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Journal articles on the topic 'Microbial toxins'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 1 August 2024

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1

Li, Zhuheng, Xiaotong Li, Minghong Jian, Girma Selale Geleta, and Zhenxin Wang. "Two-Dimensional Layered Nanomaterial-Based Electrochemical Biosensors for Detecting Microbial Toxins." Toxins 12, no. 1 (2019): 20. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins12010020.

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Toxin detection is an important issue in numerous fields, such as agriculture/food safety, environmental monitoring, and homeland security. During the past two decades, nanotechnology has been extensively used to develop various biosensors for achieving fast, sensitive, selective and on-site analysis of toxins. In particular, the two dimensional layered (2D) nanomaterials (such as graphene and transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs)) and their nanocomposites have been employed as label and/or biosensing transducers to construct electrochemical biosensors for cost-effective detection of toxins

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2

Shilman, Mikhail Martchenko, Leandra O. Gonzalez, Wai Gee, Thomas Henderson, Jeffrey D. Palumbo, and Hovhannes J. Gukasyan. "Myc Mediates Toxin Response in Female Drosophila melanogaster." SOJ Microbiology & Infectious Diseases 9, no. 1 (2023): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.15226/sojmid/9/1/001111.

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Flies naturally contain microbes in their intestines after eating microbe-rich food like decaying fruits. When ingesting microbes, insects are also exposed to their toxins. The sensitivity of insects to ingested microbial toxins and their mechanism of response to toxins has not been thoroughly studied. Transcriptional regulator c-Myc has been shown to regulate the response to some but not all microbial toxins in mammals. We tested the sensitivity of wild-type and Myc mutant Drosophila melanogaster strains to two exotoxins, Clostridium perfringens α-toxin and Vibrio cholerae toxin, and two endo

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Petrova, Penka, Alexander Arsov, Flora Tsvetanova, et al. "The Complex Role of Lactic Acid Bacteria in Food Detoxification." Nutrients 14, no. 10 (2022): 2038. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu14102038.

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Toxic ingredients in food can lead to serious food-related diseases. Such compounds are bacterial toxins (Shiga-toxin, listeriolysin, Botulinum toxin), mycotoxins (aflatoxin, ochratoxin, zearalenone, fumonisin), pesticides of different classes (organochlorine, organophosphate, synthetic pyrethroids), heavy metals, and natural antinutrients such as phytates, oxalates, and cyanide-generating glycosides. The generally regarded safe (GRAS) status and long history of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as essential ingredients of fermented foods and probiotics make them a major biological tool against a gre

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4

Pothoulakis, Charalabos, and J. Thomas Lamont. "Microbes and Microbial Toxins: Paradigms for Microbial- Mucosal Interactions II. The integrated response of the intestine toClostridium difficiletoxins." American Journal of Physiology-Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology 280, no. 2 (2001): G178—G183. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpgi.2001.280.2.g178.

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Clostridium difficile, the major etiologic factor of antibiotic-associated diarrhea and colitis, mediates its effects by releasing two large protein exotoxins, toxins A and B. A major toxin effect is related to the disassembly of actin microfilaments, leading to impairment of tight junctions in human colonocytes. The mechanism of actin disaggregation involves monoglucosylation of the signaling proteins Rho A, Rac, and Cdc 42, which control stress fiber formation directly by toxins A and B. An important aspect of C. difficile infection is the acute necroinflammatory changes seen in patients wit

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5

Funk, Michael A. "Microbes against microbial toxins." Science 368, no. 6486 (2020): 43.3–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.368.6486.43-c.

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6

Ueno, Y. "Toxicology of microbial toxins." Pure and Applied Chemistry 58, no. 2 (1986): 339–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1351/pac198658020339.

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7

Kudryashova, Elena, Stephanie Seveau, Wuyuan Lu, and Dmitri S. Kudryashov. "Retrocyclins neutralize bacterial toxins by potentiating their unfolding." Biochemical Journal 467, no. 2 (2015): 311–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bj20150049.

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Defensins are a class of immune peptides with a broad range of activities against bacterial, fungal and viral pathogens. Besides exerting direct anti-microbial activity via dis-organization of bacterial membranes, defensins are also able to neutralize various unrelated bacterial toxins. Recently, we have demonstrated that in the case of human α- and β-defensins, this later ability is achieved through exploiting toxins' marginal thermodynamic stability, i.e. defensins act as molecular anti-chaperones unfolding toxin molecules and exposing their hydrophobic regions and thus promoting toxin preci

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8

Wang, Xifan, Songtao Yang, Shenghui Li, et al. "Aberrant gut microbiota alters host metabolome and impacts renal failure in humans and rodents." Gut 69, no. 12 (2020): 2131–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2019-319766.

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ObjectivePatients with renal failure suffer from symptoms caused by uraemic toxins, possibly of gut microbial origin, as deduced from studies in animals. The aim of the study is to characterise relationships between the intestinal microbiome composition, uraemic toxins and renal failure symptoms in human end-stage renal disease (ESRD).DesignCharacterisation of gut microbiome, serum and faecal metabolome and human phenotypes in a cohort of 223 patients with ESRD and 69 healthy controls. Multidimensional data integration to reveal links between these datasets and the use of chronic kidney diseas

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9

Fleischer, B., R. Gerardy-Schahn, B. Metzroth, S. Carrel, D. Gerlach, and W. Köhler. "An evolutionary conserved mechanism of T cell activation by microbial toxins. Evidence for different affinities of T cell receptor-toxin interaction." Journal of Immunology 146, no. 1 (1991): 11–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.146.1.11.

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Abstract The enterotoxins produced by Staphylococcus aureus are the most potent mitogens known. They belong to a group of distantly related mitogenic toxins that differ in other biologic activities. In this study we have compared the molecular mechanisms by which these mitogens activate human T lymphocytes. We used the staphylococcal enterotoxins A to E, the staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome toxin, the streptococcal erythrogenic toxins A and C (scarlet fever toxins, erythrogenic toxins (ET)A, ETC), and the soluble mitogen produced by Mycoplasma arthritidis. We found that all these toxins can

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10

Drasar, B. S. "Microbial toxins and diarrhoeal diseases." Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 80, no. 1 (1986): 153. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0035-9203(86)90218-x.

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11

Borriello, S. "Microbial Toxins and Diarrhoeal Disease." Journal of Clinical Pathology 38, no. 8 (1985): 962–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jcp.38.8.962-b.

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12

Cutting, W. A. M. "Microbial toxins and diarrhoeal disease." Parasitology Today 2, no. 5 (1986): 153. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0169-4758(86)90187-0.

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13

McCormick, Susan P., Neil P. J. Price, and Cletus P. Kurtzman. "Glucosylation and Other Biotransformations of T-2 Toxin by Yeasts of the Trichomonascus Clade." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 78, no. 24 (2012): 8694–702. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.02391-12.

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ABSTRACTTrichothecenes are sesquiterpenoid toxins produced byFusariumspecies. Since these mycotoxins are very stable, there is interest in microbial transformations that can remove toxins from contaminated grain or cereal products. Twenty-three yeast species assigned to theTrichomonascusclade (Saccharomycotina, Ascomycota), including fourTrichomonascusspecies and 19 anamorphic species presently classified inBlastobotrys, were tested for their ability to convert the trichothecene T-2 toxin to less-toxic products. These species gave three types of biotransformations: acetylation to 3-acetyl T-2

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14

CHELLIAH, ANURADHA, GORAKH PRASAD GUPTA, SASIKUMAR KARUPPIAH, and POLUMETLA ANANDA KUMAR. "Antagonistic effect of Cry1Ac and Cry1Jb on cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera)." Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 82, no. 10 (2012): 900–2. http://dx.doi.org/10.56093/ijas.v82i10.24189.

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The interaction of two crystal proteins, Cry1Ac and Cry1Jb was evaluated against cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera). The 50% lethal concentrations (LC50s) were estimated to be 2.29 ng/ml and 6 039 ng/ml for Cry1Ac and Cry1Jb, respectively. When mixtures of these toxins in different proportion were assayed, the expected LC50s were lower than the observed LC50s, indicating a clear antagonism between the two toxins. Ligand blotting showed that both the toxins bind to 110kDa APN corroborating the results. This is the first report of antagonism of Cry1Jb with Cry1Ac toxin against cotton bollwor

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15

Zhou, T., J. He, and J. Gong. "Microbial transformation of trichothecene mycotoxins." World Mycotoxin Journal 1, no. 1 (2008): 23–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.3920/wmj2008.x003.

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Trichothecene mycotoxins produced by the Fusarium genus are highly toxic to humans and animals. They are commonly found in cereals worldwide, which is not only a concern for food safety, but also highly relevant to the livestock industry. Controlling trichothecenes in food and feed has been a challenge since the toxins are markedly stable under different environmental conditions. Thermal processing is usually ineffective, and chemical treatments generally are expensive and often result in side effects. Previous studies on innovative biological approaches, such as the use of microorganisms and

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16

Whalley, Christopher E. "Natural Toxins: Animal, Plant and Microbial." Journal of the American College of Toxicology 9, no. 1 (1990): 116–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/109158189000900115.

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17

Lee, Mi-Sun, and David C. Christiani. "Microbial Toxins in Nicotine Vaping Liquids." American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 201, no. 6 (2020): 741–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201911-2178le.

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18

Kerkut, G. A. "Natural toxins: Animal, plant and microbial." Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Physiology 91, no. 2 (1988): 403. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0300-9629(88)90440-9.

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19

Pekkanen, Juha, Pirkka Kirjavainen, Michael Sulyok, et al. "Microbial toxins in residential indoor environment." ISEE Conference Abstracts 2013, no. 1 (2013): 4560. http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/isee.2013.o-1-40-06.

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20

Wackett, Lawrence P. "Microbial-produced toxins in the environment." Environmental Microbiology 8, no. 11 (2006): 2056–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1462-2920.2006.01159.x.

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21

de Wit, Pierre J. G. M. "Microbial toxins in the green world." FEMS Microbiology Reviews 37, no. 1 (2013): 1–2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1574-6976.12010.

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22

Habermehl, G. "Microbial toxins in foods and feeds." Toxicon 31, no. 1 (1993): 91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0041-0101(93)90362-m.

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23

Mastanjević, Kristina, Jasmina Lukinac, Marko Jukić, Bojan Šarkanj, Vinko Krstanović, and Krešimir Mastanjević. "Multi-(myco)toxins in Malting and Brewing By-Products." Toxins 11, no. 1 (2019): 30. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins11010030.

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Fungi, yeasts, and bacteria are common microorganisms on cereals used in malting and brewing industries. These microorganisms are mostly associated with the safety and quality of malt and beer, but also with the health safety of by-products used in animal nutrition. The real problem is their harmful metabolites—toxins that, due to their thermostable properties, can easily be transferred to malting and brewing by-products. Besides fungal metabolites, other toxins originating from plants can be harmful to animal health. Precise and accurate analytical techniques broadened the spectrum of known t

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24

Liabeuf, Sophie, Cédric Villain, and Ziad A. Massy. "Protein-bound toxins: has the Cinderella of uraemic toxins turned into a princess?" Clinical Science 130, no. 23 (2016): 2209–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/cs20160393.

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Chronic kidney disease (CKD) has emerged as a global public health problem. Although the incidence and prevalence of CKD vary from one country to another, the estimated worldwide prevalence is 8–16%. The complications associated with CKD include progression to end-stage renal disease (ESRD), mineral and bone disorders, anaemia, cognitive decline and elevated all-cause and cardiovascular (CV) mortality. As a result of progressive nephron loss, patients with late-stage CKD are permanently exposed to uraemic toxins. These toxins have been classified into three groups as a function of the molecula

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Miteva, Olga A., Nadezhda S. Yudina, Vadim A. Myasnikov, Alexander V. Stepanov, and Sergey V. Chepur. "Modern methods of detection and identification of microbial toxins that inhibit protein synthesis in cells." Bulletin of the Russian Military Medical Academy 24, no. 1 (2022): 143–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.17816/brmma87432.

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Pathogenic microorganisms and products of their metabolism, namely, bacterial protein exotoxins, are considered one of the main sources of biological threat. Microbial toxins are highly active and extremely dangerous to humans. Determining trace amounts of such compounds remains relevant in healthcare and biological protection sector. Timely qualitative- and quantitative-specific indication of biotoxins is a key component in the diagnosis and implementation of therapeutic and preventive measures. Pathogenic microorganisms and products of their metabolism, bacterial protein exotoxins, are consi

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26

Rasooly, Avraham, and Keith E. Herold. "Biosensors for the Analysis of Food- and Waterborne Pathogens and Their Toxins." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 89, no. 3 (2006): 873–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/89.3.873.

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Abstract Biosensors are devices which combine a biochemical recognition element with a physical transducer. There are various types of biosensors, including electrochemical, acoustical, and optical sensors. Biosensors are used for medical applications and for environmental testing. Although biosensors are not commonly used for food microbial analysis, they have great potential for the detection of microbial pathogens and their toxins in food. They enable fast or real-time detection, portability, and multipathogen detection for both field and laboratory analysis. Several applications have been

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27

Graboski, Amanda L., and Matthew R. Redinbo. "Gut-Derived Protein-Bound Uremic Toxins." Toxins 12, no. 9 (2020): 590. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins12090590.

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Chronic kidney disease (CKD) afflicts more than 500 million people worldwide and is one of the fastest growing global causes of mortality. When glomerular filtration rate begins to fall, uremic toxins accumulate in the serum and significantly increase the risk of death from cardiovascular disease and other causes. Several of the most harmful uremic toxins are produced by the gut microbiota. Furthermore, many such toxins are protein-bound and are therefore recalcitrant to removal by dialysis. We review the derivation and pathological mechanisms of gut-derived, protein-bound uremic toxins (PBUTs

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28

Pauly, John L., and Geraldine Paszkiewicz. "Cigarette Smoke, Bacteria, Mold, Microbial Toxins, and Chronic Lung Inflammation." Journal of Oncology 2011 (2011): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2011/819129.

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Chronic inflammation associated with cigarette smoke fosters malignant transformation and tumor cell proliferation and promotes certain nonneoplastic pulmonary diseases. The question arises as to whether chronic inflammation and/or colonization of the airway can be attributed, at least in part, to tobacco-associated microbes (bacteria, fungi, and spores) and/or microbial toxins (endotoxins and mycotoxins) in tobacco. To address this question, a literature search of documents in various databases was performed. The databases included PubMed, Legacy Tobacco Documents Library, and US Patents. Thi

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MYERS, M. A., K. D. HETTIARACHCHI, J. P. LUDEMAN, A. J. WILSON, C. R. WILSON, and P. Z. ZIMMET. "Dietary Microbial Toxins and Type 1 Diabetes." Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1005, no. 1 (2003): 418–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1196/annals.1288.071.

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30

Mohamadzadeh, Mansour. "Microbial Toxins: Current Research and Future Trends." Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy 7, no. 6 (2009): 695–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1586/eri.09.42.

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31

Evenepoel, Pieter, Bjorn K. I. Meijers, Bert R. M. Bammens, and Kristin Verbeke. "Uremic toxins originating from colonic microbial metabolism." Kidney International 76 (December 2009): S12—S19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ki.2009.402.

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32

Lenarčič, Tea, Isabell Albert, Hannah Böhm, et al. "Eudicot plant-specific sphingolipids determine host selectivity of microbial NLP cytolysins." Science 358, no. 6369 (2017): 1431–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aan6874.

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Necrosis and ethylene-inducing peptide 1–like (NLP) proteins constitute a superfamily of proteins produced by plant pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and oomycetes. Many NLPs are cytotoxins that facilitate microbial infection of eudicot, but not of monocot plants. Here, we report glycosylinositol phosphorylceramide (GIPC) sphingolipids as NLP toxin receptors. Plant mutants with altered GIPC composition were more resistant to NLP toxins. Binding studies and x-ray crystallography showed that NLPs form complexes with terminal monomeric hexose moieties of GIPCs that result in conformational changes with

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Piciocchi, Alfonso, Elena Angela Pia Germinario, Koldo Garcia Etxebarria, et al. "Association of Polygenic Risk Score and Bacterial Toxins at Screening Colonoscopy with Colorectal Cancer Progression: A Multicenter Case-Control Study." Toxins 13, no. 8 (2021): 569. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins13080569.

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Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a leading cause of cancer death worldwide, and its incidence is correlated with infections, chronic inflammation, diet, and genetic factors. An emerging aspect is that microbial dysbiosis and chronic infections triggered by certain bacteria can be risk factors for tumor progression. Recent data suggest that certain bacterial toxins implicated in DNA attack or in proliferation, replication, and death can be risk factors for insurgence and progression of CRC. In this study, we recruited more than 300 biopsy specimens from people undergoing colonoscopy, and we analyzed

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Miller, M. J., and H. J. Fallowfield. "Degradation of cyanobacterial hepatotoxins in batch experiments." Water Science and Technology 43, no. 12 (2001): 229–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2001.0745.

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Bank filtration offers a cost effective and low maintenance technique for the removal of cyanobacterial hepatotoxins from drinking water. For bank filtration to be effective, the toxins must be degraded. The broad aim of this research was to determine whether the hepatotoxins, nodularin and microcystin-LR, could be completely removed from the soil/water matrix of three soils by microbial degradation. The results indicated that complete toxin removal was possible within 10-16 d in 2/3 soils that were incubated in the dark at 20°C. The soils with the highest organic carbon content (2.9%) and the

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Lauriola, Mara, Ricard Farré, Pieter Evenepoel, Saskia Adriana Overbeek, and Björn Meijers. "Food-Derived Uremic Toxins in Chronic Kidney Disease." Toxins 15, no. 2 (2023): 116. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins15020116.

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Patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) have a higher cardiovascular risk compared to the average population, and this is partially due to the plasma accumulation of solutes known as uremic toxins. The binding of some solutes to plasma proteins complicates their removal via conventional therapies, e.g., hemodialysis. Protein-bound uremic toxins originate either from endogenous production, diet, microbial metabolism, or the environment. Although the impact of diet on uremic toxicity in CKD is difficult to quantify, nutrient intake plays an important role. Indeed, most uremic toxins are gut-d

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Schureck, Marc A., Jack A. Dunkle, Tatsuya Maehigashi, Stacey J. Miles, and Christine M. Dunham. "Defining the mRNA recognition signature of a bacterial toxin protein." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, no. 45 (2015): 13862–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1512959112.

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Bacteria contain multiple type II toxins that selectively degrade mRNAs bound to the ribosome to regulate translation and growth and facilitate survival during the stringent response. Ribosome-dependent toxins recognize a variety of three-nucleotide codons within the aminoacyl (A) site, but how these endonucleases achieve substrate specificity remains poorly understood. Here, we identify the critical features for how the host inhibition of growth B (HigB) toxin recognizes each of the three A-site nucleotides for cleavage. X-ray crystal structures of HigB bound to two different codons on the ri

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Lobel, Lior, Y. Grace Cao, Kathrin Fenn, Jonathan N. Glickman, and Wendy S. Garrett. "Diet posttranslationally modifies the mouse gut microbial proteome to modulate renal function." Science 369, no. 6510 (2020): 1518–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abb3763.

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Associations between chronic kidney disease (CKD) and the gut microbiota have been postulated, yet questions remain about the underlying mechanisms. In humans, dietary protein increases gut bacterial production of hydrogen sulfide (H2S), indole, and indoxyl sulfate. The latter are uremic toxins, and H2S has diverse physiological functions, some of which are mediated by posttranslational modification. In a mouse model of CKD, we found that a high sulfur amino acid–containing diet resulted in posttranslationally modified microbial tryptophanase activity. This reduced uremic toxin–producing activ

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G. Abril, Ana, Tomás G. Villa, Jorge Barros-Velázquez, et al. "Staphylococcus aureus Exotoxins and Their Detection in the Dairy Industry and Mastitis." Toxins 12, no. 9 (2020): 537. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins12090537.

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Staphylococcus aureus constitutes a major food-borne pathogen, as well as one of the main causative agents of mastitis in dairy ruminants. This pathogen can produce a variety of extracellular toxins; these include the shock syndrome toxin 1 (TSST-1), exfoliative toxins, staphylococcal enterotoxins (SE), hemolysins, and leukocidins. S. aureus expresses many virulence proteins, involved in evading the host defenses, hence facilitating microbial colonization of the mammary glands of the animals. In addition, S. aureus exotoxins play a role in the development of both skin infections and mastitis.

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Taguchi, Kensei, Kei Fukami, Bertha C. Elias, and Craig R. Brooks. "Dysbiosis-Related Advanced Glycation Endproducts and Trimethylamine N-Oxide in Chronic Kidney Disease." Toxins 13, no. 5 (2021): 361. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins13050361.

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Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a public health concern that affects approximately 10% of the global population. CKD is associated with poor outcomes due to high frequencies of comorbidities such as heart failure and cardiovascular disease. Uremic toxins are compounds that are usually filtered and excreted by the kidneys. With the decline of renal function, uremic toxins are accumulated in the systemic circulation and tissues, which hastens the progression of CKD and concomitant comorbidities. Gut microbial dysbiosis, defined as an imbalance of the gut microbial community, is one of the comorb

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Dicks, Leon M. T. "Biofilm Formation of Clostridioides difficile, Toxin Production and Alternatives to Conventional Antibiotics in the Treatment of CDI." Microorganisms 11, no. 9 (2023): 2161. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11092161.

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Clostridioides difficile is considered a nosocomial pathogen that flares up in patients exposed to antibiotic treatment. However, four out of ten patients diagnosed with C. difficile infection (CDI) acquired the infection from non-hospitalized individuals, many of whom have not been treated with antibiotics. Treatment of recurrent CDI (rCDI) with antibiotics, especially vancomycin (VAN) and metronidazole (MNZ), increases the risk of experiencing a relapse by as much as 70%. Fidaxomicin, on the other hand, proved more effective than VAN and MNZ by preventing the initial transcription of RNA tox

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Chalivendra, Subbaiah. "Microbial Toxins in Insect and Nematode Pest Biocontrol." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22, no. 14 (2021): 7657. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms22147657.

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Invertebrate pests, such as insects and nematodes, not only cause or transmit human and livestock diseases but also impose serious crop losses by direct injury as well as vectoring pathogenic microbes. The damage is global but greater in developing countries, where human health and food security are more at risk. Although synthetic pesticides have been in use, biological control measures offer advantages via their biodegradability, environmental safety and precise targeting. This is amply demonstrated by the successful and widespread use of Bacillusthuringiensis to control mosquitos and many p

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Tomkovich, Sarah, and Christian Jobin. "Microbial networking in cancer: when two toxins collide." British Journal of Cancer 118, no. 11 (2018): 1407–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41416-018-0101-2.

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Rajkovic, Andreja. "Microbial toxins and low level of foodborne exposure." Trends in Food Science & Technology 38, no. 2 (2014): 149–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2014.04.006.

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Stone, Trevor W., and L. Gail Darlington. "Microbial carcinogenic toxins and dietary anti-cancer protectants." Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 74, no. 14 (2017): 2627–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00018-017-2487-z.

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Aktories, Klaus, Michael Bärmann, Gursharan S. Chhatwai, and Peter Presek. "New class of microbial toxins ADP-ribosylates actin." Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 8, no. 5 (1987): 158–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0165-6147(87)90153-2.

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Martirosian, Gayane, Jarosław Jóźwiak, and Halina Radosz-Komoniewska. "Vacuolization of target cells: response to microbial toxins." World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 21, no. 5 (2005): 781–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11274-004-5520-y.

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Rhoades, Jonathan, Stamatia Fotiadou, Georgia Paschalidou, et al. "Microbiota and Cyanotoxin Content of Retail Spirulina Supplements and Spirulina Supplemented Foods." Microorganisms 11, no. 5 (2023): 1175. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11051175.

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Cyanobacterial biomass such as spirulina (Arthrospira spp.) is widely available as a food supplement and can also be added to foods as a nutritionally beneficial ingredient. Spirulina is often produced in open ponds, which are vulnerable to contamination by various microorganisms, including some toxin-producing cyanobacteria. This study examined the microbial population of commercially available spirulina products including for the presence of cyanobacterial toxins. Five products (two supplements, three foods) were examined. The microbial populations were determined by culture methods, followe

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Zaragoza, William J., Max Teplitski, and Clifton K. Fagerquist. "Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli: Detection, Differentiation, and Implications for Food Safety." EDIS 2016, no. 5 (2016): 6. http://dx.doi.org/10.32473/edis-ss654-2016.

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Shiga toxin is a protein found within the genome of a type of virus called a bacteriophage. These bacteriophages can integrate into the genomes of the bacterium E. Coli. Even though most E. coli are benign or even beneficial members of our gut microbial communities, strains carrying Shiga-toxin encoding genes are highly pathogenic in humans and other animals. This 6-page fact sheet discusses the two types of Shiga toxins and the best approaches to identifying and determining which Shiga toxin is present. Written by William J. Zaragoza, Max Teplitski, and Clifton K. Fagerquist, and published by

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Oliveira-Filho, Eduardo C., and Cesar K. Grisolia. "The Ecotoxicology of Microbial Insecticides and Their Toxins in Genetically Modified Crops: An Overview." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 24 (2022): 16495. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192416495.

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The use of microbial insecticides and their toxins in biological control and transgenic plants has increased their presence in the environment. Although they are natural products, the main concerns are related to the potential impacts on the environment and human health. Several assays have been performed worldwide to investigate the toxicity or adverse effects of these microbial products or their individual toxins. This overview examines the published data concerning the knowledge obtained about the ecotoxicity and environmental risks of these natural pesticides. The data presented show that

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Wirth, Margaret C., Armelle DelÃ¯Â¿Â½cluse, and William E. Walton. "Cyt1Ab1 and Cyt2Ba1 from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. medellin and B. thuringiensis subsp. israelensis Synergize Bacillus sphaericus against Aedes aegypti and Resistant Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae)." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 67, no. 7 (2001): 3280–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.67.7.3280-3284.2001.

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ABSTRACT The interaction of two cytolytic toxins, Cyt1Ab fromBacillus thuringiensis subsp. medellinand Cyt2Ba from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp.israelensis, with Bacillus sphaericus was evaluated against susceptible and resistant Culex quinquefasciatus and the nonsensitive species Aedes aegypti. Mixtures of B. sphaericus with either cytolytic toxin were synergistic, and B. sphaericusresistance in C. quinquefasciatus was suppressed from >17,000- to 2-fold with a 3:1 mixture of B. sphaericusand Cyt1Ab. This trait may prove useful for combating insecticide resistance and for improving the acti

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