Journal articles: 'Microbial toxins'

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Li, Zhuheng, Xiaotong Li, Minghong Jian, Girma Selale Geleta, and Zhenxin Wang. "Two-Dimensional Layered Nanomaterial-Based Electrochemical Biosensors for Detecting Microbial Toxins." Toxins 12, no. 1 (December 31, 2019): 20. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins12010020.

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Toxin detection is an important issue in numerous fields, such as agriculture/food safety, environmental monitoring, and homeland security. During the past two decades, nanotechnology has been extensively used to develop various biosensors for achieving fast, sensitive, selective and on-site analysis of toxins. In particular, the two dimensional layered (2D) nanomaterials (such as graphene and transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs)) and their nanocomposites have been employed as label and/or biosensing transducers to construct electrochemical biosensors for cost-effective detection of toxins with high sensitivity and specificity. This is because the 2D nanomaterials have good electrical conductivity and a large surface area with plenty of active groups for conjugating 2D nanomaterials with the antibodies and/or aptamers of the targeted toxins. Herein, we summarize recent developments in the application of 2D nanomaterial-based electrochemical biosensors for detecting toxins with a particular focus on microbial toxins including bacterial toxins, fungal toxins and algal toxins. The integration of 2D nanomaterials with some existing antibody/aptamer technologies into electrochemical biosensors has led to an unprecedented impact on improving the assaying performance of microbial toxins, and has shown great promise in public health and environmental protection.

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Shilman, Mikhail Martchenko, Leandra O. Gonzalez, Wai Gee, Thomas Henderson, Jeffrey D. Palumbo, and Hovhannes J. Gukasyan. "Myc Mediates Toxin Response in Female Drosophila melanogaster." SOJ Microbiology & Infectious Diseases 9, no. 1 (February 24, 2023): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.15226/sojmid/9/1/001111.

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Flies naturally contain microbes in their intestines after eating microbe-rich food like decaying fruits. When ingesting microbes, insects are also exposed to their toxins. The sensitivity of insects to ingested microbial toxins and their mechanism of response to toxins has not been thoroughly studied. Transcriptional regulator c-Myc has been shown to regulate the response to some but not all microbial toxins in mammals. We tested the sensitivity of wild-type and Myc mutant Drosophila melanogaster strains to two exotoxins, Clostridium perfringens α-toxin and Vibrio cholerae toxin, and two endotoxins, lipopolysaccharides (LPS) of Salmonella minnesota and S. typhimurium. We observed that both sexes of wild-type flies were insensitive to tested toxins. Similarly, Myc mutant males were insensitive to the four toxins. In contrast, female Myc mutants were significantly more sensitive to all tested toxins than wild-type females. The median survival of female Myc mutants was shortened by at least 54 hours in the presence of bacterial toxins. The component of LPS, lipid A, shortened the median survival of Myc females by 104 hours, indicating that the toxicity of LPS is caused by lipid A. This study demonstrates a sex-specific mechanism of the response of insects to toxins and describes that Myc protects female fruit flies from the tested microbial toxins. Keywords: bacterial toxins; sensitivity; resistance; survival; immunity; Drosophila melanogaster Abbreviations: Immune deficiency (Imd); antimicrobial peptides (AMP); mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK); Bloomington Drosophila stock center (BDSC); wild type (WT); lipopolysaccharide (LPS); adenosine diphosphate (ADP); Jun N-terminal Kinase (JNK); Nuclear Factor-κB (NF-κB); absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME); absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity (ADMET); confidence interval (CI); deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA); intestinal stem cells (ISCs); Janus kinases (JAK); signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT); epidermal growth factor EGF; and Wingless (Wg).

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Petrova, Penka, Alexander Arsov, Flora Tsvetanova, Tsvetomila Parvanova-Mancheva, Evgenia Vasileva, Lidia Tsigoriyna, and Kaloyan Petrov. "The Complex Role of Lactic Acid Bacteria in Food Detoxification." Nutrients 14, no. 10 (May 12, 2022): 2038. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu14102038.

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Toxic ingredients in food can lead to serious food-related diseases. Such compounds are bacterial toxins (Shiga-toxin, listeriolysin, Botulinum toxin), mycotoxins (aflatoxin, ochratoxin, zearalenone, fumonisin), pesticides of different classes (organochlorine, organophosphate, synthetic pyrethroids), heavy metals, and natural antinutrients such as phytates, oxalates, and cyanide-generating glycosides. The generally regarded safe (GRAS) status and long history of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as essential ingredients of fermented foods and probiotics make them a major biological tool against a great variety of food-related toxins. This state-of-the-art review aims to summarize and discuss the data revealing the involvement of LAB in the detoxification of foods from hazardous agents of microbial and chemical nature. It is focused on the specific properties that allow LAB to counteract toxins and destroy them, as well as on the mechanisms of microbial antagonism toward toxigenic producers. Toxins of microbial origin are either adsorbed or degraded, toxic chemicals are hydrolyzed and then used as a carbon source, while heavy metals are bound and accumulated. Based on these comprehensive data, the prospects for developing new combinations of probiotic starters for food detoxification are considered.

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Pothoulakis, Charalabos, and J. Thomas Lamont. "Microbes and Microbial Toxins: Paradigms for Microbial- Mucosal Interactions II. The integrated response of the intestine toClostridium difficiletoxins." American Journal of Physiology-Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology 280, no. 2 (February 1, 2001): G178—G183. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpgi.2001.280.2.g178.

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Clostridium difficile, the major etiologic factor of antibiotic-associated diarrhea and colitis, mediates its effects by releasing two large protein exotoxins, toxins A and B. A major toxin effect is related to the disassembly of actin microfilaments, leading to impairment of tight junctions in human colonocytes. The mechanism of actin disaggregation involves monoglucosylation of the signaling proteins Rho A, Rac, and Cdc 42, which control stress fiber formation directly by toxins A and B. An important aspect of C. difficile infection is the acute necroinflammatory changes seen in patients with pseudomembranous colitis. The early mechanism of toxin-mediated inflammation involves toxin effects on cellular mitochondria, release of reactive oxygen species, and activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases and the transcription factor nuclear factor-κB. Injection of toxin A into animal intestine triggers secretion of fluid and intestinal inflammation characterized by epithelial cell destruction and neutrophil activation. A critical feature of C. difficile enterotoxicity is communication between enterocytes and lamina propria nerves, macrophages, and mast cells mediated via release of neuropeptides and proinflammatory cytokines.

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Funk, Michael A. "Microbes against microbial toxins." Science 368, no. 6486 (April 2, 2020): 43.3–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.368.6486.43-c.

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Ueno, Y. "Toxicology of microbial toxins." Pure and Applied Chemistry 58, no. 2 (January 1, 1986): 339–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1351/pac198658020339.

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Kudryashova, Elena, Stephanie Seveau, Wuyuan Lu, and Dmitri S. Kudryashov. "Retrocyclins neutralize bacterial toxins by potentiating their unfolding." Biochemical Journal 467, no. 2 (April 2, 2015): 311–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bj20150049.

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Defensins are a class of immune peptides with a broad range of activities against bacterial, fungal and viral pathogens. Besides exerting direct anti-microbial activity via dis-organization of bacterial membranes, defensins are also able to neutralize various unrelated bacterial toxins. Recently, we have demonstrated that in the case of human α- and β-defensins, this later ability is achieved through exploiting toxins' marginal thermodynamic stability, i.e. defensins act as molecular anti-chaperones unfolding toxin molecules and exposing their hydrophobic regions and thus promoting toxin precipitation and inactivation [Kudryashova et al. (2014) Immunity 41, 709–721]. Retrocyclins (RCs) are humanized synthetic θ-defensin peptides that possess unique cyclic structure, differentiating them from α- and β-defensins. Importantly, RCs are more potent against some bacterial and viral pathogens and more stable than their linear counterparts. However, the mechanism of bacterial toxin inactivation by RCs is not known. In the present study, we demonstrate that RCs facilitate unfolding of bacterial toxins. Using differential scanning fluorimetry (DSF), limited proteolysis and collisional quenching of internal tryptophan fluorescence, we show that hydrophobic regions of toxins normally buried in the molecule interior become more exposed to solvents and accessible to proteolytic cleavage in the presence of RCs. The RC-induced unfolding of toxins led to their precipitation and abrogated activity. Toxin inactivation by RCs was strongly diminished under reducing conditions, but preserved at physiological salt and serum concentrations. Therefore, despite significant structural diversity, α-, β- and θ-defensins employ similar mechanisms of toxin inactivation, which may be shared by anti-microbial peptides from other families.

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Wang, Xifan, Songtao Yang, Shenghui Li, Liang Zhao, Yanling Hao, Junjie Qin, Lian Zhang, et al. "Aberrant gut microbiota alters host metabolome and impacts renal failure in humans and rodents." Gut 69, no. 12 (April 2, 2020): 2131–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2019-319766.

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ObjectivePatients with renal failure suffer from symptoms caused by uraemic toxins, possibly of gut microbial origin, as deduced from studies in animals. The aim of the study is to characterise relationships between the intestinal microbiome composition, uraemic toxins and renal failure symptoms in human end-stage renal disease (ESRD).DesignCharacterisation of gut microbiome, serum and faecal metabolome and human phenotypes in a cohort of 223 patients with ESRD and 69 healthy controls. Multidimensional data integration to reveal links between these datasets and the use of chronic kidney disease (CKD) rodent models to test the effects of intestinal microbiome on toxin accumulation and disease severity.ResultsA group of microbial species enriched in ESRD correlates tightly to patient clinical variables and encode functions involved in toxin and secondary bile acids synthesis; the relative abundance of the microbial functions correlates with the serum or faecal concentrations of these metabolites. Microbiota from patients transplanted to renal injured germ-free mice or antibiotic-treated rats induce higher production of serum uraemic toxins and aggravated renal fibrosis and oxidative stress more than microbiota from controls. Two of the species, Eggerthella lenta and Fusobacterium nucleatum, increase uraemic toxins production and promote renal disease development in a CKD rat model. A probiotic Bifidobacterium animalis decreases abundance of these species, reduces levels of toxins and the severity of the disease in rats.ConclusionAberrant gut microbiota in patients with ESRD sculpts a detrimental metabolome aggravating clinical outcomes, suggesting that the gut microbiota will be a promising target for diminishing uraemic toxicity in those patients.Trial registration numberThis study was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03010696).

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Fleischer, B., R. Gerardy-Schahn, B. Metzroth, S. Carrel, D. Gerlach, and W. Köhler. "An evolutionary conserved mechanism of T cell activation by microbial toxins. Evidence for different affinities of T cell receptor-toxin interaction." Journal of Immunology 146, no. 1 (January 1, 1991): 11–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.146.1.11.

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Abstract The enterotoxins produced by Staphylococcus aureus are the most potent mitogens known. They belong to a group of distantly related mitogenic toxins that differ in other biologic activities. In this study we have compared the molecular mechanisms by which these mitogens activate human T lymphocytes. We used the staphylococcal enterotoxins A to E, the staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome toxin, the streptococcal erythrogenic toxins A and C (scarlet fever toxins, erythrogenic toxins (ET)A, ETC), and the soluble mitogen produced by Mycoplasma arthritidis. We found that all these toxins can activate both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and require MHC class II expression on accessory and target cells. However, T cells could be activated in the absence of class II molecules if the toxins ETA or SEB were co-cross-linked on beads together with anti-CD8 or anti-CD2 antibodies. Enterotoxins, toxic shock syndrome toxin and scarlet toxins stimulate a major fraction of human T cells, and show preferential, but not exclusive, stimulation of T cells carrying certain TCR V beta. In contrast, the mitogen of M. arthritidis, a pathogen for rodents stimulates only a minority of human T cells but activates a major fraction of murine T cells. Analysis of human T cell clones expressing V beta 5 or V beta 8 TCR showed that these clones responded also to those toxins that did not stimulate V beta 5+ and V beta 8+ T cells in bulk cultures. These results indicate that different TCR bind to these toxins with different affinities and that the specificity of the TCR-V beta-toxin interaction is quantitative rather than qualitative in nature. Taken together our findings suggest that these toxins use a common mechanism of T cell activation. They are functionally bivalent proteins crosslinking MHC class II molecules with variable parts of the TCR. Besides V beta, other parts of the TCR must be involved in this binding. The finding that murine T cells responded more weakly to the toxins produced by the human-pathogenic bacteria than to the Mycoplasma mitogen could indicate that the toxins have been adapted to the host's immune system in evolution.

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Drasar, B. S. "Microbial toxins and diarrhoeal diseases." Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 80, no. 1 (January 1986): 153. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0035-9203(86)90218-x.

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Borriello, S. "Microbial Toxins and Diarrhoeal Disease." Journal of Clinical Pathology 38, no. 8 (August 1, 1985): 962–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jcp.38.8.962-b.

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Cutting, W. A. M. "Microbial toxins and diarrhoeal disease." Parasitology Today 2, no. 5 (May 1986): 153. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0169-4758(86)90187-0.

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McCormick, Susan P., Neil P. J. Price, and Cletus P. Kurtzman. "Glucosylation and Other Biotransformations of T-2 Toxin by Yeasts of the Trichomonascus Clade." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 78, no. 24 (October 5, 2012): 8694–702. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.02391-12.

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ABSTRACTTrichothecenes are sesquiterpenoid toxins produced byFusariumspecies. Since these mycotoxins are very stable, there is interest in microbial transformations that can remove toxins from contaminated grain or cereal products. Twenty-three yeast species assigned to theTrichomonascusclade (Saccharomycotina, Ascomycota), including fourTrichomonascusspecies and 19 anamorphic species presently classified inBlastobotrys, were tested for their ability to convert the trichothecene T-2 toxin to less-toxic products. These species gave three types of biotransformations: acetylation to 3-acetyl T-2 toxin, glycosylation to T-2 toxin 3-glucoside, and removal of the isovaleryl group to form neosolaniol. Some species gave more than one type of biotransformation. ThreeBlastobotrysspecies converted T-2 toxin into T-2 toxin 3-glucoside, a compound that has been identified as a masked mycotoxin inFusarium-infected grain. This is the first report of a microbial whole-cell method for producing trichothecene glycosides, and the potential large-scale availability of T-2 toxin 3-glucoside will facilitate toxicity testing and development of methods for detection of this compound in agricultural and other products.

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CHELLIAH, ANURADHA, GORAKH PRASAD GUPTA, SASIKUMAR KARUPPIAH, and POLUMETLA ANANDA KUMAR. "Antagonistic effect of Cry1Ac and Cry1Jb on cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera)." Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 82, no. 10 (October 5, 2012): 900–2. http://dx.doi.org/10.56093/ijas.v82i10.24189.

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The interaction of two crystal proteins, Cry1Ac and Cry1Jb was evaluated against cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera). The 50% lethal concentrations (LC50s) were estimated to be 2.29 ng/ml and 6 039 ng/ml for Cry1Ac and Cry1Jb, respectively. When mixtures of these toxins in different proportion were assayed, the expected LC50s were lower than the observed LC50s, indicating a clear antagonism between the two toxins. Ligand blotting showed that both the toxins bind to 110kDa APN corroborating the results. This is the first report of antagonism of Cry1Jb with Cry1Ac toxin against cotton bollworm. This trait may prove useful for combating insecticide resistance and for improving the activity of microbial insecticides.

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Zhou, T., J. He, and J. Gong. "Microbial transformation of trichothecene mycotoxins." World Mycotoxin Journal 1, no. 1 (February 1, 2008): 23–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.3920/wmj2008.x003.

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Trichothecene mycotoxins produced by the Fusarium genus are highly toxic to humans and animals. They are commonly found in cereals worldwide, which is not only a concern for food safety, but also highly relevant to the livestock industry. Controlling trichothecenes in food and feed has been a challenge since the toxins are markedly stable under different environmental conditions. Thermal processing is usually ineffective, and chemical treatments generally are expensive and often result in side effects. Previous studies on innovative biological approaches, such as the use of microorganisms and enzymes, to convert the toxins into non or less toxic compounds have shown promise. This review will briefly describe the chemical structures and toxicity of trichothecenes, and examine the microorganisms, including both bacteria and fungi, from various natural sources that are able to detoxify the toxins as either mixed cultures or a pure culture of single isolates. Finally, challenges and innovative strategies in the development of technology to detoxify trichothecenes by microorganisms are described.

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Whalley, Christopher E. "Natural Toxins: Animal, Plant and Microbial." Journal of the American College of Toxicology 9, no. 1 (January 1990): 116–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/109158189000900115.

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Lee, Mi-Sun, and David C. Christiani. "Microbial Toxins in Nicotine Vaping Liquids." American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 201, no. 6 (March 15, 2020): 741–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201911-2178le.

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Kerkut, G. A. "Natural toxins: Animal, plant and microbial." Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Physiology 91, no. 2 (January 1988): 403. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0300-9629(88)90440-9.

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Pekkanen, Juha, Pirkka Kirjavainen, Michael Sulyok, Martin Täubel, Anne Karvonen, Rudolf Krska, and Anne Hyvärinen. "Microbial toxins in residential indoor environment." ISEE Conference Abstracts 2013, no. 1 (September 19, 2013): 4560. http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/isee.2013.o-1-40-06.

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Wackett, Lawrence P. "Microbial-produced toxins in the environment." Environmental Microbiology 8, no. 11 (November 2006): 2056–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1462-2920.2006.01159.x.

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de Wit, Pierre J. G. M. "Microbial toxins in the green world." FEMS Microbiology Reviews 37, no. 1 (January 2013): 1–2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1574-6976.12010.

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Habermehl, G. "Microbial toxins in foods and feeds." Toxicon 31, no. 1 (January 1993): 91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0041-0101(93)90362-m.

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Mastanjević, Kristina, Jasmina Lukinac, Marko Jukić, Bojan Šarkanj, Vinko Krstanović, and Krešimir Mastanjević. "Multi-(myco)toxins in Malting and Brewing By-Products." Toxins 11, no. 1 (January 9, 2019): 30. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins11010030.

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Fungi, yeasts, and bacteria are common microorganisms on cereals used in malting and brewing industries. These microorganisms are mostly associated with the safety and quality of malt and beer, but also with the health safety of by-products used in animal nutrition. The real problem is their harmful metabolites—toxins that, due to their thermostable properties, can easily be transferred to malting and brewing by-products. Besides fungal metabolites, other toxins originating from plants can be harmful to animal health. Precise and accurate analytical techniques broadened the spectrum of known toxins originating from microorganisms and plants that can pose a threat to animal health. Multi-(myco)toxin analyses are advanced and useful tools for the assessment of product safety, and legislation should follow up and make some important changes to regulate yet unregulated, but highly occurring, microbial and plant toxins in malting and brewing by-products used for animal feed.

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Liabeuf, Sophie, Cédric Villain, and Ziad A. Massy. "Protein-bound toxins: has the Cinderella of uraemic toxins turned into a princess?" Clinical Science 130, no. 23 (October 31, 2016): 2209–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/cs20160393.

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Chronic kidney disease (CKD) has emerged as a global public health problem. Although the incidence and prevalence of CKD vary from one country to another, the estimated worldwide prevalence is 8–16%. The complications associated with CKD include progression to end-stage renal disease (ESRD), mineral and bone disorders, anaemia, cognitive decline and elevated all-cause and cardiovascular (CV) mortality. As a result of progressive nephron loss, patients with late-stage CKD are permanently exposed to uraemic toxins. These toxins have been classified into three groups as a function of the molecular mass: small water-soluble molecules, middle molecules and protein-bound uraemic toxins. The compounds can also be classified according to their origin (i.e. microbial or not) or their protein-binding ability. The present review will focus on the best-characterized protein-bound uraemic toxins, namely indoxylsulfate (IS), indole acetic acid (IAA) and p-cresylsulfate (PCS, a cresol metabolite). Recent research suggests that these toxins accelerate the progression of CV disease, kidney disease, bone disorders and neurological complications. Lastly, we review therapeutic approaches that can be used to decrease toxin levels.

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Miteva, Olga A., Nadezhda S. Yudina, Vadim A. Myasnikov, Alexander V. Stepanov, and Sergey V. Chepur. "Modern methods of detection and identification of microbial toxins that inhibit protein synthesis in cells." Bulletin of the Russian Military Medical Academy 24, no. 1 (April 20, 2022): 143–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.17816/brmma87432.

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Pathogenic microorganisms and products of their metabolism, namely, bacterial protein exotoxins, are considered one of the main sources of biological threat. Microbial toxins are highly active and extremely dangerous to humans. Determining trace amounts of such compounds remains relevant in healthcare and biological protection sector. Timely qualitative- and quantitative-specific indication of biotoxins is a key component in the diagnosis and implementation of therapeutic and preventive measures. Pathogenic microorganisms and products of their metabolism, bacterial protein exotoxins, are considered one of the main sources of biological threat. Microbial toxins are highly active and extremely dangerous to humans. Determining trace amounts of such compounds remains relevant in healthcare and biological protection sector. Timely qualitative- and quantitative-specific indication of biotoxins is a key component in the diagnosis and implementation of therapeutic and preventive measures. The current state and prospects of development in formulating specific indications of microbial toxins that disrupt protein synthesis in cells are analyzed. Modern ideas about the structure and mechanism of action of these toxins are briefly presented. Possibilities were considered, the advantages and disadvantages of classical traditional and modern innovative methods for identifying bacterial toxins that inhibit protein synthesis in cells were compared, and classifications were provided. Examples of the use of various approaches to identify the most significant representatives of this group in both clinical material and in environmental objects, including regulated ones, were given. The review also listed modern domestic and foreign developments in formulating specific indications of microbial toxins inhibiting protein synthesis. The review summarizes the results of studies to determine the current directions in the development of tools and methods for rapid specific indication of microbial toxins. The main trends in the creation of new methods of toxicological screening as part of an effective national system for monitoring biological threats were analyzed. Prospects for the development and introduction to the market of domestic test systems and automatic analysis platforms for the detection of bacterial toxins in environmental objects and biological material were determined.

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Rasooly, Avraham, and Keith E. Herold. "Biosensors for the Analysis of Food- and Waterborne Pathogens and Their Toxins." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 89, no. 3 (May 1, 2006): 873–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/89.3.873.

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Abstract Biosensors are devices which combine a biochemical recognition element with a physical transducer. There are various types of biosensors, including electrochemical, acoustical, and optical sensors. Biosensors are used for medical applications and for environmental testing. Although biosensors are not commonly used for food microbial analysis, they have great potential for the detection of microbial pathogens and their toxins in food. They enable fast or real-time detection, portability, and multipathogen detection for both field and laboratory analysis. Several applications have been developed for microbial analysis of food pathogens, including E. coli O157:H7, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella, and Listeria monocytogenes, as well as various microbial toxins such as staphylococcal enterotoxins and mycotoxins. Biosensors have several potential advantages over other methods of analysis, including sensitivity in the range of ng/mL for microbial toxins and <100 colony-forming units/mL for bacteria. Fast or real-time detection can provide almost immediate interactive information about the sample tested, enabling users to take corrective measures before consumption or further contamination can occur. Miniaturization of biosensors enables biosensor integration into various food production equipment and machinery. Potential uses of biosensors for food microbiology include online process microbial monitoring to provide real-time information in food production and analysis ofmicrobial pathogens and their toxins in finished food. Biosensors can also be integrated into Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point programs, enabling critical microbial analysis of the entire food manufacturing process. In this review, the main biosensor approaches, technologies, instrumentation, and applications for food microbial analysis are described.

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Graboski, Amanda L., and Matthew R. Redinbo. "Gut-Derived Protein-Bound Uremic Toxins." Toxins 12, no. 9 (September 11, 2020): 590. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins12090590.

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Chronic kidney disease (CKD) afflicts more than 500 million people worldwide and is one of the fastest growing global causes of mortality. When glomerular filtration rate begins to fall, uremic toxins accumulate in the serum and significantly increase the risk of death from cardiovascular disease and other causes. Several of the most harmful uremic toxins are produced by the gut microbiota. Furthermore, many such toxins are protein-bound and are therefore recalcitrant to removal by dialysis. We review the derivation and pathological mechanisms of gut-derived, protein-bound uremic toxins (PBUTs). We further outline the emerging relationship between kidney disease and gut dysbiosis, including the bacterial taxa altered, the regulation of microbial uremic toxin-producing genes, and their downstream physiological and neurological consequences. Finally, we discuss gut-targeted therapeutic strategies employed to reduce PBUTs. We conclude that targeting the gut microbiota is a promising approach for the treatment of CKD by blocking the serum accumulation of PBUTs that cannot be eliminated by dialysis.

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Pauly, John L., and Geraldine Paszkiewicz. "Cigarette Smoke, Bacteria, Mold, Microbial Toxins, and Chronic Lung Inflammation." Journal of Oncology 2011 (2011): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2011/819129.

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Chronic inflammation associated with cigarette smoke fosters malignant transformation and tumor cell proliferation and promotes certain nonneoplastic pulmonary diseases. The question arises as to whether chronic inflammation and/or colonization of the airway can be attributed, at least in part, to tobacco-associated microbes (bacteria, fungi, and spores) and/or microbial toxins (endotoxins and mycotoxins) in tobacco. To address this question, a literature search of documents in various databases was performed. The databases included PubMed, Legacy Tobacco Documents Library, and US Patents. This investigation documents that tobacco companies have identified and quantified bacteria, fungi, and microbial toxins at harvest, throughout fermentation, and during storage. Also characterized was the microbial flora of diverse smoking and smokeless tobacco articles. Evidence-based health concerns expressed in investigations of microbes and microbial toxins in cigarettes, cigarette smoke, and smokeless tobacco products are reasonable; they warrant review by regulatory authorities and, if necessary, additional investigation to address scientific gaps.

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MYERS, M. A., K. D. HETTIARACHCHI, J. P. LUDEMAN, A. J. WILSON, C. R. WILSON, and P. Z. ZIMMET. "Dietary Microbial Toxins and Type 1 Diabetes." Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1005, no. 1 (November 2003): 418–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1196/annals.1288.071.

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Mohamadzadeh, Mansour. "Microbial Toxins: Current Research and Future Trends." Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy 7, no. 6 (August 2009): 695–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1586/eri.09.42.

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Evenepoel, Pieter, Bjorn K. I. Meijers, Bert R. M. Bammens, and Kristin Verbeke. "Uremic toxins originating from colonic microbial metabolism." Kidney International 76 (December 2009): S12—S19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ki.2009.402.

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Lenarčič, Tea, Isabell Albert, Hannah Böhm, Vesna Hodnik, Katja Pirc, Apolonija B. Zavec, Marjetka Podobnik, et al. "Eudicot plant-specific sphingolipids determine host selectivity of microbial NLP cytolysins." Science 358, no. 6369 (December 14, 2017): 1431–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aan6874.

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Necrosis and ethylene-inducing peptide 1–like (NLP) proteins constitute a superfamily of proteins produced by plant pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and oomycetes. Many NLPs are cytotoxins that facilitate microbial infection of eudicot, but not of monocot plants. Here, we report glycosylinositol phosphorylceramide (GIPC) sphingolipids as NLP toxin receptors. Plant mutants with altered GIPC composition were more resistant to NLP toxins. Binding studies and x-ray crystallography showed that NLPs form complexes with terminal monomeric hexose moieties of GIPCs that result in conformational changes within the toxin. Insensitivity to NLP cytolysins of monocot plants may be explained by the length of the GIPC head group and the architecture of the NLP sugar-binding site. We unveil early steps in NLP cytolysin action that determine plant clade-specific toxin selectivity.

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Piciocchi, Alfonso, Elena Angela Pia Germinario, Koldo Garcia Etxebarria, Silvia Rossi, Lupe Sanchez-Mete, Barbara Porowska, Vittoria Stigliano, et al. "Association of Polygenic Risk Score and Bacterial Toxins at Screening Colonoscopy with Colorectal Cancer Progression: A Multicenter Case-Control Study." Toxins 13, no. 8 (August 16, 2021): 569. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins13080569.

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Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a leading cause of cancer death worldwide, and its incidence is correlated with infections, chronic inflammation, diet, and genetic factors. An emerging aspect is that microbial dysbiosis and chronic infections triggered by certain bacteria can be risk factors for tumor progression. Recent data suggest that certain bacterial toxins implicated in DNA attack or in proliferation, replication, and death can be risk factors for insurgence and progression of CRC. In this study, we recruited more than 300 biopsy specimens from people undergoing colonoscopy, and we analyzed to determine whether a correlation exists between the presence of bacterial genes coding for toxins possibly involved in CRC onset and progression and the different stages of CRC. We also analyzed to determine whether CRC-predisposing genetic factors could contribute to bacterial toxins response. Our results showed that CIF toxin is associated with polyps or adenomas, whereas pks+ seems to be a predisposing factor for CRC. Toxins from Escherichia coli as a whole have a higher incidence rate in adenocarcinoma patients compared to controls, whereas Bacteroides fragilis toxin does not seem to be associated with pre-cancerous nor with cancerous lesions. These results have been obtained irrespectively of the presence of CRC-risk loci.

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Miller, M. J., and H. J. Fallowfield. "Degradation of cyanobacterial hepatotoxins in batch experiments." Water Science and Technology 43, no. 12 (June 1, 2001): 229–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2001.0745.

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Bank filtration offers a cost effective and low maintenance technique for the removal of cyanobacterial hepatotoxins from drinking water. For bank filtration to be effective, the toxins must be degraded. The broad aim of this research was to determine whether the hepatotoxins, nodularin and microcystin-LR, could be completely removed from the soil/water matrix of three soils by microbial degradation. The results indicated that complete toxin removal was possible within 10-16 d in 2/3 soils that were incubated in the dark at 20°C. The soils with the highest organic carbon content (2.9%) and the highest clay content (16.1%) were the most effective at removing the toxins in batch experiments. However, the sandy soil (98.5% sand) was incapable of degrading either toxin. The half-lives of toxin losses due to adsorption, desorption and degradation were calculated and for all soils. The degradation process had the highest half-life for both toxins. This suggested that degradation was likely to be the rate-limiting step of complete toxin removal. It was concluded that when a bank filtration site was being chosen, the degradation potential and the textural properties of the riverbank soil would be important when considering complete removal of cyanobacterial hepatotoxins.

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Lauriola, Mara, Ricard Farré, Pieter Evenepoel, Saskia Adriana Overbeek, and Björn Meijers. "Food-Derived Uremic Toxins in Chronic Kidney Disease." Toxins 15, no. 2 (February 1, 2023): 116. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins15020116.

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Patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) have a higher cardiovascular risk compared to the average population, and this is partially due to the plasma accumulation of solutes known as uremic toxins. The binding of some solutes to plasma proteins complicates their removal via conventional therapies, e.g., hemodialysis. Protein-bound uremic toxins originate either from endogenous production, diet, microbial metabolism, or the environment. Although the impact of diet on uremic toxicity in CKD is difficult to quantify, nutrient intake plays an important role. Indeed, most uremic toxins are gut-derived compounds. They include Maillard reaction products, hippurates, indoles, phenols, and polyamines, among others. In this review, we summarize the findings concerning foods and dietary components as sources of uremic toxins or their precursors. We then discuss their endogenous metabolism via human enzyme reactions or gut microbial fermentation. Lastly, we present potential dietary strategies found to be efficacious or promising in lowering uremic toxins plasma levels. Aligned with current nutritional guidelines for CKD, a low-protein diet with increased fiber consumption and limited processed foods seems to be an effective treatment against uremic toxins accumulation.

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Schureck, Marc A., Jack A. Dunkle, Tatsuya Maehigashi, Stacey J. Miles, and Christine M. Dunham. "Defining the mRNA recognition signature of a bacterial toxin protein." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, no. 45 (October 27, 2015): 13862–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1512959112.

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Bacteria contain multiple type II toxins that selectively degrade mRNAs bound to the ribosome to regulate translation and growth and facilitate survival during the stringent response. Ribosome-dependent toxins recognize a variety of three-nucleotide codons within the aminoacyl (A) site, but how these endonucleases achieve substrate specificity remains poorly understood. Here, we identify the critical features for how the host inhibition of growth B (HigB) toxin recognizes each of the three A-site nucleotides for cleavage. X-ray crystal structures of HigB bound to two different codons on the ribosome illustrate how HigB uses a microbial RNase-like nucleotide recognition loop to recognize either cytosine or adenosine at the second A-site position. Strikingly, a single HigB residue and 16S rRNA residue C1054 form an adenosine-specific pocket at the third A-site nucleotide, in contrast to how tRNAs decode mRNA. Our results demonstrate that the most important determinant for mRNA cleavage by ribosome-dependent toxins is interaction with the third A-site nucleotide.

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Lobel, Lior, Y. Grace Cao, Kathrin Fenn, Jonathan N. Glickman, and Wendy S. Garrett. "Diet posttranslationally modifies the mouse gut microbial proteome to modulate renal function." Science 369, no. 6510 (September 17, 2020): 1518–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abb3763.

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Associations between chronic kidney disease (CKD) and the gut microbiota have been postulated, yet questions remain about the underlying mechanisms. In humans, dietary protein increases gut bacterial production of hydrogen sulfide (H2S), indole, and indoxyl sulfate. The latter are uremic toxins, and H2S has diverse physiological functions, some of which are mediated by posttranslational modification. In a mouse model of CKD, we found that a high sulfur amino acid–containing diet resulted in posttranslationally modified microbial tryptophanase activity. This reduced uremic toxin–producing activity and ameliorated progression to CKD in the mice. Thus, diet can tune microbiota function to support healthy host physiology through posttranslational modification without altering microbial community composition.

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G. Abril, Ana, Tomás G. Villa, Jorge Barros-Velázquez, Benito Cañas, Angeles Sánchez-Pérez, Pilar Calo-Mata, and Mónica Carrera. "Staphylococcus aureus Exotoxins and Their Detection in the Dairy Industry and Mastitis." Toxins 12, no. 9 (August 20, 2020): 537. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins12090537.

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Staphylococcus aureus constitutes a major food-borne pathogen, as well as one of the main causative agents of mastitis in dairy ruminants. This pathogen can produce a variety of extracellular toxins; these include the shock syndrome toxin 1 (TSST-1), exfoliative toxins, staphylococcal enterotoxins (SE), hemolysins, and leukocidins. S. aureus expresses many virulence proteins, involved in evading the host defenses, hence facilitating microbial colonization of the mammary glands of the animals. In addition, S. aureus exotoxins play a role in the development of both skin infections and mastitis. Indeed, if these toxins remain in dairy products for human consumption, they can cause staphylococcal food poisoning (SFP) outbreaks. As a result, there is a need for procedures to identify the presence of exotoxins in human food, and the methods used must be fast, sensitive, reliable, and accurate. It is also essential to determine the best medical therapy for human patients suffering from S. aureus infections, as well as establishing the relevant veterinary treatment for infected ruminants, to avoid economic losses in the dairy industry. This review summarizes the role of S. aureus toxins in the development of mastitis in ruminants, their negative effects in the food and dairy industries, and the different methods used for the identification of these toxins in food destined for human consumption.

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Taguchi, Kensei, Kei Fukami, Bertha C. Elias, and Craig R. Brooks. "Dysbiosis-Related Advanced Glycation Endproducts and Trimethylamine N-Oxide in Chronic Kidney Disease." Toxins 13, no. 5 (May 19, 2021): 361. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins13050361.

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Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a public health concern that affects approximately 10% of the global population. CKD is associated with poor outcomes due to high frequencies of comorbidities such as heart failure and cardiovascular disease. Uremic toxins are compounds that are usually filtered and excreted by the kidneys. With the decline of renal function, uremic toxins are accumulated in the systemic circulation and tissues, which hastens the progression of CKD and concomitant comorbidities. Gut microbial dysbiosis, defined as an imbalance of the gut microbial community, is one of the comorbidities of CKD. Meanwhile, gut dysbiosis plays a pathological role in accelerating CKD progression through the production of further uremic toxins in the gastrointestinal tracts. Therefore, the gut-kidney axis has been attracting attention in recent years as a potential therapeutic target for stopping CKD. Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) generated by gut microbiota is linked to the progression of cardiovascular disease and CKD. Also, advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) not only promote CKD but also cause gut dysbiosis with disruption of the intestinal barrier. This review summarizes the underlying mechanism for how gut microbial dysbiosis promotes kidney injury and highlights the wide-ranging interventions to counter dysbiosis for CKD patients from the view of uremic toxins such as TMAO and AGEs.

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Dicks, Leon M. T. "Biofilm Formation of Clostridioides difficile, Toxin Production and Alternatives to Conventional Antibiotics in the Treatment of CDI." Microorganisms 11, no. 9 (August 26, 2023): 2161. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11092161.

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Clostridioides difficile is considered a nosocomial pathogen that flares up in patients exposed to antibiotic treatment. However, four out of ten patients diagnosed with C. difficile infection (CDI) acquired the infection from non-hospitalized individuals, many of whom have not been treated with antibiotics. Treatment of recurrent CDI (rCDI) with antibiotics, especially vancomycin (VAN) and metronidazole (MNZ), increases the risk of experiencing a relapse by as much as 70%. Fidaxomicin, on the other hand, proved more effective than VAN and MNZ by preventing the initial transcription of RNA toxin genes. Alternative forms of treatment include quorum quenching (QQ) that blocks toxin synthesis, binding of small anion molecules such as tolevamer to toxins, monoclonal antibodies, such as bezlotoxumab and actoxumab, bacteriophage therapy, probiotics, and fecal microbial transplants (FMTs). This review summarizes factors that affect the colonization of C. difficile and the pathogenicity of toxins TcdA and TcdB. The different approaches experimented with in the destruction of C. difficile and treatment of CDI are evaluated.

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Chalivendra, Subbaiah. "Microbial Toxins in Insect and Nematode Pest Biocontrol." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22, no. 14 (July 17, 2021): 7657. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms22147657.

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Invertebrate pests, such as insects and nematodes, not only cause or transmit human and livestock diseases but also impose serious crop losses by direct injury as well as vectoring pathogenic microbes. The damage is global but greater in developing countries, where human health and food security are more at risk. Although synthetic pesticides have been in use, biological control measures offer advantages via their biodegradability, environmental safety and precise targeting. This is amply demonstrated by the successful and widespread use of Bacillusthuringiensis to control mosquitos and many plant pests, the latter by the transgenic expression of insecticidal proteins from B. thuringiensis in crop plants. Here, I discuss the prospects of using bacterial and fungal toxins for pest control, including the molecular basis of their biocidal activity.

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Tomkovich, Sarah, and Christian Jobin. "Microbial networking in cancer: when two toxins collide." British Journal of Cancer 118, no. 11 (May 2018): 1407–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41416-018-0101-2.

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Rajkovic, Andreja. "Microbial toxins and low level of foodborne exposure." Trends in Food Science & Technology 38, no. 2 (August 2014): 149–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2014.04.006.

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Stone, Trevor W., and L. Gail Darlington. "Microbial carcinogenic toxins and dietary anti-cancer protectants." Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 74, no. 14 (February 25, 2017): 2627–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00018-017-2487-z.

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Aktories, Klaus, Michael Bärmann, Gursharan S. Chhatwai, and Peter Presek. "New class of microbial toxins ADP-ribosylates actin." Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 8, no. 5 (May 1987): 158–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0165-6147(87)90153-2.

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Martirosian, Gayane, Jarosław Jóźwiak, and Halina Radosz-Komoniewska. "Vacuolization of target cells: response to microbial toxins." World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 21, no. 5 (July 2005): 781–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11274-004-5520-y.

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Rhoades, Jonathan, Stamatia Fotiadou, Georgia Paschalidou, Theodoti Papadimitriou, Avelino Álvarez Ordóñez, Konstantinos Kormas, Elisabeth Vardaka, and Eleni Likotrafiti. "Microbiota and Cyanotoxin Content of Retail Spirulina Supplements and Spirulina Supplemented Foods." Microorganisms 11, no. 5 (April 30, 2023): 1175. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11051175.

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Cyanobacterial biomass such as spirulina (Arthrospira spp.) is widely available as a food supplement and can also be added to foods as a nutritionally beneficial ingredient. Spirulina is often produced in open ponds, which are vulnerable to contamination by various microorganisms, including some toxin-producing cyanobacteria. This study examined the microbial population of commercially available spirulina products including for the presence of cyanobacterial toxins. Five products (two supplements, three foods) were examined. The microbial populations were determined by culture methods, followed by identification of isolates using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF), and by 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing of the products themselves and of the total growth on the enumeration plates. Toxin analysis was carried out by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Several potentially pathogenic bacteria were detected in the products, including Bacillus cereus and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Microcystin toxins were detected in all the products at levels that could lead to consumers exceeding their recommended daily limits. Substantial differences were observed in the identifications obtained using amplicon sequencing and MALDI-TOF, particularly between closely related Bacillus spp. The study showed that there are microbiological safety issues associated with commercial spirulina products that should be addressed, and these are most likely associated with the normal means of production in open ponds.

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Zaragoza, William J., Max Teplitski, and Clifton K. Fagerquist. "Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli: Detection, Differentiation, and Implications for Food Safety." EDIS 2016, no. 5 (July 12, 2016): 6. http://dx.doi.org/10.32473/edis-ss654-2016.

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Shiga toxin is a protein found within the genome of a type of virus called a bacteriophage. These bacteriophages can integrate into the genomes of the bacterium E. Coli. Even though most E. coli are benign or even beneficial members of our gut microbial communities, strains carrying Shiga-toxin encoding genes are highly pathogenic in humans and other animals. This 6-page fact sheet discusses the two types of Shiga toxins and the best approaches to identifying and determining which Shiga toxin is present. Written by William J. Zaragoza, Max Teplitski, and Clifton K. Fagerquist, and published by the Department of Soil and Water Sciences, July 2016.

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Oliveira-Filho, Eduardo C., and Cesar K. Grisolia. "The Ecotoxicology of Microbial Insecticides and Their Toxins in Genetically Modified Crops: An Overview." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 24 (December 8, 2022): 16495. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192416495.

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The use of microbial insecticides and their toxins in biological control and transgenic plants has increased their presence in the environment. Although they are natural products, the main concerns are related to the potential impacts on the environment and human health. Several assays have been performed worldwide to investigate the toxicity or adverse effects of these microbial products or their individual toxins. This overview examines the published data concerning the knowledge obtained about the ecotoxicity and environmental risks of these natural pesticides. The data presented show that many results are difficult to compare due to the diversity of measurement units used in the different research data. Even so, the products and toxins tested present low toxicity and low risk when compared to the concentrations used for pesticide purposes. Complementary studies should be carried out to assess possible effects on human health.

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Wirth, Margaret C., Armelle DelÃ¯Â¿Â½cluse, and William E. Walton. "Cyt1Ab1 and Cyt2Ba1 from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. medellin and B. thuringiensis subsp. israelensis Synergize Bacillus sphaericus against Aedes aegypti and Resistant Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae)." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 67, no. 7 (July 1, 2001): 3280–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.67.7.3280-3284.2001.

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ABSTRACT The interaction of two cytolytic toxins, Cyt1Ab fromBacillus thuringiensis subsp. medellinand Cyt2Ba from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp.israelensis, with Bacillus sphaericus was evaluated against susceptible and resistant Culex quinquefasciatus and the nonsensitive species Aedes aegypti. Mixtures of B. sphaericus with either cytolytic toxin were synergistic, and B. sphaericusresistance in C. quinquefasciatus was suppressed from >17,000- to 2-fold with a 3:1 mixture of B. sphaericusand Cyt1Ab. This trait may prove useful for combating insecticide resistance and for improving the activity of microbial insecticides.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Microbial toxins'

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