT and RANSAC. In our first approach, a frontal face detector is run on each frame of the video and the Viola-Jones face detector is used to detect the faces. CAMSHIFT Algorithm is used in the real- time tracking along with Haar-Like features that are used to localize and track eyes. In our second approach, the face is detected using Viola-Jones, whereas RANSAC is used to match the content of the subsequent frames. Adaptive Bilinear Filter is used to enhance quality of the input video. Then, we run the Viola-Jones face detector on each frame and apply both the algorithms. Finally, we use Kalman filter upon CAMSHIFT and RANSAC and compare with the preceding experiments. The comparisons are made for different real-time videos under heterogeneous environments through proposed performance measures, to identify the best-suited method for a given scenario.
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Calhoun, Gloria L., William P. Janson, and Christopher J. Arbak. "Use of Eye Control to Select Switches." Proceedings of the Human Factors Society Annual Meeting 30, no. 2 (1986): 154–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/154193128603000211.
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Eye-controlled switching has been proposed as a biocybernetic control approach which may increase system effectiveness while reducing pilot workload. In this experiment, six subjects selected discrete switches on the front panel of a cockpit simulator while manually tracking a target. In two eye-controlled methods, the subjects directed their gaze at the switch indicated by an auditory cue and then made a consent input (either a manual response or a verbal response). In a conventional manual condition, subjects selected the switches with their left hand. The analysis of mean switching time suggests that eye control is a feasible alternative when hands-off control is desired. Tracking performance was found to differ significantly among switching conditions, indicating the importance of quantifying the efficiency of candidate control methods in visual workload environments analogous to that of the application environment.
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Venker, Courtney E., and Sara T. Kover. "An Open Conversation on Using Eye-Gaze Methods in Studies of Neurodevelopmental Disorders." Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 58, no. 6 (2015): 1719–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/2015_jslhr-l-14-0304.
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Purpose Eye-gaze methods have the potential to advance the study of neurodevelopmental disorders. Despite their increasing use, challenges arise in using these methods with individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders and in reporting sufficient methodological detail such that the resulting research is replicable and interpretable. Method This tutorial presents key considerations involved in designing and conducting eye-gaze studies for individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders and proposes conventions for reporting the results of such studies. Results Methodological decisions (e.g., whether to use automated eye tracking or manual coding, implementing strategies to scaffold children's performance, defining valid trials) have cascading effects on the conclusions drawn from eye-gaze data. Research reports that include specific information about procedures, missing data, and selection of participants will facilitate interpretation and replication. Conclusions Eye-gaze methods provide exciting opportunities for studying neurodevelopmental disorders. Open discussion of the issues presented in this tutorial will improve the pace of productivity and the impact of advances in research on neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Niimi, Rie, Kazuhiro Shimamoto, Akiko Sawaki, et al. "Eye-tracking device comparisons of three methods of magnetic resonance image series displays." Journal of Digital Imaging 10, no. 4 (1997): 147–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf03168836.
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Stark, Lisa, Roland Brünken, and Babette Park. "Emotional text design in multimedia learning: A mixed-methods study using eye tracking." Computers & Education 120 (May 2018): 185–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.02.003.
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Wu, Chuhao, Jackie Cha, Jay Sulek, et al. "Eye-Tracking Metrics Predict Perceived Workload in Robotic Surgical Skills Training." Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 62, no. 8 (2019): 1365–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0018720819874544.
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Objective The aim of this study is to assess the relationship between eye-tracking measures and perceived workload in robotic surgical tasks. Background Robotic techniques provide improved dexterity, stereoscopic vision, and ergonomic control system over laparoscopic surgery, but the complexity of the interfaces and operations may pose new challenges to surgeons and compromise patient safety. Limited studies have objectively quantified workload and its impact on performance in robotic surgery. Although not yet implemented in robotic surgery, minimally intrusive and continuous eye-tracking metrics have been shown to be sensitive to changes in workload in other domains. Methods Eight surgical trainees participated in 15 robotic skills simulation sessions. In each session, participants performed up to 12 simulated exercises. Correlation and mixed-effects analyses were conducted to explore the relationships between eye-tracking metrics and perceived workload. Machine learning classifiers were used to determine the sensitivity of differentiating between low and high workload with eye-tracking features. Results Gaze entropy increased as perceived workload increased, with a correlation of .51. Pupil diameter and gaze entropy distinguished differences in workload between task difficulty levels, and both metrics increased as task level difficulty increased. The classification model using eye-tracking features achieved an accuracy of 84.7% in predicting workload levels. Conclusion Eye-tracking measures can detect perceived workload during robotic tasks. They can potentially be used to identify task contributors to high workload and provide measures for robotic surgery training. Application Workload assessment can be used for real-time monitoring of workload in robotic surgical training and provide assessments for performance and learning.
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Rashid, Maria, Wardah Mehmood, and Aliya Ashraf. "Techniques Used for Eye Gaze Interfaces and Survey." International Journal of Advances in Scientific Research 1, no. 6 (2015): 276. http://dx.doi.org/10.7439/ijasr.v1i6.2125.
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Eye movement tracking is a method that is now-a-days used for checking the usability problems in the contexts of Human Computer Interaction (HCI). Firstly we present eye tracking technology and key elements.We tend to evaluate the behavior of the use when they are using the interace of eye gaze. Used different techniques i.e. electro-oculography, infrared oculography, video oculography, image process techniques, scrolling techniques, different models, probable approaches i.e. shape based approach, appearance based methods, 2D and 3D models based approach and different software algorithms for pupil detection etc. We have tried to compare the surveys based on their geometric properties and reportable accuracies and eventually we conclude this study by giving some prediction regarding future eye-gaze. We point out some techniques by using various eyes properties comprising nature, appearance and gesture or some combination for eye tracking and detection. Result displays eye-gaze technique is faster and better approach for selection than a mouse selection. Rate of error for all the matters determines that there have been no errors once choosing from main menus with eye mark and with mouse. But there have been a chance of errors when once choosing from sub menus in case of eye mark. So, maintain head constantly in front of eye gaze monitor.
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Guo, Zhizhi, Qianxiang Zhou, Zhongqi Liu, and Chunhui Liu. "Accurate Pupil Center Location with the SIFT Descriptor and SVM Classifier." International Journal of Pattern Recognition and Artificial Intelligence 30, no. 04 (2016): 1655012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218001416550120.
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Locating the center of the pupils is the most important foundation and the core component of gaze tracking. The accuracy of gaze tracking largely depends on the quality of images, but additional constraints and large amount of calculation make gaze tracking impractical on high-resolution images. Although some eye-gaze trackers can get accurate result, improving the accuracy of pupil feature on low-resolution images and accurately recognizing closed eye images are still common tasks in the field of gaze estimation. Our aim is to get the accurate localization of pupil center on low-resolution image. To this aim, we proposed a simple but effective method which can accurately locate pupil center in real time. The method first gets initial eye center based on improved scale-invariant feature transform (SIFT) descriptor and support vector machine (SVM) classifier, and then gets final position of the pupil center through a size variable correction rectangular block. In this paper, comparing with the reported state-of-the-art methods,the experimental results demonstrate that our system can achieve a more accurate result on low-resolution images. On top of that, our approach shows robustness on closed eye images while some other methods would not recognize the closed eye images.