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Journal articles on the topic 'MFA quota'

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Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 18 February 2022

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1

Datta, Anusua, and Mikhail Kouliavtsev. "The end of the Multi Fiber Arrangement and the pattern of US apparel trade." Journal of Economic Studies 47, no. 3 (2020): 695–710. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jes-05-2018-0179.

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PurposeThis paper analyzes the effects of the expiration of the Multi Fiber Arrangement (MFA), which ended quota restrictions on US textile and apparel imports in 2005, on the sourcing of US apparel. We test if the realignment in trade following the phase out of quotas can be explained by comparative advantage and market size.Design/methodology/approachWe use a gravity framework to investigate the role of comparative advantage (labor costs) and other factors such as exporter size, PTAs and tariff reductions on the pattern of US apparel imports. Detailed data on quotas by country-product pair are used for the purpose.FindingsOur empirical results show a significant increase in imports from large quota constrained countries once the MFA ended. Moreover, the pattern of trade seems to favor low wage countries that have a comparative advantage in producing apparel, which is highly labor intensive.Originality/valueThe end of quotas removed a major distorting factor in US apparel trade. This study examines the role of trade theory in the changing pattern of apparel imports that followed the end of the MFA. We use a gravity framework to test the theory of comparative advantage and the role of exporter size. Previous studies on the end of the MFA and its effects, do not examine the causal factors behind the realignment of US apparel trade.

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2

Manoj, Greeshma. "Export performance of Indian Textile Industry in the Post Multi Fibre Agreement Regime." Artha - Journal of Social Sciences 13, no. 4 (2014): 63. http://dx.doi.org/10.12724/ajss.31.5.

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The Multi Fibre Agreement (MFA) and the quota system which governed the international trade in textiles and clothing came to an end on 1st January, 2005. The quota systems were more restrictive against cotton based fibres, which dominate India’s textile exports. Since India has a natural comparative advantage in cotton and cotton based fibres, abolition of MFA was expected to benefit India’s cotton industry as well as cotton based textiles and clothing sectors. This paper analyses the export performance of Indian textile industry in the post quota regime in terms of different sub sectors of Indian textiles during the period from 1992 to 2012.The entire period of the study is divided into Pre MFA (1992-2004) and Post MFA (2005-2012). Export performance has been examined in terms of annual growth rate and Compound Annual Growth Rate for the period from 1992-2012. The study finds that the textile exports have registered a strong growth rate in the post quota period (2005-2006), increasing from 2.69% in 2004-2005 to 23.14% in 2005-2006. A comparison of the different sectors of the textile export shows that all the sectors recorded an increase in the export values at different phases of the quota removal. If we compare the pre MFA growth (III Phase) and Post MFA growth (IV Phase), there has been a remarkable improvement in the export performance of all the sub sectors. Biggest gainer in the post MFA period is manmade textiles followed by cotton textiles and readymade garments. But India was not able to continue the same momentum in the succeeding years. This clearly indicates that Indian textile industry is facing so many challenges in the post quota regime. Thus, it is imperative to improve the competitiveness of our exports through policy changes, new investment and efficient supply chain management. Keywords: Textiles and clothing, Quota removal, MFA, Export performance, Trend analysis.

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3

Manoj, Greeshma, and S. Muraleedharan. "Productivity of Indian Textile Industry in the Post Multi Fibre Agreement (MFA) Regime." Asian Review of Social Sciences 8, no. 1 (2019): 123–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.51983/arss-2019.8.1.1507.

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The system of bilateral quotas which had governed the international trade in textiles and clothing under the Multi Fibre Agreement came to an end and has been replaced by the Agreement on Textiles and Clothing (ATC) from January 1, 2005. The ATC provided for a progressive elimination of quota in four stages during the transitional period which ended on 2005. This study is an attempt to understand the impact of trade liberalization on the productivity of Indian textile industry. Estimation of labour productivity shows an improvement in the labour productivity during the post MFA period. Analysis of capital productivity reveals that average capital productivity was higher during the pre MFA period compared to post MFA period. Capital intensity estimate reveals that there has been an increase in the capital intensity for all product groups in the post MFA period compared to pre MFA.

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4

Trela, Irene, and John Whalley. "Internal Quota-Allocation Schemes and the Costs of the Mfa." Review of International Economics 3, no. 3 (1995): 284–306. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9396.1995.tb00072.x.

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5

Chaudhary, Jagadanand, Samarendu Mohanty, Sukant Misra, and Suwen Pan. "The effects of MFA quota elimination on Indian fibre markets." Applied Economics 40, no. 9 (2008): 1083–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00036840600771205.

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6

Krishna and Tan. "A Note on India's MFA Quota Allocation System: The Effect of Subcategorization." Annales d'Économie et de Statistique, no. 47 (1997): 39. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/20076081.

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7

Bair, Jennifer. "Surveying the Post-MFA Landscape: What Prospects for the Global South Post-Quota?" Competition & Change 12, no. 1 (2008): 3–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/102452907x264494.

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8

Kathuria, Lalit Mohan, and Raghbir Singh. "A Study of Export Marketing and Other Business Practices of Select Garment Exporters." Foreign Trade Review 40, no. 2 (2005): 69–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0015732515050205.

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The Apparel industry is one of the largest sources of foreign exchange in the country. India exported garments worth US$6.46 billion in 2003. With the Multi-Fibre Arrangement (MFA) phase-out coming to an end in December 2004, India could be the big winner after China. India has the potential to increase its share from US$6 billion to US$20 billion by 2010. The dismantling of the quota regime presents both an opportunity as well as threat. Export markets will no longer be restricted for want of quotas whereas there looms a threat also, because markets will no longer be guaranteed by quotas. There is a need to devise new strategies, thus moving from cost-based competition to time-based and value-based competition. This paper examines the export marketing and other business practices of apparel exporters situated in Delhi and Ludhiana region. It also highlights the areas which required immediate attention of the owners of the studied units. In addition, the paper identifies the strategies for garment exporters that will help them in increasing their export share.

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9

Liaqat, Zara. "The End of Multi-Fibre Arrangement and Firm Performance in the Textile Industry: New Evidence." Pakistan Development Review 52, no. 2 (2013): 97–126. http://dx.doi.org/10.30541/v52i2pp.97-126.

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Using a sample of 321 textile and clothing companies for the years 1992 to 2010, this paper analyses the effect of quota phase-outs on firm-level efficiency in Pakistan following the end of the Multi-Fibre Arrangement (MFA). It highlights sectoral heterogeneity within the manufacturing industry as a result of MFA expiration. The empirical methodology uses the structural techniques proposed by Olley and Pakes (1996), and Levinsohn and Petrin (2003) in order to take care of endogeneity in the estimation of production functions. The results differ for the two industries: MFA expiration lead to an increase in the average productivity of textile producing firms but a significant reduction in the mean productivity of clothing producers. We offer a number of explanations for this outcome, such as a change in the input and product mix, entry by non-exporters in the clothing sector, and sectoral differences in quality ladders. A number of crucial policy lessons can be drawn from the findings of this study. JEL Classification:F13; F14; D24; C14; O19 Keywords: Multi-Fibre Arrangement, Trade Liberalisation, Productivity, Firm Heterogeneity, Simultaneity and Production Functions, Endogeneity of Protection

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10

Rees, Kathleen, and Jan Hathcote. "The U.S. Textile and Apparel Industry in the Age of Globalization." Global Economy Journal 4, no. 1 (2004): 1850013. http://dx.doi.org/10.2202/1524-5861.1003.

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The contemporary U.S. textile and apparel industry has faced significant challenges as the volume of imported goods entering the domestic market has continually increased. In attempts to both foster development in select world regions and maintain viability of the domestic industry, the U.S. government has negotiated a variety of trade agreements extending preferential treatment, including duty- and quota-free access to the U.S. market for apparel and other textile products manufactured in developing countries in the Caribbean Basin, sub-Saharan Africa, and the Andean region. In addition, provisions included in the agreement granting China, the world's largest producer of textiles and apparel, admission to the World Trade Organization have allowed this country to become an immediate beneficiary of the MFA quota phase-out. This article examines the current state of the domestic textile and apparel industry and provides an overview of trade agreements enacted during the past decade that are of specific interest within the textile and apparel sector. It offers insight into challenges and opportunities for both the domestic textile and apparel industries in an age of rapid globalization as final elimination of the existing quota system in 2005 approaches.

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11

Shihab, Muchsin, and Sudhir K. Jain. "The Preparedness of the Indonesian Garment Exporters in the Post-MFA Scenario: An Analysis from the Survey." Gadjah Mada International Journal of Business 6, no. 3 (2004): 383. http://dx.doi.org/10.22146/gamaijb.5555.

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The clothing or garments industry has developed rapidly during the past some decades and has contributed to the economic growth of many nations, both developed and developing countries. This industry has been very much regulated by many bilateral agreements such as Multi Fiber Arrangement (MFA), a quota arrangement made by the importing countries. As MFA (quota regime) comes to an end by 2005 and integrates into the WTO regime, it will bring opportunities to highly competitive and proactive garment exporting countries whereas the challenges will be faced more by the less competitive countries. Issues related to environment and social compliance, technology requirements etc. have been brought into surface by the importing countries, which may worsen the condition. Under the above scenario, it is imperative that certain proactive measures be taken. Thus, the broad objective of this study is to analyze the response of the garment exporters from Indonesia towards the emerging issues related to environmental and social compliance, technology requirements etc. The present study is a questionnaire-based study. The samples have been selected from the Directories of largest exporters in the country. With reminders and persuasion, the final number of useable responses has been 115 Indonesian garment exporters. Seven factors of the emerging issues were identified by using factor analysis. In addition, factors of competitiveness, and the strategies adopted by the exporters have also been analyzed. The findings show that the overall perceptions of the Indonesia garment exporters indicate that Indonesia is less competitive as compared to other competing countries.

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12

Rameshan, P. "India's Textiles & Clothing Trade." Foreign Trade Review 40, no. 3 (2005): 45–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0015732515050303.

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In this paper we examine the textiles and clothing export performance of India and China during the ATC and post-MFA period, with focus on the two leading consumer markets, viz. the European Union (EU) and USA. We evaluate the proposition that in comparison with China, India has not been able to gain significantly in these markets from the quota-removal on textiles and clothing, and that India has continued to be a smaller player in the world market for textiles and clothing as compared to China. Further, we analyze the implications of the trade trends of the US and EU textiles and clothing markets for the future textiles and clothing export success of India. Besides, we explore the possible strategic options available to India to become a major player in the leading export markets of textiles and clothing despite the competition and competitors. The results reported in the paper support our proposition that India&s gains in textiles and clothing trade in the ATC and post-MFA era have not been commensurate with its hopes. The paper suggests various reasons for this unsatisfactory outcome and outlines some measures to ensure better gains for India in future.

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13

Munir, Kamal, Muhammad Ayaz, David L. Levy, and Hugh Willmott. "The role of intermediaries in governance of global production networks: Restructuring work relations in Pakistan’s apparel industry." Human Relations 71, no. 4 (2017): 560–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0018726717722395.

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This article locates the reorganization of work relations in the apparel sector in Pakistan, after the end of the Multi-Fibre Arrangement (MFA) quota regime, within the context of a global production network (GPN). We examine the role of a network of corporate, state, multilateral and civil society actors who serve as intermediaries in GPN governance. These intermediaries transmit and translate competitive pressures and invoke varied, sometimes contradictory, imaginaries in their efforts to realign and stabilize the GPN. We analyse the post-MFA restructuring of Pakistan’s apparel sector, which dramatically increased price competition and precipitated a contested adjustment process among Pakistani and global actors with divergent priorities and resources. These intermediaries converged on a ‘solution’ that combined and enacted imaginaries of modernization, competitiveness, professional management and female empowerment, while also emphasizing low costs and female docility. We highlight the intersection of economic, political and cultural dynamics of GPNs, and reveal the gendered dimensions of GPN restructuring. We theorize the role of these actors as a transnational managerial elite in GPN governance, who led a restructuring process that preserved the hegemonic stability of the GPN and protected the interests of western branded apparel companies and consumers, but did not necessarily serve the interests of workers.

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14

Chester, K. M., Zhang To, Z.M., Leung Chun-sun, Chang Jimmy M.T., and Moon K.L. "Trade Liberalization in the Post-MFA Regime: The Influences of CEPA and Quota Phasing-out on Hong Kong's Textiles and Clothing Manufacturing Industry." Research Journal of Textile and Apparel 9, no. 4 (2005): 70–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/rjta-09-04-2005-b007.

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15

Frost, Stephen, and Mary Ho. "The end of the MFA and apparel exports: has good CSR allowed Cambodia to hold steady against China in a quota free environment?" Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management 13, no. 1 (2006): 37–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/csr.111.

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16

Shimu, Afroza Ahammed, and Md Shahidul Islam. "The Prospect of the Readymade Garments Sector in Bangladesh: Result from Trend Analysis." American Journal of Trade and Policy 3, no. 3 (2016): 99–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.18034/ajtp.v3i3.408.

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Purpose: In Bangladesh readymade garments (RMG) sector, the backbone of the national economy is not the major sources of foreign revenue but a significant role player of the socio-economic development by creating employment opportunities, empowering women and alleviating poverty. In this regard, this paper tries to understand and analyze current situation and structure of the both knitted and woven sectors. After then, this paper predicts the future of both the export and export growth for the next five years. Methodology: In this study, data on the export and export growth had been collected from the BGMEA. Then the Least Square Method as a trend analysis had been applied to identify forecast export trend and the export growth trend of the both knitwear and woven sector separately. Microsoft excel program had been used for the estimation of the trend analysis alongside with providing predictions for the next five years. Results: The study found that the trend of both knitwear and woven export was upward. But the study also explored the downward trend of those two knitwear and woven sectors in terms of the growth rate. Moreover, the study showed that after the phasing out of MFA within 2004 and the withdrawal of quota protection, the knitwear export did not face any impediments accorded by the projection. Implication: This paper will be effective not for understanding the present structure of the RMG sector but helpful to take appropriate policies for the prosperity of the country, especially of this sector.

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17

Goyal, Jatin, Rajdeep Singh, Harpreet Kaur, and Kanwaljeet Singh. "Intra-industry efficiency analysis of Indian textile industry: a meta-frontier DEA approach." International Journal of Law and Management 60, no. 6 (2018): 1448–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijlma-05-2017-0108.

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Purpose The purpose of this study is to comprehend the efficiency levels of the Indian textile industry and also its sub-sectors in the light of changing global and national business environment. It is imperative to study the efficiency levels of textile industry for an emerging economy like India, where the industry contributes up to 13 per cent in export earnings, 10 per cent in total industrial production and 2 per cent in gross domestic product (GDP). The study holds an important place in the wake of phasing out of the quota regime existing under the Multi Fibre Agreement (MFA) and the rising competition being faced from countries such as Bangladesh, Vietnam and Cambodia. Design/methodology/approach The present study attempts to have an in-depth analysis of the efficiency levels in the Indian textile industry using meta-frontier data envelopment analysis, which is a non-parametric linear programming based frontier technique. Findings The findings highlight that the Indian textile industry is inefficient and has a huge scope of improvement in terms of efficiency. It also confirms the existence of different production functions among the sub-sectors of the industry. Among the different sub-sectors, the proximity of production frontier of readymade garments is the closest to meta-frontier followed by cotton and blended yarn, man-made fibre, cloth and others. Practical implications The findings bear strong implications for the policymakers in their attempt to regain the lost competitive position of the Indian textile industry and to enhance its contribution in the economy. As per the findings, policymakers should target the relatively inefficient sub-sectors of textile industry (cloth, man-made fibre, cotton and blended yarn) to infuse more efficiency in these sectors to enhance the market share of the Indian textile industry in the global textiles market. Originality/value The current study is a unique addition to the sparse literature on managing efficiencies in the textile industry, particularly of emerging economy like India. Looking at the methodological and geographical coverage of the previous work, it was found that no study has explored and analysed the efficiencies of the sub-sectors in the Indian textile industry using meta-frontier analysis. Therefore, this study will be the first of its kind which seeks to fill such gaps and intends to enrich the available literature.

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18

Krupat, Arnold. "From "Half-Blood" to "Mixedblood": Cogewea and the "Discourse of Indian Blood"." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 45, no. 1 (1999): 120–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.1999.0005.

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19

Gibson, Richard. "Richard Wright's "Island of Hallucination" and the "Gibson Affair"." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 51, no. 4 (2005): 896–920. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.2006.0011.

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20

Herzog, Tobey C. "Tim O'Brien's "True Lies" (?)." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 46, no. 4 (2000): 893–916. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.2000.0077.

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21

Huggan, Graham. ""Greening" Postcolonialism: Ecocritical Perspectives." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 50, no. 3 (2004): 701–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.2004.0067.

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22

Darrohn, Christine. ""Blown to Bits!": Katherine Mansfield's "The Garden-Party" and the Great War." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 44, no. 3 (1998): 513–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.1998.0059.

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23

Kingsbury, Celia M. ""Infinities of Absolution": Reason, Rumor, and Duty in Joseph Conrad's "The Tale"." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 44, no. 3 (1998): 715–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.1998.0066.

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24

Hames-Garcia, Michael Roy. "Which America Is Ours?: Marti's "Truth" and the Foundations of "American Literature"." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 49, no. 1 (2003): 19–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.2003.0006.

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25

Levy, Heather. ""These Ghost Figures of Distorted Passion": Becoming Privy to Working-Class Desire in "The Watering Place" and "The Ladies Lavatory"." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 50, no. 1 (2004): 31–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.2004.0010.

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26

Klein, Scott W. "Book Review: The Subaltern "Ulysses", and: Shaw and Joyce: "The Last Word in StolenTelling"." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 42, no. 4 (1996): 883–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.1995.0149.

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27

Saldivar, Jose David. "In Search of the "Mexican Elvis": Border Matters, "Americanity," and Post-state-centric Thinking." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 49, no. 1 (2003): 84–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.2003.0008.

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28

Castillo, Debra A. "Postmodern Indigenism: "Quetzalcoatl and All That"." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 41, no. 1 (1995): 35–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.1995.0001.

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29

Inglesby, Elizabeth C. ""Expressive Objects": Elizabeth Bowen's Narrative Materializes." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 53, no. 2 (2007): 306–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.2007.0041.

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30

Abraham, Julie. ""We Are Americans": Gertrude, Brewsie and Willie." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 42, no. 3 (1996): 508–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.1995.0124.

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31

Farland, Maria Magdalena. "Ethan Frome and the "Springs" of Masculinity." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 42, no. 4 (1996): 707–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.1995.0176.

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32

Jackson, Chuck. "A "Headless Display": Sula, Soldiers, and Lynching." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 52, no. 2 (2006): 374–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.2006.0048.

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33

Whitlock, Gillian. "Autographics: The Seeing "I" of the Comics." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 52, no. 4 (2006): 965–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.2007.0013.

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34

Christie, Stuart. ""A Further Reservation in Favour of Strangeness": Isherwood's Queer Pastoral in The Mortmere Stories and "On Reugen Island"." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 47, no. 4 (2001): 800–830. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.2001.0074.

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35

Davis, Phoebe Stein. ""Even Cake Gets to Have Another Meaning": History, Narrative, and "Daily Living" in Gertrude Stein's World War II Writings." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 44, no. 3 (1998): 568–607. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.1998.0060.

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36

Doan, Laura L. "Review of: "Modernist" Women Writers and Narrative Art." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 42, no. 1 (1996): 230–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.1995.0050.

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37

Roof, Judith. "Introduction: "Concentrate On Sex. Leave Out the Poetry."." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 41, no. 3 (1995): 429–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.1995.0119.

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38

Kunka, Andrew J. ""Adversary proceedings": recent books on war and modernism." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 44, no. 3 (1998): 813–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.1998.0057.

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39

Owens, David M. "Gertrude Stein's "Lifting Belly" and the Great War." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 44, no. 3 (1998): 608–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.1998.0067.

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40

Cowart, David. ""More Advanced the Deeper We Dig": Ratner's Star." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 45, no. 3 (1999): 600–620. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.1999.0048.

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41

Valente, Joseph. ""Double Born": Bram Stoker and the Metrocolonial Gothic." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 46, no. 3 (2000): 632–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.2000.0058.

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42

Adams, David. ""Remorse and Power": Conrad's Karain and the Queen." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 47, no. 4 (2001): 723–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.2001.0068.

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43

Parikh, Crystal. ""The Most Outrageous Masquerade": Queering Asian-American Masculinity." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 48, no. 4 (2002): 858–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.2002.0079.

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44

Waligora-Davis, Nicole. "Riotous Discontent: Ralph Ellison's "Birth of a Nation"." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 50, no. 2 (2004): 385–410. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.2004.0052.

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45

Martin, Charles. "Autobio-Photography: Beauty and the "I" of the Beholder." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 40, no. 3 (1994): 543–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.1994.0006.

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46

Zwinger, Lynda Marie. "Bodies That Don't Matter: the Queering of "Henry James"." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 41, no. 3 (1995): 657–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.1995.0123.

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47

Helyer, Ruth. ""Refuse Heaped Many Stories High": DeLillo, Dirt, and Disorder." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 45, no. 4 (1999): 987–1006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.1999.0072.

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48

Cullingford, Elizabeth. ""Something Else": Gendering Onliness in Elizabeth Bowen's Early Fiction." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 53, no. 2 (2007): 276–305. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.2007.0038.

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49

ERKAN, Birol, and Elif Tuğçe BOZDUMAN. "How did the multi-fiber agreement affect the level of specialization in the textile sector of the countries?" Tekstil ve Mühendis 27, no. 120 (2020): 283–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.7216/1300759920202712008.

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This paper aims to reveal the effects of the Multi-Fibre Agreement (MFA), which determines the course of the textile trade and the global competition on countries' levels of specialization. In this perspective, we analyze the levels of specialization (competition) of the 10 countries whose exports were the highest in the sector before and after the complete abolition of quotas in a comparatively. In the analyses, we use the Index of Contribution to Trade Balance (ICBT), the Export-Import Ratio Index (EIRI) and the Michaely Index (MI) to measure the progress of countries' level of specialization in the sector by years. All of these indices indicate that the highest levels of specialization in the sector were Pakistan, India and Turkey before the end of the MFA. After 2005, when quotas were completely eliminated, China and Hong Kong increased their level of expertise in the sector and separated positively from other countries. In this context, China achieved a global competitive advantage in the sector, especially with high level of specialization.

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50

Lesjak, Carolyn. "That Art of Difference: "Documentary-Collage" and English Canadian Writing." MFS Modern Fiction Studies 40, no. 4 (1994): 865–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mfs.1994.0026.

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