Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Middle distance runners'

The overall aim of this thesis was to evaluate the importance of pulmonary oxygen uptake (VO[2]) kinetics, in the moderate-domain, in the assessment of endurance-trained runners. Accordingly, there were five objectives: 1) to quantify the reproducibility of measures of VO[2] kinetics; 2) to characterise and compare VO[2] kinetics during the on-and off-transients in middle-distance (MD) and long-distance (LD) runners; 3) to assess the relationship between VO[2] kinetics and maximal VO[2] (VO[2Max]), ventilatory threshold (V[T]) and running economy (RE); 4) to determine the relationship between VO[2] kinetics and running performance and 5) to assess whether VO[2] kinetics is a determinant of running performance. Twelve participants performed two assessments of VO[2] kinetics on separate days to determine the reproducibility. Paired t-tests showed that parameters from test 1 and test 2 did not differ (P > 0.05). Furthermore, narrow 95% limits of agreement (LOA), low measurement and method error suggested that the on- and off-transient time-constants (pion and pioff), mean response times (MRT[on] and MRT[off]) and amplitudes (A[on] and A[off]) were reproducible and could be used for the assessment of runners. Subsequently, VO[2] kinetics were compared in 10 MD and 10 LD runners. There was a tendency for pion (12.5 +/- 2.3 s vs. 14.2 +/- 3.1 s, P = 0.178) and pioff (24.1 +/- 2.3 s vs. 27.1 +/- 3.0 s, P = 0.023) to be shorter in LD than MD runners respectively, despite similar VO[2Max] (MD = 60.0 +/- 4.9 ml-kg[-1]min[-1]; LD = 59.0 +/- 6.3 ml-kg[-1]-min[-1], P = 0.689). Differences in VO[2] kinetics between MD and LD runners were attributed to approaches to training since the volume of training was greater in LD (64.0 +/- 15.7 km-wk[-1]) than MD (47.5 +/- 15.7 km-wk[-1]) runners (P = 0.047). To detail the relationships between VO[2] kinetics and other measures of aerobic function (VO[2max], V[t] and RE), 16 MD and 16 LD runners were assessed. Relationships existed between pion and VO[2max] (r = -0.72, P = 0.002), V[t] (r = -0.66, P = 0.006) and RE (r = -0.59, P = 0.016) in LD runners, but not in MD runners (P >0.05). In addition, pion was related to the volume of training in MD (r = -0.63 , P = 0.009) and LD runners (r = -0.65, P = 0.006).The importance of VO[2] kinetics for 5 km running performance was investigated in 36 endurance trained runners. Runners were categorised as high n=10), low (n=10) and combined [MD + LD (n=36)] performers according to running ability after performing a self-paced 5 km time-trial. Mean (+/-SD) speed for the 5 km time-trial was 5.2 +/-1.0 m-s[-1] (high), 4.5 +/- 0.2 m-s[-1] (low) and 4.9 +/- 0.3 m-s[-1] (combined). Measures of on- and off- transient VO[2] kinetics, VO[2max], V[t] and RE were also determined. Data were explored using bi-variate correlations, ANCOVA and multiple regression techniques. In high and low performers, V0[2] kinetic parameters were not related to running performance. In combined runners, pion, pioff, MRT[on] and MRT[off] were related (r = -0.54, P = 0.001; r = -0.36, P = 0.030; r = -0.50, P = 0.002; r = -0.63, P = 0.003) to running performance. Stepwise multiple regression models were used to identify the primary determinant(s) of 5 km running performance for each group. In high performers, VO[2Max] and RE were included in the model (r = 0.92, R = 0.85, SEE = 0.08 m-s[-1]; SEE% = 1.5). In low performers, VO[2Max] was included in the model (r = 0.76, R[2] = 0.57, SEE = 0.15 m-s[-1], SEE% = 3.3). In combined runners, V0[2Max] RE and MR[off] were included in the model (r = 0.87, R-2 = 0.75, SEE = 0.17 m-s[-1], SEE% = 3.5).Collectively, the results suggest that: 1) VO[2] kinetics can be reproducibly determined using a single visit protocol; 2) measures of VO[2] kinetics are sensitive enough to differentiate MD and LD runners; 3) relationships between VO[2] kinetics and other measures of aerobic function exist in LD runners, but not in MD runners; 4) VO[2] kinetics differ between high and low performers, but do not relate to running performance and 5) VO[2] kinetics discriminate between high and low performers but only contribute minimally to the prediction of running performance in a multiple regression model for combined MD and LD runners.

Running economy (RE), i.e. the oxygen consumption at a given submaximal speed, is an important determinant of endurance running performance. So far, investigators have widely attempted to individuate the factors affecting RE in competitive athletes, focusing mainly on the relationships between RE and running biomechanics. However, the current results are inconsistent and a clear mechanical profile of an economic runner has not been yet established. The present work aimed to better understand how the running technique influences RE in sub-elite middle-distance runners by investigating the biomechanical parameters acting on RE and the underlying mechanisms. Special emphasis was given to accounting for intra-individual variability in RE at different speeds and to assessing track running rather than treadmill running. In Study One, a factor analysis was used to reduce the 30 considered mechanical parameters to few global descriptors of the running mechanics. Then, a biomechanical comparison between economic and non economic runners and a multiple regression analysis (with RE as criterion variable and mechanical indices as independent variables) were performed. It was found that a better RE was associated to higher knee and ankle flexion in the support phase, and that the combination of seven individuated mechanical measures explains ∼72% of the variability in RE. In Study Two, a mathematical model predicting RE a priori from the rate of force production, originally developed and used in the field of comparative biology, was adapted and tested in competitive athletes. The model showed a very good fit (R2=0.86). In conclusion, the results of this dissertation suggest that the very complex interrelationships among the mechanical parameters affecting RE may be successfully dealt with through multivariate statistical analyses and the application of theoretical mathematical models. Thanks to these results, coaches are provided with useful tools to assess the biomechanical profile of their athletes. Thus, individual weaknesses in the running technique may be identified and removed, with the ultimate goal to improve RE.

Running economy (RE), i.e. the oxygen consumption at a given submaximal speed, is an important determinant of endurance running performance. So far, investigators have widely attempted to individuate the factors affecting RE in competitive athletes, focusing mainly on the relationships between RE and running biomechanics. However, the current results are inconsistent and a clear mechanical profile of an economic runner has not been yet established. The present work aimed to better understand how the running technique influences RE in sub-elite middle-distance runners by investigating the biomechanical parameters acting on RE and the underlying mechanisms. Special emphasis was given to accounting for intra-individual variability in RE at different speeds and to assessing track running rather than treadmill running. In Study One, a factor analysis was used to reduce the 30 considered mechanical parameters to few global descriptors of the running mechanics. Then, a biomechanical comparison between economic and non economic runners and a multiple regression analysis (with RE as criterion variable and mechanical indices as independent variables) were performed. It was found that a better RE was associated to higher knee and ankle flexion in the support phase, and that the combination of seven individuated mechanical measures explains ∼72% of the variability in RE. In Study Two, a mathematical model predicting RE a priori from the rate of force production, originally developed and used in the field of comparative biology, was adapted and tested in competitive athletes. The model showed a very good fit (R2=0.86). In conclusion, the results of this dissertation suggest that the very complex interrelationships among the mechanical parameters affecting RE may be successfully dealt with through multivariate statistical analyses and the application of theoretical mathematical models. Thanks to these results, coaches are provided with useful tools to assess the biomechanical profile of their athletes. Thus, individual weaknesses in the running technique may be identified and removed, with the ultimate goal to improve RE.

The purpose of this study was to compare selected kinematic characteristics of distance runners over a twenty year period. The subjects in the investigation were 14 long distance runners who at the time of the first observation were considered highly trained (running more than 50 miles per week). The second observation occurred approximately 20-23 years after the first observation. At this time the average weekly mileage per runner had decreased to 37 miles per week. The first observation's data were collected with a Locam camera at film speeds ranging from 60 to 120 frames/second. The film data were digitized at the same time as the second observation's data. The second observation's data were collected with a Panasonic 5000 shutter video camera. The Peak Performance Motion Measurement System video interface allowed a 60 frame/second field rate. Ten subjects ran at a speed of 3.4 m/s; two subjects at the speeds of 3.1 and 3.6 m/s; and one subject at each of the following speeds: 4.0, 4.5, and 4.9 m/s. Statistical analyses (ANOVA) of the stride length, stride frequency, support and non-support time, and joint angular displacement indicated no significant difference (p > .05) between the first observation and the second observation. The results of this study indicated that the kinematics of continually active long distance runners do not change with an increase in age.<br>School of Physical Education

The role of food intake and nutrition in athletic performance has gained much recognition in recent years. Therefore, the purpose of the present investigation was to assess whether female runners who consumed a modified vegetarian diet had different iron parameters than female runners who consumed a diet that included red meat. Methods: Two groups of female runners (n=18) volunteered as subjects for this study. One group was composed of women who regularly consumed a modified vegetarian diet (V group) and the other group was composed of women who consumed a diet which included red meat (RM group). The groups were comparable in age, weight, aerobic capacity, number of pregnancies and years since last pregnancy. Dietary analyses and biochemical analyses for the three stages of iron deficiency characterized by iron depletion, iron deficient erythropoiesis and iron deficiency anemia were performed to compare iron status of the two groups of athletes. Results: Serum ferritin values of the V group were significantly lower (p=.001) than those of the RM group. Of all the athletes examined, 56% had serum ferritin values indicative of storage iron depletion. Mean values for serum iron, total iron binding capacity (TIBC) and percent transferrin saturation were in the normal range for both groups, but TIBC values of the V group were significantly higher (p=.02) than the TIBC values of the RM group. Individually, four of the subjects, 22%, (3 V group and 1 RM group), had iron values indicative of iron deficient erythropoiesis. None of the other iron parameters was significantly different between the groups and none of the subjects was clinically anemic. The mean daily iron intake was not significantly different between the groups, but both groups averaged less than the RDA. The total caloric intake of both groups averaged less than 1800 kcals/day with 50% of the athletes consuming less than 1800 kcals/day, and another 28% consumed between 1800-2100 kcals/day. The V group consumed significantly more carbohydrate (p=.02) and less protein (p=.001) than the RM group, but none of the other dietary variables were significantly different between the groups. Conclusion: The two groups of subjects ingested almost the same amount of iron/day, however, the bioavailability of the iron in the diets may have affected iron absorption as the iron stores of the V group were lower than those of the RM group.

Adolescent growth provides a unique opportunity for the growing body to adapt to external stimuli. A positive association between site-specific mechanical loading and increases in regional bone mineral content (BMC) during adolescence is established. Mechanical loads associated with middle-distance running expose the skeleton to a combination of compressive ground reaction forces and muscular contraction. Previous studies concerning musculoskeletal health in active adolescents are largely limited to planar, two-dimensional measures of bone mineral status, using Dual X-ray Absorptiometry (DXA). Intrinsic bone material properties are accurately measured using DXA. However, the interaction between bone material and structural properties that reflects the mechanical integrity of bone require a combination of imaging modalities. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) provides a three-dimensional geometric and biomechanical assessment of bone. When MRI is integrated with DXA technology, an effective non-invasive method of assessing in vivo bone strength is achieved. The impact of high training volumes on musculoskeletal development of male and female adolescent athletes engaged in repetitive, high magnitude mechanical loading has not been investigated. Specifically, differences in total body and regional bone mineral, bone and muscle geometry, bone biomechanical indices and bone strength at differentially-loaded skeletal sites have not been compared between adolescent middle-distance runners and age- and gender-matched non-athletic controls. Objectives: (i) to investigate the effects of intense sports participation involving mechanical loading patterns on bone mineral, bone and muscle geometry, biomechanical indices and estimated regional bone strength between elite adolescent male and female middle-distance runners and age- and gender-matched controls (ii) to examine factors predictive of total body BMC, distal tibial bone geometry, distal tibial bone strength, and Hip Strength Analysis (HSA)- derived indicators of bone strength at the femoral neck. Methods: Four groups of 20 adolescents were comprised of male (mean (SD) age 16.8 ± 0.6 yr, physical activity 14.1 ± 5.7 hr.wk-1) and female (age 16 ± 1.7 yr, physical activity 8.9 ± 2.1 hr.wk-1) middle-distance runners, and male (16.4 ± 0.7 yr, physical activity 2.2 ± 0.7 hr.wk-1) and female (age 16 ± 1.8 yr, physical activity 2.0 ± 0.07 hr.wk-1) controls. Total body and regional BMC were calculated using DXA. Distal tibial bone and muscle cross-sectional areas (CSA) were assessed using MRI. To calculate distal tibial bone strength index (BSI), a region of interest representing 10% of the mid distal tibia was analysed for DXA-derived bone mineral and was combined with bone geometry and biomechanical properties from MRI assessments. Calculations for femoral neck strength were acquired from DXA-derived HSA software. Results: No differences were found between male athletes and controls for unadjusted BMC at total body or regional sites. After covarying for fat mass (kg), male athletes displayed greater BMC at the lumbar spine (p = 0.001), dominant proximal femur (p = 0.001) and dominant leg (p = 0.03) than male controls. No differences were found in distal tibial bone geometry, bone strength at the distal tibia or HSA-derived indicators of bone strength at the femoral neck between male athletes and controls. Lean tissue mass and fat mass were the strongest predictors of total body BMC (R2 = 0.71), total muscle CSA explained 43.5% of variance in BSI at the distal tibia, and femur length and neck of femur CSA explained 33.4% of variance at the femoral neck. In females, athletes displayed greater unadjusted BMC at the proximal femur (+3.9 ±1.4 g, p = 0.01), dominant femoral neck (+0.5 ± 0.12 g, p = 0.01) and dominant tibia (+4.1 ± 2.1 g, p = 0.05) than female controls. After covarying for fat mass (kg), female athletes displayed greater (p = 0.001) total body, dominant proximal femur and dominant leg BMC than female controls. Female athletes also showed greater distal tibial cortical CSA (+30.9 ± 9.5 mm2, p = 0.003), total muscle (+240.2 ± 86.4 mm2, p = 0.03) and extensor muscle (+46.9 ±19.5 mm2, p = 0.02) CSA, smaller medullary cavity (-32.3 ± 14.7 mm2, p = 0.03) CSA and greater BSI at the distal tibia (+28037 ± 8214.7 g/cm3.mm4, p = 0.002) than female controls. Lean tissue mass and fat mass were the strongest predictors of total body BMC (R2 = 65), hours of physical weekly activity and total muscle CSA explained 58.3% of the variance of distal tibial BSI, and neck of femur CSA accounted for 64.6% of the variance in a marker of femoral neck HSA. Conclusion: High training loads are associated with positive musculoskeletal outcomes in adolescent middle-distance runners compared to non-athletic controls. Exposure to similar high training loads may advantage female adolescent athletes, more than male adolescent athletes compared with less active peers in bone strength at the distal tibia.

Adolescent growth provides a unique opportunity for the growing body to adapt to external stimuli. A positive association between site-specific mechanical loading and increases in regional bone mineral content (BMC) during adolescence is established. Mechanical loads associated with middle-distance running expose the skeleton to a combination of compressive ground reaction forces and muscular contraction. Previous studies concerning musculoskeletal health in active adolescents are largely limited to planar, two-dimensional measures of bone mineral status, using Dual X-ray Absorptiometry (DXA). Intrinsic bone material properties are accurately measured using DXA. However, the interaction between bone material and structural properties that reflects the mechanical integrity of bone require a combination of imaging modalities. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) provides a three-dimensional geometric and biomechanical assessment of bone. When MRI is integrated with DXA technology, an effective non-invasive method of assessing in vivo bone strength is achieved. The impact of high training volumes on musculoskeletal development of male and female adolescent athletes engaged in repetitive, high magnitude mechanical loading has not been investigated. Specifically, differences in total body and regional bone mineral, bone and muscle geometry, bone biomechanical indices and bone strength at differentially-loaded skeletal sites have not been compared between adolescent middle-distance runners and age- and gender-matched non-athletic controls.;Objectives: (i) to investigate the effects of intense sports participation involving mechanical loading patterns on bone mineral, bone and muscle geometry, biomechanical indices and estimated regional bone strength between elite adolescent male and female middle-distance runners and age- and gender-matched controls (ii) to examine factors predictive of total body BMC, distal tibial bone geometry, distal tibial bone strength, and Hip Strength Analysis (HSA)- derived indicators of bone strength at the femoral neck. Methods: Four groups of 20 adolescents were comprised of male (mean (SD) age 16.8 REPLACE2 0.6 yr, physical activity 14.1 REPLACE2 5.7 hr.wk-1) and female (age 16 REPLACE2 1.7 yr, physical activity 8.9 REPLACE2 2.1 hr.wk-1) middle-distance runners, and male (16.4 REPLACE2 0.7 yr, physical activity 2.2 REPLACE2 0.7 hr.wk-1) and female (age 16 REPLACE2 1.8 yr, physical activity 2.0 REPLACE2 0.07 hr.wk-1) controls. Total body and regional BMC were calculated using DXA. Distal tibial bone and muscle cross-sectional areas (CSA) were assessed using MRI. To calculate distal tibial bone strength index (BSI), a region of interest representing 10% of the mid distal tibia was analysed for DXA-derived bone mineral and was combined with bone geometry and biomechanical properties from MRI assessments. Calculations for femoral neck strength were acquired from DXA-derived HSA software. Results: No differences were found between male athletes and controls for unadjusted BMC at total body or regional sites. After covarying for fat mass (kg), male athletes displayed greater BMC at the lumbar spine (p = 0.001), dominant proximal femur (p = 0.001) and dominant leg (p = 0.03) than male controls. No differences were found in distal tibial bone geometry, bone strength at the distal tibia or HSA-derived indicators of bone strength at the femoral neck between male athletes and controls.;Lean tissue mass and fat mass were the strongest predictors of total body BMC (R2 = 0.71), total muscle CSA explained 43.5% of variance in BSI at the distal tibia, and femur length and neck of femur CSA explained 33.4% of variance at the femoral neck. In females, athletes displayed greater unadjusted BMC at the proximal femur (+3.9 REPLACE21.4 g, p = 0.01), dominant femoral neck (+0.5 REPLACE2 0.12 g, p = 0.01) and dominant tibia (+4.1 REPLACE2 2.1 g, p = 0.05) than female controls. After covarying for fat mass (kg), female athletes displayed greater (p = 0.001) total body, dominant proximal femur and dominant leg BMC than female controls. Female athletes also showed greater distal tibial cortical CSA (+30.9 REPLACE2 9.5 mm2, p = 0.003), total muscle (+240.2 REPLACE2 86.4 mm2, p = 0.03) and extensor muscle (+46.9 REPLACE219.5 mm2, p = 0.02) CSA, smaller medullary cavity (-32.3 REPLACE2 14.7 mm2, p = 0.03) CSA and greater BSI at the distal tibia (+28037 REPLACE2 8214.7 g/cm3.mm4, p = 0.002) than female controls. Lean tissue mass and fat mass were the strongest predictors of total body BMC (R2 = 65), hours of physical weekly activity and total muscle CSA explained 58.3% of the variance of distal tibial BSI, and neck of femur CSA accounted for 64.6% of the variance in a marker of femoral neck HSA. Conclusion: High training loads are associated with positive musculoskeletal outcomes in adolescent middle-distance runners compared to non-athletic controls. Exposure to similar high training loads may advantage female adolescent athletes, more than male adolescent athletes compared with less active peers in bone strength at the distal tibia.

The present investigation posed the following questions; 1)What are the relative contributions of Plasma Viscosity (PV), Red Blood Cell Deformability Index (RBCDI) and Haematocrit (Hct) to Whole Blood Viscosity (WBV) in elite middle distance runners? 2)What is the relationship between WBV and performance in elite middle distance runners? 3)Is WBV modified by sleeping in a hypoxic environment? 4)Does sleeping in a hypoxic environment increase performance? Methodology. The present investigation was part of a larger study at the Australian Institute of Sport investigating the effect of Intermittent Hypoxic Exposure (IHE) on the performance of elite middle distance runners. IHE was regulated to simulate an altitude of 2650 metres by the use of nitrogen to generate a normobaric-hypoxia sleeping chamber (Oxygen 16.3 %, barometric pressure approximately 710 mmHg). Eleven elite middle distance runners volunteered to participate in the study. All runners were members of the Australian Institute of Sport Development Squad with a time of 232.3 ± 1.4 s for 1500 meters. There was (i) a 5 day testing block pre-IHE (at Altitude 600 m, the results of which were used to allocate runners into either the ALTITUDE or CONTROL group); (ii) 5 nights of IHE (2650 m), (iii) 3 days at home (all athletes resided in Canberra, Altitude 600 metres), (iv) 5 nights of IHE (2650 m), (v) 3 days home (600 m), (vi) 5 nights IHE (2650 m), (vii) a post-IHE 5 day testing block (600 m), (viii) 11 days out of the IHE chamber with no tests (600 m) and (ix) a post-IHE 5 day testing block (600 m). Three performance tests were completed each 5 day testing block. The performance tests included (i) long duration treadmill test (VO2max), (ii) short duration treadmill test (anaerobic capacity) and (iii) a 1500 m time trial on a synthetic 400 m track. Blood was collected from a superficial forearm vein on nine occasions. Of the nine occasions blood was collected, three were in the mornings immediately proceeding the 1500 m time trials, three were in the mornings following the first night of exposure in the IHE and the remaining three blood samples were collected in the mornings following the fifth night of exposure to the IHE. Blood was analysed for WBV, PV, Hct, Hb, Red Blood Deformability Index (RBCDI), Red Blood Cell Count (RBCC), White Blood Cell Count (WBCC), red blood cell Mean Cell Volume (MCV), percent Reticulocytes (% retics), Platelet Count (PC) and Mean Cell Volume of the Reticulocyte (MCVr). Results. 1.) 1500 m time trial results for the ALTITUDE and CONTROL groups over the three 5 day testing blocks were 241.3 ± 3.0 s vs 241.7 ± 1.9 s , 243.3 ± 1.4 s vs 238.6 ± 1.8 s and 236.6 ± 2.0 s vs 236.2 ± 0.8 s respectively. Long duration treadmill test (VO2max) time to exhaustion results for the ALTITUDE and CONTROL groups over the three 5 day testing blocks were 612 ± 18.4 s vs 588 ± 24.1 s, 645 ± 6.9 s vs 606 ± 24.1 s and 654 ± 10.2 s vs 645 ± 25.5 respectively. Short duration treadmill test to exhaustion results for the ALTITUDE and CONTROL groups over the three 5 day testing blocks were 120 ± 8.6 s vs 129 ± 12.5 s, 113 ± 2.9 s vs 126 ± 7.2 s and 146 ± 7.8 s vs 145 ± 10.7 s respectively. 2.) A significant (p=0.0004) and positive relationship was found between PV and WBV, Hct and WBV (p=0.0001), Hb and WBV (p=0.0001), RBCC and WBV (p=0.04), WBCC and WBV (p=0.04) and PC and WBV (p=0.01). A significant (p=0.05) and negative relationship was found between RBCDI and WBV. No significant relationship was found to exist between WBV and MCV, WBV and Percent Reticulocytes or WBV and MCVr. 3.) A significant (p=0.002) and positive relationship was found to exist between 1500 m time trial time and WBV and a significant (p=0.001) but negative relationship between 1500m time trial-time and Hct. No significant relationship was found to exist between the long duration treadmill test run time to exhaustion (aerobic capacity) and WBV. A significant (p=0.01) and positive relationship was found to exist between Hct and the long duration treadmill test run time to exhaustion. No significant relationship was found to exist between the short duration treadmill test time to exhaustion (anaerobic capacity) and WBV. A significant (p=0.02) and positive relationship was found to exist between short duration treadmill test time to exhaustion and Hct. 4.) Intermittent Hypoxic Exposure resulted in a significant elevation of WBV (p=0.001) in the ALTITUDE group compared to the CONTROL group over the course of the study. 5.) In elite middle distance runners, 15 nights of sleeping in IHE did not significantly improve anaerobic (short duration treadmill test), aerobic (long duration treadmill test) performance, or 1500 m time, any more than sleeping in normoxic (600 m) conditions. Conclusions. i) PV, RBCDI and Hct do significantly and positively contribute to WBV. ii) A significant and positive relationship exists between WBV and WBCC and WBV and PC. iii) There was a paradoxical situation in elite middle distance runners between WBV and 1500 m time trial time and Hct and 1500m time trial time. Increased WBV leads to slower 1500 m time trial times and a shorter time to exhaustion. Increased Hct leads to faster 1500 m time trial times and a longer time to exhaustion. We conclude; (1) that there exists an optimal combination of Hct and WBV to produce optimal performance in elite middle distance runners. (2) Whole blood is significantly more viscous as the result of IHE. (3) Intermittent hypoxic exposure did not improve 1500 m time trial performance, aerobic or anaerobic capacity in an elite middle distance runners.<br>Thesis (Masters)<br>Master of Philosophy (MPhil)<br>School of Physiotherapy and Exercise Science<br>Full Text

The problem addressed in this study is whether physiologic, hematologic, and performance parameters obtained during and after a long term program of anaerobic and aerobic exercise can be used as markers of chronic fatigue.

Running injuries were compared between twenty four middle distance (800 metress) and forty four marathon runners of elite status in Queensland, Australia. All runners were interviewed individually on their injury history and possible associations. The runners were biomechanically examined to assess their foot type which were categorised as either pes planus, pes cavus or normal. Anthropometric and body mass index measurements indicated that the middle distance athletes were lighter in weight and taller than the marathon runners (p < 0.01). Cavoid foot type occurred in 50% of runners, with significantly more occurring in marathon runners ( 61. 4%) than middle distance runners (18.2%). The runners linked injuries mainly to hard or uneven terrains, overtraining, and insufficient rest after an injury. Common injuries suffered by marathon runners were mainly back problems, hip ailments and sciatica. Common injuries to middle distance runners were mainly knee problems, stress farctures and sciatica. Marathon runners incurred more injuries than the middle distance runners (97% compared to 81.8%) which was statistically significant and the injuries suffered were different.

There are few scientific studies, that research the problems of the high skills in the average distance runners training in Lithuania. M. Norbutas is a Lithuanian record - breaker in 800m distance running. And he was the first Lithuanian, who entered a contest in World Championship and the Olympic Games. M. Norbutas annual training cycle in the run – up to the World Championship in San Denis (the season of years 2002 – 2003) are analyzed in herein work. Also the training technique, the strain alternation in the annual training cycle and the dynamics of the contest score in the Athens Olympics (the season of years 2003 – 2004) are analyzed. And similarly, the best world runners of the average distance: the world record – breaker in 1500m distance running, the champion of Athens Olympics in 1500m and 5000m distance, the Maroccan H. El. Geurroj (preparation for the World Championship in 1997), the champion of Athens Olympics in 800m distance, the Russian Y. Borzakovskiy (preparation for the World Championship in closed accommodation in 2001), the Olympic champion of 1500m distance running in Barcelona and the European record – breaker, the Spaniard F. Cacho (preparation for the World Championship in Barcelona in 1992). The training techniques and the structure of micro cycles of those sportsmen are compared to the techniques of M. Norbutas. The physical development, the physical qualification, the functional alternation of a fitness rate in the run – up to the Olympic Games in... [to full text]

Педагогічний контроль є основним для одержання інформації про діяльність і стан спортсменів. Він використовується для оцінки ефективності застосовуваних засобів і методів тренування, відповідно до встановлених контрольних нормативів для виявлення динаміки розвитку рухових якостей, стану "спортивної форми" й прогнозування спортивних досягнень [1; 2]. У зв’язку з цим, проведення комплексного контролю бігунів на середні дистанції має практичне значення і є актуальним. Мета. Охарактеризувати показники комплексного контролю бігунів на середні дистанції, які навчаються у закладі вищої освіти.

碩士<br>輔仁大學<br>食品營養學系<br>91<br>Middle- and long- distance running requires both speed and endurance. The training volume could reach 90 to 150 kmּwk-1. Therefore, energy and nutritional consumption is a major concern. Dietary nutrients intake of athletes varies in different periods of in-season. The purpose of this study was to assess the dietary nutrients intake of young male middle- and long- distance runners during training period (T), pre-race period (PR), and race period (R). The subjects were nine college male middle- and long- distance runners with age 20.1 ± 1.2 y (mean ± SD), height 171.5 ± 5.2 cm, weight 59.9 ± 4.8 kg and estimated body fat 5.4 ± 0.8%. Three-day weighed food record was obtained on T and PR; whereas 24-h dietary recall was obtained on R. No significant (P > 0.05) differences were found between the results of theses two methods in the subjects. Dietary and physical activity questionnaires were also conducted to evaluate the understanding of dietary intakes of the subjects. The result of all analyzed dietary nutrients intake had no significant difference (P > 0.05) among the three periods studied. The total energy intake (kcalּd-1) of T met the recommended dietary intake for middle- and long- distance athletes; other nutrients intakes of T met DRIs (Dietary Reference Intakes). The total energy intakes of PR and R tend to be lower than T (-34.2% and -34.6%), so was the protein intake (-60.1% and -86.4%). The fat intakes of T, PR and R were over 30% of total intake (over 0.8%, 1.3%, and 6.2% respectively); Carbohydrate intake had a tendency of lower than 500 g·d-1 (-7.7%, -17.5% and -32.2% lower respectively); Vitamin E, B (except Vitamin B12), calcium, and zinc of R tend to be lower than DRIs. Furthermore, the percentages of number of subject in nutritional supplement intake of three periods are 44.4%, 22.2% and 11.1% respectively. Television, radio, teachers and coaches were subject’s major source of sport nutritional information. It is suggested to increase carbohydrate and decrease fat intake, promote practice of nutritional education and modification of dietary behavior to improve subject’s nutritional status and exercise performance.

碩士<br>中國文化大學<br>體育學系運動教練碩博士班<br>105<br>Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of different training phases on stress and recovery for middle or long-distance runners. By monitoring the stress, its goal was prevent fatigue and overtraining. Method: 49 male and 22 female runners with 7 months regular training were selected as subjects. National High School Athletic Game was taken as the main phase of monitoring (experiments were conducted in preparation phase, selection phase, pre-competition phase and transition phase). RESTQ-52 Sport Questionnaire on different training phases was applied as research tool to monitor the situations for stress and recovery. Result: For High school athletes’ social stress and recovery, there were significant correlation in preparation phase, selection phase, pre-competition phase and transition phase. The average number of selection phase, pre-competition phase and transition phase were higher than preparation phase；For mental stress and recovery, there were significant correlation in preparation phase, selection phase and transition phase. The average number of preparation phase was higher than selection phase and transition phase. Conclusion: The high school middle or long-distance runners' average mental stress and recovery in preparation phase was higher than selection phase and transition phase. In preparation phase, the intensity was low but loading and criteria to reach it was high, which made mental stress the highest. For social stress in preparation phase, it was lower than selection phase, pre-competition phase and transition phase. With the coming of games, mid-distance athletes receive expectations from schools, parents and coaches, which made more stress the in selection phase, pre-competition phase and transition phase. Through monitoring stress and recovery coaches and runners can deal with overtraining.

碩士<br>國立體育大學<br>教練研究所<br>95<br>The purposes of the study were to investigate the effects of the speed, agility, power, 100m, and 800m performance by dragging training (DT) and speed training (ST) in middle long distance adolescent’s runners. Eighteen middle-distance teenage runners were randomly assignment into DT and ST groups; and nine with the same age students were as control group in the study. DT and ST groups participated in 3 sets x 3RM x 50m with or without 5 kg bearing, 3 times per week, 8 weeks. All of the subjects had to test agility ( 4×10m shuttle run) , power (standing long jump), 100m (absolute speed) , and 800m (special speed) in pre, mid, and post training. Two-way ANOVA mixed design were used to analyze the interaction between training ways and test periods. The alpha level was set at.05. The findings are as follows: 1. Four and eight weeks of DT improved agility, power, and 800m performance, however, 100m performance improvement after eight weeks of dragging training for the runners. 2. Eight weeks of ST improved power and 800m speed, but no effects on the agility and 100m performance of runners. It is concluded with 5 kg bearing dragging training had better effects on the agility, power, and speed of 100m and 800m than that the peer speed training for the runners of teenager.

碩士<br>國立彰化師範大學<br>運動學系<br>106<br>The purpose of this study was to investigate the correlations between body composition, competitive fitness and performance of male young middle distance runners. Determinants of the performance were further discerned by using regression analysis. The results were expected to be crucial for the training of youth runners. 25 of 800-meter and 23 of 1500 -meter runners were recruited to join this study. They were subjected to take a battery of measurements including height, weight, body fat and lean body fat, sit and reach, backward medicine ball throw, countermovement vertical jump (CMJ), reaction time, hexagonal agility, and multistage 20m shuttle run test (20MST). Performance times of the runners were obtained from the official competitions they attended within 2 months. The data were analyzed by IBM SPSS 20.0 statistical software for descriptive statistical analysis, Pearson Correlation and Multiple stepwise regression analysis. The statistically significant level was defined as α =.05. The results showed that 800m times were significantly correlated with 20MST, the CMJ and the age. 20MST, sit and reach and the CMJ selected by the stepwise regression analysis as major determinants of 800-meter performance, with the R^2 were 21.7%, 26.1% and 13.4%, respectively. The combined R^2 was 59% in total. For 1500-meter performance, the 20 MST was the only determinant, with the R2 of 64.1%. The 20MST is a strong predictor of performance of young middle distance runners, especially in the 1500-meter competition, and is evident to be a reliable method for evaluating endurance capacity of adolescent athletes.

碩士<br>臺北巿立體育學院<br>競技運動訓練研究所<br>101<br>Purpose: Research of body image has been conducted on college students and teenagers, and related topics included eating habits, gender issues, sport behavior, self-confidence, and self-esteem. However, studies of body image and sport efficacy have also been focusing on general college students and teenagers. Purpose of the present study was to explore body image and sport self-efficacy of collegiate track and field athletes with different variables to provide knowledge for applying concepts of body image to enhance competitive level for collegiate track and field athletes. Methods: Participants were middle and long distance runners from 2013 national university sport tournament investigated with Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire and Exercise Self-Efficacy Scale. A total of 342 sets of questionnaires were distributed with 203 valid returns including students from 35 universities. Descriptive statistics, independent t-test, one-way ANOVA, Scheffé, and Pearson product-moment correlation were utilized for data analyses. Results: Scores of body image were found to be higher in division I athletes than division II athletes; females paid more attention on appearance than males; division I long distance runners were found to have lower confidence on endurance than middle distance runners; self-efficacy of division II athletes was found to be positively correlated with age and grade; self-efficacy of division I athletes was found to be related to appearance and perceived sport performance; the better the perceived health condition, the higher the self-efficacy of division II athletes. Conclusion: Low sense of body image could decrease sport self- efficacy, thus avoid judging on appearance might increase positive body image. A healthy life style would contribute to confidence in fitness, and further benefit sport self-efficacy for athletes.

碩士<br>國立臺灣體育運動大學<br>體育研究所<br>99<br>The purpose of this study were to explore different groups of middle-distance runner in final score performance, heart rate variation and recovery during maximal exercise. Methods: 18 male college students were take 1500 meters running test as subjects (age 20.61 ± 2.03 years), using digital camera to take record the whole 1500m test as time and sub-score results, in the same time polar heart rate to recording the heart rate in whole running team and recovery. The subjects classified into elite ( N=9, 261.50 ± 2.51 seconds)and normal groups ( N=9, 288.33 ± 9.79 seconds)as 1500 meters result. Using SPSS 12.0 statistics software to describe the all test result, depend sample t-test compare the different between before and after competition. All test significant different level was p&amp;lt;.05. Results: In those two groups 1500 meters results, it shows that in elite group’s average speed and recovery ability were significant superior to the other groups. Compare to the other elite 1500 meters runner such as 6th -1 2th World Championships in Athletics and 2000- 2008 Olympic men's 1500m finals it shows that the pace model same as middle-slow-fast in 1500 meters processes, those results indicate that the pace were important factor of success. It can be reference as training and competition. Conclusion: The elite athletic were superior to normal ones in average speed, maximum heart rate and heart rate recovery, those factors shows elite athletics has excellent physical fitness and recovery.