Journal articles on the topic 'Migratory linkages'

Increasing demand for resources through a growing world population and the development of consumer led economies has led to large-scale habitat modification. One of the most disturbing aspects of these changes is the loss of biodiversity. Conservation biology as a discipline seeks to counteract or minimize the loss of biodiversity. Management is an Important aspect in achieving this goal. One concept used in Wildlife management and conservation is that of landscape linkages. Linkages are aimed at faclhtatmg .the connectivity for species, communities or ecological processes. There are many types of linkages in the landscape; both natural and human induced. Covered in this book are linkages such as greenways, dispersal corridors, riparian remnants, wildlife corridors, stepping stones, hedgerows and road underpasses. Linkages range in scale from small patches of old-growth forest in a forest mosaic to migratory routes for birds across and between continents.

AbstractTerrestrial wildlife migrations, once common, are now rare because of ecosystem fragmentation and uncontrolled hunting. Botswana historically contained migratory populations of many species but habitat fragmentation, especially by fences, has decreased the number and size of many of these populations. During a study investigating herbivore movement patterns in north-west Botswana we recorded a long-distance zebra Equus burchelli antiquorum migration between the Okavango Delta and Makgadikgadi grasslands, a round-trip distance of 588 km; 55% of 11 animals collared in the south-eastern peripheral delta made this journey. This was unexpected as, between 1968 and 2004, the migration could not have followed its present course because of the bisection of the route by a veterinary cordon fence. As little evidence exists to suggest that large-scale movements by medium-sized herbivores can be restored, it is of significant interest that this migration was established to the present highly directed route within 4 years of the fence being removed. The success of wildlife corridors, currently being advocated as the best way to re-establish ecosystem connectivity, relies on animals utilizing novel areas by moving between the connected areas. Our findings suggest that medium-sized herbivores may be able to re-establish migrations relatively quickly once physical barriers have been removed and that the success of future system linkages could be increased by utilizing past migratory routes.

AbstractMigration is one of the main factors that shape and accelerate the development of nations or urban areas, although the dynamics and combined effects of migratory movements, national policies, and the roles of local authorities present a mixed picture in Europe. Some countries have restrictive immigration and integration policies, other nations provide easier access to their political and welfare systems, while the question of local responsibility has also acquired particular importance in recent years. The aim of this study is to explain the linkages between migration policy and development, exploring the variety of European integration policies and their effects on the national socio-economic structures. The integration policy has progressively been becoming ever more important over the last decades. The analysis presents how integration tools interact with national or regional development, emphasizing the role of different migration strategies.

River networks are connected in both upstream and downstream directions on large spatial scales by movement of water, materials, and animals. Here I examine the implications of these linkages for the stability, productivity, and management of watersheds and their migratory fishes. I use simple simulations of watershed alteration to illustrate that degradation can erode the productivity and stability of both upstream and downstream fisheries. Through analysis of an existing global dataset on rivers, I found that larger rivers tend to be more fragmented than smaller rivers. I offer three challenges and opportunities for the future management of watersheds. First, given that human impacts can spread up and down rivers, there is a need to align the scales of impact assessments with the natural scale of river systems. Second, free-flowing rivers naturally dampen variability; thus, the conservation of connectivity, habitat, and biodiversity represents a key opportunity to sustain the processes that confer stability. Third, watersheds represent natural units of social–ecological systems; watershed governance would facilitate reciprocal feedbacks between people and ecosystems and enable more social–ecological resilience.

Sea ice loss is accelerating in the Barents and Kara Seas (BKS). Assessing potential linkages between sea ice retreat/thinning and the region's ancient and unique social–ecological systems is a pressing task. Tundra nomadism remains a vitally important livelihood for indigenous Nenets and their large reindeer herds. Warming summer air temperatures have been linked to more frequent and sustained summer high-pressure systems over West Siberia, Russia, but not to sea ice retreat. At the same time, autumn/winter rain-on-snow (ROS) events have become more frequent and intense. Here, we review evidence for autumn atmospheric warming and precipitation increases over Arctic coastal lands in proximity to BKS ice loss. Two major ROS events during November 2006 and 2013 led to massive winter reindeer mortality episodes on the Yamal Peninsula. Fieldwork with migratory herders has revealed that the ecological and socio-economic impacts from the catastrophic 2013 event will unfold for years to come. The suggested link between sea ice loss, more frequent and intense ROS events and high reindeer mortality has serious implications for the future of tundra Nenets nomadism.

Cities appear as a major role player in the economy of any area reflecting the global integration of its economy as they house majority of large business groups. Migratory population and urban growth are direct contributors in this economic expansion, particularly in the present-day phase of globalization which in under developed countries causes densification and instability of agriculture and other existing land use thus bringing in the need of a proper land resource management.Focused attention is needed to integrate infrastructure development in various cities and linkages should be established between the creation and management of assets through a system of reforms for long-term sustainability. Himachal Pradesh is a hill state with some most difficult terrains of the country making the preparation of complete cadastral record of land nearly impossible only 80% of land is under revenue records. Thus the amount of habitable land decreases further with around 50 % of the land under forest cover. The aim of the study is to analyze the growth of urbanisation in Himachal Pradesh along with the factors responsible. This growth pattern can later be used to formulate proper land use management and infrastructure development policies for equitable development of the area.

Identification of habitats responsible for the successful production and recruitment of rare migratory species is a challenge in conservation biology. Here, a tool was developed to assess life stage linkages for the threatened potamodromous cyprinid Clear Lake hitch Lavinia exilicauda chi. Clear Lake hitch undertake migrations from Clear Lake (Lake County, CA, USA) into ephemeral tributary streams for spawning. An aqueous isoscape of strontium isotopic ratios (87Sr/86Sr) was constructed for Clear Lake and its watershed to trace natal origins and migration histories of adult recruits. Aqueous 87Sr/86Sr differentiated Clear Lake from 8 of 10 key tributaries and clustered into 5 strontium isotope groups (SIGs) with 100% classification success. Otolith 87Sr/86Sr showed all five groups contributed variably to the population. The age at which juveniles migrated from natal streams to Clear Lake ranged from 11 to 152 days (mean±s.d., 43±34 days) and was positively associated with the permanency of natal habitat. This information can be used by resource managers to develop conservation actions for Clear Lake hitch. This study demonstrates the utility of strontium isotopes in otoliths as a tool to identify important freshwater habitats occupied over the lifespan of an individual that would otherwise be challenging or impossible to trace with other methods.A

At least a quarter of the world's cetaceans were recently confirmed as endangered and the situation may be worse as the status of many others remains unclear. Climate change is affecting the oceans and a number of studies have recently highlighted its potential impact on cetacean species - for example, there are important linkages between sea ice and krill, the primary prey for baleen whales in Antarctica. This paper provides a synthesis of new information available on this theme and considers its implications for the future conservation and management of cetacean populations and species.The more mobile (or otherwise adaptable) cetaceans may be able to respond to climate related changes, although the extent of this adaptability is largely unknown. However, there is broad agreement that certain species and populations are likely to be especially vulnerable to climate related changes, including those with a limited habitat range, or those for which sea ice provides an important habitat for the cetacean population and/or that of their prey. International conservation bodies, such as the Convention for Migratory Species and the International Whaling Commission, are striving to address these issues. The challenges presented by climate change require an innovative, large scale, long term and multinational response from scientists, conservation managers and decision makers. This response that should encompass a precautionary approach, including addressing the detrimental effects of other factors negatively impacting populations and species.

Towns in northern Karamoja, Uganda, are growing due to an expanding commercial sector, shifts in livestock-based rural livelihoods, and the economic and social appeal of urban life. This article presents qualitative data from 83 individual migrants to Abim, Kaabong and Kotido, the three largest towns in northern Karamoja. The research aimed to better understand the factors behind migration, the livelihood strategies pursued by those moving to towns and the opportunities and challenges associated with urban life. The data show that the majority of respondents in urban centres retained links to their rural communities: these connections allowed migrants to access key assets such as land, social networks and food, and allowed rural residents to receive remittances and other forms of support. Those who were not able to maintain ties to their rural homes or families were frequently the most vulnerable; most were widowed or abandoned women. Reasons for migration included household-level shocks, such as the loss of livestock or the death of a family member, as well as food insecurity or 'hunger'. Towns are attractive destinations because of their economic opportunities and potential for a better life. However, many respondents struggled with the cost of living in towns and worked multiple ad hoc and low-skilled jobs in order to get by. While rural linkages were important for populations in both areas, most respondents did not envision returning to their rural areas. Urban planning and services have not kept pace with migratory patterns.

Coastal habitats have experienced significant degradation and fragmentation in recent decades under the strain of interacting ecosystem stressors. To maintain biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, coastal managers and restoration practitioners face the urgent tasks of identifying priority areas for protection and developing innovative, scalable approaches to habitat restoration. Facilitating these efforts are models of seascape connectivity, which represent ecological linkages across heterogeneous marine environments by predicting species-specific dispersal between suitable habitat patches. However, defining the suitable habitat patches and migratory pathways required to construct ecologically realistic connectivity models remains challenging. Focusing on two reef-associated fish species of the Florida Keys, United States of America (USA), we compared two methods for constructing species- and life stage-specific spatial models of habitat suitability—penalized logistic regression and maximum entropy (MaxEnt). The goal of the model comparison was to identify the modeling algorithm that produced the most realistic and detailed products for use in subsequent connectivity assessments. Regardless of species, MaxEnt’s ability to distinguish between suitable and unsuitable locations exceeded that of the penalized regressions. Furthermore, MaxEnt’s habitat suitability predictions more closely aligned with the known ecology of the study species, revealing the environmental conditions and spatial patterns that best support each species across the seascape, with implications for predicting connectivity pathways and the distribution of key ecological processes. Our research demonstrates MaxEnt’s promise as a scalable, species-specific, and spatially explicit tool for informing models of seascape connectivity and guiding coastal conservation efforts.

The oxidation of tyrosine residues to generate o,o′-dityrosine cross-links in extracellular proteins is necessary for the proper function of the extracellular matrix (ECM) in various contexts in invertebrates. Tyrosine oxidation is also required for the biosynthesis of thyroid hormone in vertebrates, and there is evidence for oxidative cross-linking reactions occurring in extracellular proteins secreted by myofibroblasts. The ECM protein fibronectin circulates in the blood as a globular protein that dimerizes through disulfide bridges generated by cysteine oxidation. We found that cellular (fibrillar) fibronectin on the surface of transforming growth factor–β1 (TGF-β1)–activated human myofibroblasts underwent multimerization by o,o′-dityrosine cross-linking under reducing conditions that disrupt disulfide bridges, but soluble fibronectin did not. This reaction on tyrosine residues required both the TGF-β1–dependent production of hydrogen peroxide and the presence of myeloperoxidase (MPO) derived from inflammatory cells, which are active participants in wound healing and fibrogenic processes. Oxidative cross-linking of matrix fibronectin attenuated both epithelial and fibroblast migration and conferred resistance to proteolysis by multiple proteases. The abundance of circulating o,o′-dityrosine–modified fibronectin was increased in a murine model of lung fibrosis and in human subjects with interstitial lung disease compared to that in control healthy subjects. These studies indicate that tyrosine can undergo stable, covalent linkages in fibrillar fibronectin under inflammatory conditions and that this modification affects the migratory behavior of cells on such modified matrices, suggesting that this modification may play a role in both physiologic and pathophysiologic tissue repair.

The paper includes the analyses of university cities role in Europe, their properties and their origin causes. The main purpose of the article is the European university cities characteristics determination. The author clarified a concept of university city, since there is no clear scientific definition because each country has its own understanding of the university city meaning. In a narrow sense a university city is, as a rule, a small or medium-sized city, where the main socio-economic processes are closely related to the university and scientific activities. The general characteristics for a classifying a city as a university city is the historical and economic universities role and the total number of students and scientific workers. In Europe, most university cities are formed due to the long history. In medium and small university cities, the scientific and university cluster plays a city-forming role. Usually in older university cities, the university and campus occupy a vast area.In the research, the author analyzes specific examples of university cities. Attention is also paid to urban planning aspects because universities occupy vast city’s territory. Now in a knowledge-based society, universities play an important role including the linkages between the local and global levels of the knowledge economy. The city and university interaction is shown on the example of German university cities: Heidelberg, Göttingen, Marburg and Tübingen. It has been found that a young population structure is observed in these German cities. There is also a large proportion of young people among immigrants and residents with a migratory background.

SummaryPallas’s Fish Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus (PFE) is sparsely distributed across a vast swathe of central, eastern and southern Asia, and is classified as ‘Vulnerable’ by IUCN on the basis of population size and reports of declines in many areas. Mongolia has long been considered a breeding stronghold for the species, but evidence to support this is unclear. Our objective was to assess the current distribution and status of the PFE in Mongolia to enable a more accurate assessment of the species’ conservation status, through collation of existing information from the historical literature, and a contemporary survey of historical sites and potential PFE breeding habitat. Thirty-four traceable locations were identified in the historical literature, of which breeding activity had been recorded in seven. Field surveys were conducted at a total of 77 sites throughout the study period (2005–2011) between April and October, including 21 of the historical PFE locations. PFE were observed at eight sites, all of which were historical PFEs locations, and no evidence of breeding activity was recorded. These findings suggest that Mongolia is not (and may never have been) a breeding stronghold for the PFE. The lack of eagles at 13 of 21 historical sites surveyed, coupled with a lack of sightings of birds at alternative locations is suggestive of a decline in site occupancy. Observations of juvenile eagles within one month of the spring thaw suggests that at least a proportion of Mongolian PFEs are breeding at southern latitudes, and future studies to establish these migratory linkages are warranted. These findings, coupled with evidence of declines in other parts of the PFE range indicate a need to re-evaluate the species’ conservation status, and in particular to determine the number of mature PFEs present in suitable habitat in the Indian Subcontinent and Myanmar between November and March.

Abstract Tracing movements of migratory birds between breeding and wintering areas is important for both theoretical and conservation purposes. Intrinsic markers such as stable isotopes have received considerable attention because of their usefulness for evaluating migratory connections without the need to mark and recapture individuals. Establishing migratory linkages using stable-isotope markers hinges on knowing which tissues most accurately reflect the isotopic signature of previous feeding locations of interest. Here, we assessed the correspondence among stable-hydrogen isotope (δD) values of feathers, claws, and cellular portions of blood from migrating White-throated Sparrows (Zonotrichia albicollis) to determine if these measures provided concordant estimates of origins. δD values of claws from birds captured during spring and fall migration were positively correlated with δD values of head feathers grown on the wintering grounds and tail feathers grown on breeding grounds, respectively, indicating that claws contained information on origins of individuals. However, analyses contrasting δD measurements of base and tip of claws, and head and tail feathers suggest that a significant amount of claw growth occurred during migration resulting in biased estimates of breeding and wintering origins. Thus, for ground-foraging birds like White-throated Sparrows, we caution against using isotope measurements of claws as long-term position indicators. δD values of blood were correlated with the δD values from the base of claws, which represented the most recent claw growth, but were not correlated with the δD values of claw tips and head feathers. Thus, it appears that the δD values of blood cells are not useful for estimating wintering latitudes of White-throated Sparrows captured during spring migration. Estimación de los Orígenes de las Aves Canoras Migratorias de Corta Distancia en América del Norte: Inferencias Contrastantes a Partir de Medidas de Isótopos de Hidrógeno de las Plumas, Garras y Sangre Resumen. El seguimiento de los movimientos de las aves migratorias entre las áreas reproductivas y de invernada es importante tanto por motivos teóricos como de conservación. Los marcadores intrínsecos como los isótopos estables han recibido una atención considerable debido a su utilidad para evaluar conexiones migratorias sin la necesidad de marcar y recapturar individuos. El establecimiento de vínculos migratorios usando marcadores de isótopos estables depende del conocimiento de cuáles son los tejidos que mejor reflejan la señal isotópica de los sitios de alimentación previos de interés. En este trabajo, evaluamos la relación entre los valores de los isótopos estables de hidrógeno (δD) de las plumas, garras y porciones celulares de la sangre de individuos migratorios de Zonotrichia albicollis para determinar si estas medidas brindaban estimaciones concordantes sobre sus lugares de origen. Los valores de δD de las garras de aves capturadas durante las migraciones de primavera y otoño estuvieron correlacionados positivamente con los valores de δD de las plumas de la cabeza desarrolladas en los sitios de invernada y de las plumas de la cola desarrolladas en los sitios reproductivos, indicando que las garras contenían información sobre los orígenes invernales de los individuos. Sin embargo, los análisis que contrastaron las medidas de δD de la base y la punta de las garras, y de las plumas de la cabeza y de la cola sugieren que una cantidad significativa del crecimiento de las garras ocurrió durante la migración, generando estimaciones sesgadas de los sitios reproductivos y de invernada de origen. De este modo, para las aves que se alimentan en el suelo como Z. albicollis, sugerimos no usar medidas de isótopos de las garras como indicadores a largo plazo de la posición. Los valores de δD de la sangre estuvieron correlacionados con los valores de δD de la base de las garras, los que reflejaron el crecimiento reciente de las garras, pero no estuvieron correlacionados con los valores de δD de la punta de la garras y de las plumas de la cabeza. De este modo, parece que los valores de δD de las células sanguíneas no son útiles para estimar las latitudes de invernada de individuos de Z. albicollis capturados durante la migración de primavera.

The sustainable development of water resources includes retaining some amount of the natural flow regime in water bodies to protect and maintain aquatic ecosystem health and the human livelihoods and wellbeing dependent upon them. Although assessment of environmental flows is now occurring globally, limited studies have been carried out in the Ethiopian highlands, especially studies to understand flow-ecological response relationships. This paper establishes a hydrological foundation of Gumara River from an ecological perspective. The data analysis followed three steps: first, determination of the current flow regime—flow indices and ecologically relevant flow regime; second, naturalization of the current flow regime—looking at how flow regime is changing; and, finally, an initial exploration of flow linkages with ecological processes. Flow data of Gumara River from 1973 to 2018 are used for the analysis. Monthly low flow occurred from December to June; the lowest being in March, with a median flow of 4.0 m3 s−1. Monthly high flow occurred from July to November; the highest being in August, with a median flow of 236 m3 s−1. 1-Day low flows decreased from 1.55 m3 s−1 in 1973 to 0.16 m3 s−1 in 2018, and 90-Day (seasonal) low flow decreased from 4.9 m3 s−1 in 1973 to 2.04 m3 s−1 in 2018. The Mann–Kendall trend test indicated that the decrease in low flow was significant for both durations at α = 0.05. A similar trend is indicated for both durations of high flow. The decrease in both low flows and high flows is attributed to the expansion of pump irrigation by 29 km2 and expansion of plantations, which resulted in an increase of NDVI from 0.25 in 2000 to 0.29 in 2019. In addition, an analysis of environmental flow components revealed that only four “large floods” appeared in the last 46 years; no “large flood” occurred after 1988. Lacking “large floods” which inundate floodplain wetlands has resulted in early disconnection of floodplain wetlands from the river and the lake; which has impacts on breeding and nursery habitat shrinkage for migratory fish species in Lake Tana. On the other hand, the extreme decrease in “low flow” components has impacts on predators, reducing their mobility and ability to access prey concentrated in smaller pools. These results serve as the hydrological foundation for continued studies in the Gumara catchment, with the eventual goal of quantifying environmental flow requirements.

AbstractPlant-parasitic nematodes are divided according to their feeding strategy into three major groups: sedentary endoparasites, migratory endoparasites and ectoparasites. Compared to what is known about sedentary endoparasitic nematode species, resistant and tolerant relationships between the nematodes from the latter two groups and their hosts are much less documented. However, methods for screening and evaluation of the resistance and tolerance of plants to migratory plant-parasitic nematodes have been well developed and sources of resistance and tolerance to these nematodes have been found. Advances have been made in breeding resistance to migratory plant-parasitic nematodes in rice, alfalfa, banana, pine trees, grape, woody fruits and other crops. Although accessions immune to stem, leaf and bud nematodes are found quite frequently, host resistance to migratory root-parasitic nematodes has been detected less frequently and generally only partly reduces nematode multiplication. Host tolerance to migratory nematodes is important even for resistant varieties and therefore is gaining attention. An insufficient degree of resistance and tolerance, their variability with the environment, and their linkage to undesired agricultural or horticultural characters are commonly observed. Polygenic bases for plant resistance and tolerance to migratory nematodes have been demonstrated by genetic and biochemical observations and make breeding even more complicated than that for resistance to sedentary plant-parasitic nematodes. These factors, with the presence of different nematode species in the field and community and population differences in pathogenicity, hinder the availability of host resistance and tolerance and offer a big challenge.

AbstractThe population dynamics, development of gonads, takeoff and flight behaviour of Aphis gossypii Glover were investigated in order to test whether there was variation of migratory ability in the spring population. Field surveys showed that not all the aphids overwintering on hibiscus migrated to the secondary host plants, and the host-alternating and host-specific life-cycle forms coexisted in Nanjing, China. Substantial variation in flight capacity of winged individuals, development of gonads and takeoff behaviour were found within the spring population. The frequency distribution of flight duration and the number of ovarioles per individual alatae exhibited two peaks, representing the migratory and sedentary genotypes, respectively. Significant response to directional selection on takeoff behaviour demonstrated the additive genetic component of this variation. Selection for ‘takeoff’ individuals caused a significant increase in takeoff angle from 39.8° in the first selection to 68.7° in the fifth; and, hence, screened out the migratory genotype (M), while selection for the sedentary individuals increased the rate of non-takeoffs significantly, and screened out the sedentary genotype (S). The reciprocal cross, M♀×S♂, produced hybrid offspring performing significantly steeper takeoff angles compared with those from the cross S♀×M♂, suggesting the presence of a maternal effect. On the other hand, takeoff rate was ranked as M♀×S♂=S♀×M♂>M>S, involving no sex-linkage and maternal effect. The coexistence of host-alternating and host-specific life-cycle forms of A. gossypii on the primary host has, as deduced from the present studies, a genetic basis.

Abstract Currently available genome assemblies for Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) have been constructed from fish belonging to the Northeast Arctic Cod (NEAC) population; a migratory population feeding in the Barents Sea. These assemblies have been crucial for the development of genetic markers which have been used to study population differentiation and adaptive evolution in Atlantic cod, pinpointing four discrete islands of genomic divergence located on linkage groups 1, 2, 7 and 12. In this paper, we present a high-quality reference genome from a male Atlantic cod representing a southern population inhabiting the Celtic sea. The genome assembly (gadMor_Celtic) was produced from long-read nanopore data and has a combined contig length of 686 Mb with an N50 of 10 Mb. Integrating contigs with genetic linkage mapping information enabled us to construct 23 chromosome sequences which mapped with high confidence to the latest NEAC population assembly (gadMor3) and allowed us to characterize, to an extent not previously reported large chromosomal inversions on linkage groups 1, 2, 7 and 12. In most cases, inversion breakpoints could be located within single nanopore contigs. Our results suggest the presence of inversions in Celtic cod on linkage groups 6, 11 and 21, although these remain to be confirmed. Further, we identified a specific repetitive element that is relatively enriched at predicted centromeric regions. Our gadMor_Celtic assembly provides a resource representing a ‘southern’ cod population which is complementary to the existing ‘northern’ population based genome assemblies and represents the first step toward developing pan-genomic resources for Atlantic cod.

Post-migratory stressors (PS) are a risk factor for mental health problems among resettled refugees. There is a need to identify factors which can reduce this burden. Self-efficacy (SE) is associated with refugees’ mental health. The current study examined whether SE can protect this group from the impact of PS on mental wellbeing. Higher levels of PS were expected to be associated with higher levels of mental health problems. In addition, we expected this linkage to be moderated by lower SE. Questionnaires were administered to a non-clinical refugee sample (N = 114, 46% female, average age 35 SD = 10.42 years) with various backgrounds. The following questionnaires were used: the Self-Reporting Questionnaire-20 (SRQ-20) to assess mental health problems, the General Self-Efficacy Scale (SGES) to measure SE, and an adapted version of the Post-Migration Living Difficulties Checklist (PMLD) to measure PS. Bivariate correlations and multiple linear regression analysis were performed. No significant contribution was found for SE or the interaction of SE and daily stressors, above and beyond the significant contribution of daily stressors to mental health problems. The findings reinforce that PS affects mental health and suggest that SE had a limited impact on mental health in this non-clinical sample of refugees.

Data on long-term circulation of pathogens in wildlife populations are seldom collected, and hence understanding of spatial–temporal variation in prevalence and genotypes is limited. Here, we analysed a long-term surveillance series on influenza A virus (IAV) in mallards collected at an important migratory stopover site from 2002 to 2010, and characterized seasonal dynamics in virus prevalence and subtype diversity. Prevalence dynamics were influenced by year, but retained a common pattern for all years whereby prevalence was low in spring and summer, but increased in early autumn with a first peak in August, and a second more pronounced peak during October–November. A total of 74 haemagglutinin (HA)/neuraminidase (NA) combinations were isolated, including all NA and most HA (H1–H12) subtypes. The most common subtype combinations were H4N6, H1N1, H2N3, H5N2, H6N2 and H11N9, and showed a clear linkage between specific HA and NA subtypes. Furthermore, there was a temporal structuring of subtypes within seasons based on HA phylogenetic relatedness. Dissimilar HA subtypes tended to have different temporal occurrence within seasons, where the subtypes that dominated in early autumn were rare in late autumn, and vice versa. This suggests that build-up of herd immunity affected IAV dynamics in this system.

Both genetic cohesion among local populations of animals and range expansion depend on the frequency of dispersers moving at an interpatch scale. Animal movement has an individual component that reflects behaviour and an ecological component that reflects the spatial organization of populations. The total movement capacity of an individual describes maximum movement distance theoretically achievable during a lifetime, whereas its variation among the members of a local population determines the magnitude of interpatch movements and thus of gene flow between neighbouring patches within metapopulation or patchy population systems. Here, I review information on dispersal and migration as components of the movement capacity of juvenile and adult pond-breeding amphibians and discuss how these components inform the spatial structure of populations. Amphibians disperse as juveniles and adults, but movement distances detected in tracking or capture–mark–recapture studies are usually far below the corresponding estimates based on molecular gene-flow data. This discrepancy reflects the constraints of available tracking methods for free-ranging individuals leading to inappropriate surrogates of annual movement capacity, but can be resolved using probabilistic approaches based on dispersal functions. There is remarkable capacity for and plasticity in movements in amphibians. Annual within-patch movements (migrations) of individuals can be large and likely represent an underestimated capacity for movement at the interpatch scale. Landscape resistance may influence the paths of dispersing amphibians, but rarely impedes interpatch movements. Juveniles emigrating unpredictably far from the natal pond and adults switching from within-patch migrations to dispersal to another patch demonstrate the plasticity of individual movement behaviour. Three basic conclusions can be drawn with respect to the linkage of individual movement behaviour and spatial or genetic structure of local amphibian populations embedded in a heterogeneous landscape: (1) individual movements or consecutive short-term series of movements are misleading surrogate measures of total movement capacity; (2) probabilistic modelling of movement capacity is the best available behavioural predictor of interpatch gene flow; (3) connectivity of local populations in heterogeneous landscapes is less affected by landscape resistance than previously expected.

AbstractZizina emelina(de l'Orza) is listed on Japan's Red Data List as an endangered species because of loss of its principal food plant and habitat. We compared parts of the mitochondrial and nuclear genes of this species to investigate the level of genetic differentiation among the 14 extant populations. We also examined infection of the butterfly with the bacteriumWolbachiato clarify the bacterium's effects on the host population's genetic structure. Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA analyses revealed that haplotype composition differed significantly among most of the populations, and the fixation indexFSTwas positively correlated with geographic distance. In addition, we found three strains ofWolbachia, one of which was a male killer; these strains were prevalent in several populations. There was linkage between some host mitochondrial haplotypes and the threeWolbachiastrains, although no significant differences were found in a comparison of host mitochondrial genetic diversity with nuclear genetic diversity inWolbachia-infected or -uninfected populations. These genetic analyses andWolbachiainfection findings show thatZ. emelinahas little migratory activity and that little gene flow occurs among the current populations.

The aim of the study was the delineation of migratory corridors migration for large mammals between the Ukrainian Carpathians and the western part of their range in Poland. Potential corridors for the wolf (Canis lupus), brown bear (Ursus arctos), lynx (Lynx lynx), wisent (Bison bonasus), red deer (Cervus elaphus), and wild boar (Sus scrofa) were identified within 534,818 ha with the ArcGIS Corridor Designer software. Corridors of regional importance (42,283 ha in total) and local connections between habitat patches (13,154 ha) were delineated separately according to the least-cost path criterion. We identified 115 critical points where heavy traffic, or the proximity of settlements, could obstruct animal movements. A considerable number of such critical points indicate the urgency for ensuring the functionality of the remaining linkage. The permeability of barriers between habitat patches was determined by ground observations, confirming the presence of target species. The highest proportion of patches estimated by experts as optimal and suboptimal was for wild boar (91%), while the lowest for lynx (52%). The proportion of habitats avoided or useless due to anthropogenic barriers was 34% for lynx, 25% for wisents, and 19% for brown bears.

Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) are migratory fish that are highly valued for subsistence, sport, and commercial fisheries throughout their native range. Populations of Chinook salmon in western Alaska have exhibited long-term declines, leading to restrictions on harvests. Management priorities require greater resolution for genetic stock identification (GSI) than is available with current methods. We leveraged RADseq, TaqMan, and GT-seq data originating from multiple sources, collected through time, to develop a set of GT-seq panels containing 1092 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that improved GSI resolution in western Alaska for at-sea and in-river sampling. We generated a dense linkage map to ensure that markers selected for panels spanned the entire genome. In addition, we identified multiple RADseq markers that were associated with sex; these aligned to a 5-centimorgan (cM) region on the sex chromosome. Finally, we developed a bioinformatic pipeline to streamline analysis of GT-seq data that is capable of genotyping microhaplotypes and paralogs, both of which can improve GSI resolution over traditional single-SNP data. Our panels and pipeline provide tools for management agencies to rapidly and easily analyze large-scale genotyping projects.

The purpose of this paper is to explore an aspect of the structural mechanism of Nha Trang as a post-Soviet space by investigating the migratory trajectories of Russian-speakers working in the tourism sector of Nha Trang. Based upon the case studies of Russian-speaking workers, this paper unraveled transnational composition of the social space mediated by the Russian language as cultural capital, and showed importance of tourism economy for the transnational mobility of Russian-speakers. The complex social and political contexts that have been generated historically from the relationships between Vietnam and Russia or the former USSR produced Russian-speaking tourism economy and tourist enclave in Nha Trang, and Nha Trang became a node of mobility for Russian-speakers who have various forms of mobility that go beyond the static conceptual frameworks of “tourism” and “migration”. This paper examines the linkage between tourism and migration and educes the multiple intermediate forms of human mobility in order to promote a deepr understanding of the process of the emergence of Russian speaking tourism economy in Nha Trang, which has been rapidly developed in the last decade, from the social and political contexts.

Human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (HIV-2) emerged in West Africa and has spread further to countries that share socio-historical ties with this region. However, viral origins and dispersal patterns at a global scale remain poorly understood. Here, we adopt a Bayesian phylogeographic approach to investigate the spatial dynamics of HIV-2 group A (HIV-2A) using a collection of 320 partial pol and 248 partial env sequences sampled throughout 19 countries worldwide. We extend phylogenetic diffusion models that simultaneously draw information from multiple loci to estimate location states throughout distinct phylogenies and explicitly attempt to incorporate human migratory fluxes. Our study highlights that Guinea-Bissau, together with Côte d’Ivoire and Senegal, have acted as the main viral sources in the early stages of the epidemic. We show that convenience sampling can obfuscate the estimation of the spatial root of HIV-2A. We explicitly attempt to circumvent this by incorporating rate priors that reflect the ratio of human flow from and to West Africa. We recover four main routes of HIV-2A dispersal that are laid out along colonial ties: Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde to Portugal, Côte d’Ivoire and Senegal to France. Within Europe, we find strong support for epidemiological linkage from Portugal to Luxembourg and to the UK. We demonstrate that probabilistic models can uncover global patterns of HIV-2A dispersal providing sampling bias is taken into account and we provide a scenario for the international spread of this virus.

Este artículo tiene por objetivo abordar los recientes cambios operados en la política migratoria argentina, con especial énfasis en las modificaciones introducidas por el Decreto de Necesidad y Urgencia (DNU) 70 (de enero de 2017), con vistas a iluminar los vínculos actuales entre migraciones, derechos humanos y seguridad. El caso argentino resulta de especial interés porque la Ley Migratoria vigente desde 2004 incorpora importantes estándares de derechos humanos, que deberían funcionar como límite al avance de ciertas prerrogativas soberanas del Estado en nombre la seguridad. Las distintas medidas adoptadas por el Gobierno de la alianza Cambiemos, desde su llegada al poder en 2015, se basaron en una vinculación directa entre migración y criminalidad, dirigida a reinscribir la política migratoria en el terreno de la seguridad y a enfatizar el control, en detrimento de la integración de las personas migrantes. Creemos que el DNU 70 tiene un carácter ejemplar para el análisis específico de las paradojas que entraña la criminalización de las migraciones, con el consecuente avance de la excepcionalidad soberana, en un contexto normativo de reconocimiento de los derechos humanos. Sobre estas tensiones versa el presente artículo, con la expectativa de que este caso pueda alumbrar otros similares.
 Abstract
 The goal of this paper is to address recent changes over Argentine migration policy, particularly reforms introduced by the Necessity and Urgency Decree (Decreto de Necesidad y Urgencia-DNU) 70, issued by the executive branch in January 2017, to highlight the current links between migrations, human rights and security. Argentina’s case is of the most importance given that its Migration Law (from 2004) has recognized the highest standards on human rights, which should limit certain actions of the State taken in the name of security. Measures adopted by Cambiemos government (a right based coalition that won in 2015) are based on a direct linkage between migration and criminality, intended to rewrite migration policy in the field of security to emphasize control, instead of social integration of migrants. In this frame, we believe DNU 70 set an example that allows analyzing the paradox encompasses in the criminalization of migrations, with consequences such as more exceptionalism in sovereignty, even though in a context of general recognition of human rights. This article goes about these tensions expecting Argentina’s case may illuminate others.

BackgroundHoary bats (Lasiurus cinereus) are among the bat species most commonly killed by wind turbine strikes in the midwestern United States. The impact of this mortality on species census size is not understood, due in part to the difficulty of estimating population size for this highly migratory and elusive species. Genetic effective population size (Ne) could provide an index of changing census population size if other factors affecting Ne are stable.MethodsWe used the NeEstimator package to derive effective breeding population size (Nb) estimates for two temporally spaced cohorts: 93 hoary bats collected in 2009–2010 and an additional 93 collected in 2017–2018. We sequenced restriction-site associated polymorphisms and generated a de novo genome assembly to guide the removal of sex-linked and multi-copy loci, as well as identify physically linked markers.ResultsAnalysis of the reference genome withpsmcsuggested at least a doubling of Ne in the last 100,000 years, likely exceeding Ne = 10,000 in the Holocene. Allele and genotype frequency analyses confirmed that the two cohorts were comparable, although some samples had unusually high or low observed heterozygosities. Additionally, the older cohort had lower mean coverage and greater variability in coverage, and batch effects of sampling locality were observed that were consistent with sample degradation. We therefore excluded samples with low coverage or outlier heterozygosity, as well as loci with sequence coverage far from the mode value, from the final data set. Prior to excluding these outliers, contemporary Nb estimates were significantly higher in the more recent cohort, but this finding was driven by high values for the 2018 sample year and low values for all other years. In the reduced data set, Nb did not differ significantly between cohorts. We found base substitutions to be strongly biased toward cytosine to thymine or the complement, and further partitioning loci by substitution type had a strong effect on Nb estimates. Minor allele frequency and base quality bias thresholds also had strong effects on Nb estimates. Instability of Nb with respect to common data filtering parameters and empirically identified factors prevented robust comparison of the two cohorts. Given that confidence intervals frequently included infinity as the stringency of data filtering increased, contemporary trends in Nb of North American hoary bats may not be tractable with the linkage disequilibrium method, at least using the protocol employed here.

Inclusive knowledge systems that engage local perspectives and social and natural sciences are difficult to generate and infuse into decision-making processes but are critical for conservation planning. This paper explores local tacit knowledge application to identify wildlife locations, movement patterns and heightened opportunities and barriers for connectivity conservation planning in a critical linkage area known as the Chignecto Isthmus in the eastern Canadian provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Thirty-four local hunters, loggers, farmers and others with strong tacit knowledge of wildlife and the land participated in individual interviews and group workshops, both of which engaged participatory mapping. Individuals’ data were digitised, analysed and compiled into thematic series of maps, which were refined through participatory, consensus-based workshops. Locations of key populations and movement patterns for several species were delineated, predominantly for terrestrial mammals and migratory birds. When comparing local tacit-knowledge-based maps with those derived from formal-natural-science models, key differences and strong overlap were apparent. Local participants provided rich explanatory and complementary data. Their engagement in the process fostered knowledge transfer within the group and increased confidence in their experiential knowledge and its value for decision making. Benefits derived from our study for conservation planning in the region include enhanced spatial data on key locations of wildlife populations and movement pathways and local insights into wildlife changes over time. Identified contributing factors primarily relate to habitat degradation and fragmentation from human activities (i.e., land use and cover changes caused by roads and forestry practices), thereby supporting the need for conservation measures. The generated knowledge is important for consideration in local planning initiatives; it addresses gaps in existing formal-science data and validates or ground truths the outputs of existing computer-based models of wildlife habitat and movement pathways within the context of the complex social-ecological systems of the place and local people. Critically, awareness of the need for conservation and the value of the participants’ shared knowledge has been enhanced, with potential influence in fostering local engagement in wildlife conservation and other planning initiatives. Consistent with other studies, engagement of local people and their tacit knowledge was found to (i) provide important insights, knowledge translation, and dissemination to complement formal, natural science, (ii) help build a more inclusive knowledge system grounded in the people and place, and (iii) lend support to conservation action for connectivity planning and human-wildlife co-existence. More broadly, our methods demonstrate an effective approach for representing differences and consensus among participants’ spatial indications of wildlife and habitat as a means of co-producing knowledge in participatory mapping for conservation planning.

Abstract Migratory connectivity describes linkages between breeding and non-breeding areas. An ongoing challenge is tracking avian species between breeding and non-breeding areas and hence estimating migratory connectivity and seasonal survival. Collaborative color-ringing projects between researchers and citizen scientists provide opportunities for tracking the annual movements of avian species. Our study describes seasonal survival and migratory connectivity using data from more than 4,600 individuals with over 51,000 observations, predominantly collected by citizen scientists. Our study focuses on the Eurasian Oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus), a species that has experienced a substantial and ongoing decline in recent decades. Multiple threats have been described, and given that these threats vary in space and time, there is an urgent need to estimate demographic rates at the appropriate spatio-temporal scale. We performed a seasonal multi-state (5 geographical areas within The Netherlands) live- and dead-recoveries analysis under varying model structures to account for biological and data complexity. Coastal breeding populations were largely sedentary, while inland breeding populations were migratory and the direction of migration varied among areas, which has not been described previously. Our results indicated that survival was lower during winter than summer and that survival was lower in inland areas compared with coastal areas. A concerning result was that seasonal survival of individuals over-wintering in the Wadden Sea, an internationally important site for over-wintering shorebirds, appeared to decline during the study period. We discuss the outcomes of our study, and how citizen science was integral for conducting this study. Our findings identify how the demographic rates of the oystercatcher vary in space and time, knowledge that is vital for generating hypotheses and prioritizing future research into the causes of decline.

ABSTRACT Populations of Vaux’s Swift (Chaetura vauxi), like those of many aerial insectivores, are rapidly declining. Determining when and where populations are limited across the annual cycle is important for their conservation. Establishing the linkages between wintering and breeding sites and the strength of the connections between them is a necessary first step. In this study, we analyzed 3 stable isotopes (δ13C, δ15N, δ2H) from feathers collected during spring migration from Vaux’s Swifts that perished during a stopover on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. We previously analyzed claw tissue (grown during winter) from the same individuals, revealing that the swifts likely wintered in 2 or 3 locations/habitats. Here, we used stable isotope analysis of flight feathers presumed to have been grown on, or near, the breeding grounds to determine the likely previous breeding locations and presumed destinations for the swifts. Stable isotope values (δ13C, δ15N, δ2H) showed no meaningful variation between age classes, sexes, or with body size. Surprisingly, ~26% of the birds sampled had feather isotope values that were not consistent with growth on their breeding grounds. For the remaining birds, assigned breeding origins appeared most consistent with molt origins on Vancouver Island. Overall, migratory connectivity of this population was relatively weak (rM = 0.07). However, the degree of connectivity depended on how many winter clusters were analyzed; the 2-cluster solution suggested no significant connectivity, but the 3-cluster solution suggested weak connectivity. It is still unclear whether low migratory connectivity observed for Vaux’s Swift and other aerial insectivores may make their populations more or less vulnerable to habitat loss; therefore, further efforts should be directed to assessing whether aerial insectivores may be habitat limited throughout the annual cycle.

AbstractThe influence of climate on the timing of large-scale animal migrations is a major ecological and resource management concern. Anadromous fish migrations can have broad scale impacts on human communities and marine, aquatic and terrestrial food webs. However, isolating the effects of climate change on the timing of life stage transitions for anadromous fish species is challenging. Striped bass (Morone saxatilis) exhibit striking variation in migration patterns within their natural range, including migratory behaviors that change with latitude, and climate-induced temperature changes are predicted to drive future habitat and distribution changes. Here we explore the linkages between migration and multiple components of coastal and inland aquatic ecosystems impacted by climate change. By leveraging environmental and fisheries monitoring which began in 1969, we describe the upstream migration timing of non-native adult Striped bass influenced by estuary outflow and sea surface temperature in the San Francisco Bay-Delta, California. Striped bass migrated later in years when Delta outflow was greater and sea surface temperature was cooler. It is likely that temperature thresholds in the ocean during the springtime provide a cue for Striped bass to initiate migration, but sea surface temperature may also represent composite climatic trends influencing Striped bass. Further, the observed variation in migration timing of adult Striped bass has implications for predation risk on the seaward-migration of juvenile Chinook salmon.

Marine protected areas (MPAs) have emerged as potentially important conservation tools for the conservation of biodiversity and mitigation of climate impacts. Among MPAs, a large percentage has been created with the implicit goal of protecting shark populations, including 17 shark sanctuaries which fully protect sharks throughout their jurisdiction. The Commonwealth of the Bahamas represents a long-term MPA for sharks, following the banning of commercial longlining in 1993 and subsequent designation as a shark sanctuary in 2011. Little is known, however, about the long-term behavior and space use of sharks within this protected area, particularly among reef-associated sharks for which the sanctuary presumably offers the most benefit. We used acoustic telemetry to advance our understanding of the ecology of such sharks, namely Caribbean reef sharks (Carcharhinus perezi) and tiger sharks (Galeocerdo cuvier), over two discrete islands (New Providence and Great Exuma) varying in human activity level, over 2 years. We evaluated which factors influenced the likelihood of detection of individuals, analyzed patterns of movement and occurrence, and identified variability in habitat selection among species and regions, using a dataset of 23 Caribbean reef sharks and 15 tiger sharks which were passively monitored in two arrays with a combined total of 13 acoustic receivers. Caribbean reef sharks had lower detection probabilities than tiger sharks, and exhibited relatively low habitat connectivity and high residency, while tiger sharks demonstrated wider roaming behavior across much greater space. Tiger sharks were associated with shallow seagrass habitats where available, but frequently transited between and connected different habitat types. Our data support the notion that large MPAs afford greater degrees of protection for highly resident species such as Caribbean reef sharks, yet still may provide substantial benefits for more migratory species such as tiger sharks. We discuss these findings within the context of species-habitat linkages, ecosystem services, and the establishment of future MPAs.

AbstractMigratory connectivity describes the degree of linkage between different parts of an animal’s migratory range due to the movement trajectories of individuals. High connectivity occurs when individuals from one particular part of the migratory range move almost exclusively to another localized part of the migratory range with little mixing with individuals from other regions. Conversely, low migratory connectivity describes the situation where individuals spread over a wide area during migration and experience a large degree of mixing with individuals from elsewhere. The migratory connectivity concept is frequently applied to vertebrate migrants (especially birds), and it is highly relevant to conservation and management of populations. However, it is rarely employed in the insect migration literature, largely because much less is known about the migration circuits of most migratory insects than is known about birds. In this review, we discuss the applicability of the migratory connectivity concept to long-range insect migrations. In contrast to birds, insect migration circuits typically comprise multigenerational movements of geographically unstructured (non-discrete) populations between broad latitudinal zones. Also, compared to the faster-flying birds, the lower degree of control over movement directions would also tend to reduce connectivity in many insect migrants. Nonetheless, after taking account of these differences, we argue that the migratory connectivity framework can still be applied to insects, and we go on to consider postulated levels of connectivity in some of the most intensively studied insect migrants. We conclude that a greater understanding of insect migratory connectivity would be of value for conserving threatened species and managing pests.

By examining the commercial and migratory connections forged between Australia and Scotland between the wars, this article extends discussions of the relationship between the Empire and the Scottish diaspora in Australia. Foreign trade and investment was central to Scotland’s role in the British Empire, and Scottish commercial activities in Australia had their own unique contexts and outcomes. The Australian Scottish Delegation of 1928 offers a distinct example of the commercial links forged between Australia and Scotland in the context of the Empire, and presents insights into the way in which Scottish émigrés imagined their role in the imperial project. Additionally, the linkage of economic development and migration during the interwar period took on a distinctive Scottish flavour with the delegation, and the selection of migrants for emigration offers insights into the ways in which delegates defined and understood the Scottish diaspora in Australia.

ABSTRACT Metastasis requires tumour cells to cross endothelial cell (EC) barriers using pathways similar to those used by leucocytes during inflammation. Cell surface CD99 is expressed by healthy leucocytes and ECs, and participates in inflammatory transendothelial migration (TEM). Tumour cells also express CD99, and we have analysed its role in tumour progression and cancer cell TEM. Tumour cell CD99 was required for adhesion to ECs but inhibited invasion of the endothelial barrier and migratory activity. Furthermore, CD99 depletion in tumour cells caused redistribution of the actin cytoskeleton and increased activity of the Rho GTPase CDC42, known for its role in actin remodelling and cell migration. In a xenograft model of breast cancer, tumour cell CD99 expression inhibited metastatic progression, and patient samples showed reduced expression of the CD99 gene in brain metastases compared to matched primary breast tumours. We conclude that CD99 negatively regulates CDC42 and cell migration. However, CD99 has both pro- and anti-tumour activity, and our data suggest that this results in part from its functional linkage to CDC42 and the diverse signalling pathways downstream of this Rho GTPase. This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

The chemistry of late transition metal alkylidenes [M=CR<sub>2</sub>], where R is H a hydrocarbyl group, have attracted widespread attention although mainly with reference to complexes of metals in low oxidation state. We focus in this paper on reactions based on electrophilic attacks by Ph<sub>3</sub>C<sup>+</sup> that allow either isolation of stable cationic Ir(III) alkylidenes, considerably more attractive than well-known Ir(I) counterparts, or the generation of very reactive variants that experience fast migratory insertion into existing Ir-C and Ir-H sigma bonds. The present studies are based on (η<sup>5</sup>-C<sub>5</sub>Me<sub>5</sub>)Ir(III) complexes that bear a cyclometalated PMeXyl<sub>2</sub> ligand (Xyl = 2,6-Me<sub>2</sub>C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>3</sub>). The contribution of different monoanionic ligands (chloride, alkyl or hydride) to either stabilize the Ir=CR<sub>2</sub> linkage or provide facile reactivity routes has been investigated, including the use of various deuterium isotopologues of the iridium complex precursors.

Abstract The Pacific bluefin tuna, Thunnus orientalis, is a highly migratory species that is widely distributed in the North Pacific Ocean. Like other marine species, T. orientalis has no external sexual dimorphism; thus, identifying sex-specific variants from whole genome sequence data is a useful approach to develop an effective sex identification method. Here, we report an improved draft genome of T. orientalis and male-specific DNA markers. Combining PacBio long reads and Illumina short reads sufficiently improved genome assembly, with a 38-fold increase in scaffold contiguity (to 444 scaffolds) compared to the first published draft genome. Through analysing re-sequence data of 15 males and 16 females, 250 male-specific SNPs were identified from more than 30 million polymorphisms. All male-specific variants were male-heterozygous, suggesting that T. orientalis has a male heterogametic sex-determination system. The largest linkage disequilibrium block (3,174 bp on scaffold_064) contained 51 male-specific variants. PCR primers and a PCR-based sex identification assay were developed using these male-specific variants. The sex of 115 individuals (56 males and 59 females; sex was diagnosed by visual examination of the gonads) was identified with high accuracy using the assay. This easy, accurate, and practical technique facilitates the control of sex ratios in tuna farms. Furthermore, this method could be used to estimate the sex ratio and/or the sex-specific growth rate of natural populations.

Introduction: West Nile Virus (WNV) infection is an important arthropod-borne zoonosis viral disease. This virus is neglected in Yemen especially in Hodeidah.
 Aim of the Study: The purpose of this study was to detect WNV infection, determine the epidemiological and clinical characteristics within febrile patients in Hodeidah city and to determine some risk factors associated with WNV infection.
 Materials and Methods: 136 febrile patients in a hospital base study were diagnosed in Center of Tropical Medicine and Infectious Diseases (CTMID), Authority of General Al-Thawara Hospital, Hodeidah, Yemen from January of 2017 to December of 2017. WNV infection was detected by enzyme linkage immune sorbent assay (ELISA) on serum samples.
 Results and Discussion: The results showed that 5 cases (3.67%) were WNV – positive namely IgM that was detected in winter and spring seasons, the most prevalent antibodies of WNV were IgG namely 75 cases (55.14%). Most common symptoms were fever, headache, fatigue, weakness, arthralgia, myalgia and photophobia. The treatment based on the intravenous therapy (IV) with anti-pyritic, plasma in some cases and all cases were recovered while mortality rate was 00%.
 Conclusion: WNV was detected in Hodeidah which placed in Tehama "western Yemen", as first time by our preliminary study that confirmed the evidence of WNV IgM and IG antibodies presence on 2017, in order to increase safety of diagnosis of febrile diseases, it is essential to continue surveillance of this emerging infection, suggesting that this emergence has been transported by migratory birds from wintering areas to Tehama region.


 
 
 This paper investigates linkages between two apparently disparate government initiatives. Together they function symbolically to maintain Australia’s moral order by excluding filth, keeping personal and national boundaries tight and borders secure. The Commonwealth government recently set aside over five million dollars to improve continence in the Australian population (incontinence is the inability to control movements of the bowel or bladder, producing leakage of filth in the form of urine and faeces). The Strategy funded research into prevalence rates, treatment strategies, doctor education, a public toilet mapping exercise, and public awareness through a telephone helpline and patient information pamphlets. Almost simultaneously with the continence initiative, concerns over the influx of asylum seekers to Australia lead the federal government to focus more resources on strengthening Australia’s border protection. This paper explores the two phenomena of personal and national boundary maintenance as aspects of classification dilemmas based in conceptions of filth, pollution and cleaning rituals. Continence and Boundary Maintenance Elias has pointed out that the development of rules of decorum around bodily control was the very essence of ‘the civilizing process’ in Western cultures. Currently, we see bodily control as a prerequisite for becoming an adult, and the loss of control is a sign of a loss of responsible adulthood, a ‘spoiled identity’ (Goffman; Murcott; Hepworth). However, Foucault pointed out that the body, through the imposition of the State and the medical profession, has become a target for self-work, resulting not in self-empowerment but in subjection. Through the ‘new micro-physics of power’ (Foucault 139), the bladder and pelvic floor have become sites in need of control. Analysis of discourses around incontinence, both in the public and private spheres, indicate a concern with issues of control and agency, particularly the moral imperative to be in control of one’s body and the feelings of incompetence produced by the loss of control. Incompetence, self blame and guilt are evident in sufferers’ talk about their condition (Tilbury et al.; Murcott). The negativity surrounding incontinence is connected with the construction of urine and faeces as filth – but is this construction of dirtiness ‘natural? Mary Douglas argued that cultural classification creates the order of social life and has an inherently moral dimension. A consequence is that things which cross categorical boundaries are impure and therefore dangerous, because they threaten the rules of classification. Douglas suggested that there is nothing inherent in ‘unclean’ things which make them dirty. Soil in the garden is ‘clean’ whereas on the carpet it is ‘dirty’, spaghetti on a plate is clean, but on your trousers it is dirty. Douglas concluded that dirtiness is not about the stuff itself, but about it being in the wrong location. We are left with the very old definition of dirt as matter out of place. This is a very suggestive approach. It implies two conditions: a set of ordered relations and a contravention of that order. … Dirt is the by-product of a systematic ordering and classification of matter, in so far as ordering involves rejecting inappropriate elements (Douglas 48). Like the fear of deviance generally, fear of pollution by ‘dirty’ things is strongly emotive because of its threat to the larger moral order. In the same way that moral panics, scapegoating, and witch hunts occur where there is a threat to the collectivity’s boundaries, clean-ups are in order where there is a perceived social crisis which threatens social classification and order. They serve as purges, drawing attention to the violated moral order, and to the State’s ability to secure it. Cleaning rituals function symbolically to reaffirm the social order. Thus, an insistence on continence is symbolic of something deeper than a fear of infection from leaking urine and faeces. Douglas suggests that issues of dirt and cleanliness in relation to the human body are actually about wider social concerns. The body is a tabula rasa on which the concerns of society are writ small. The biological body is a symbol of the social body. Elias argued bodily control and social control are linked – for example we are careful to control publicly bodily functions such as farting, belching and yawning. Now if bodies serve as symbols of society, then concern over group boundaries will be expressed symbolically as concerns over bodily boundaries. Bodily orifices, those entrances and exits which define the boundaries of the body most obviously, become sites of some significance, and those dirty things which traverse these openings/closings challenge and destabilize the system of categorization which society holds sacrosanct. But why, one might ask, the recent concern over bodily boundaries? Continents and Border Protection On the ABC’s 7.30 Report (20 June 2002) anchor Kerry O’Brien introduced a story about ‘the migrant problem’ in the Netherlands with a comment about the Dutch desire to control the ‘flooding’ in of refugees through their ‘weakening borders’ and noted the growing public concern to ‘seal their leaking border’. While such imagery obviously references the story of ‘the little Dutch boy and the dike’, it was directly relevant to Australian audiences because Australia was in the midst of its own ‘refugee crisis’ (see Saxton; Manne; Pickering; Gelber). The ‘Tampa crisis’, in September 2001, saw a Norwegian freighter, the Tampa, rescue 433 asylum seekers from their sinking boat which was headed for Australia. Australia denied the Tampa permission to enter its waters and ports, so it was left out to sea for days, while the Australian government negotiated a face saving solution to the problem. This was the ‘Pacific solution’ – whereby asylum seekers are moved to nearby Pacific nations to be ‘processed’ off shore, in exchange for monetary incentive to these struggling economies. Asylum seekers were demonized by the press and by politicians for threatening to throw themselves and their children overboard. Prime Minister John Howard suggested some were likely to be terrorists, and the then Minister of Immigration Philip Ruddock asked the rhetorical question: ‘Are these the sort of people we want as Australians?’ Discursive analyses of media coverage (news reports, opinion columns and letters to the editor) of the arrival of asylum seekers indicate that they were represented as illegal, illegitimate and threatening (Saxton), and constructed as deviant in a variety of ways, including being diseased (Pickering). The language used to describe the ‘threat’ is revealing: terms such as ‘swamped’, ‘awash’, ‘latest waves’, ‘more waves’, ‘tides’, ‘floods’ and ‘migratory flood’ (Pickering 172). Most importantly, a ‘national rights’ discourse emerged, asserting Australia’s authority over its physical and cultural space, and its right to ‘protect its territory and character’ (Saxton 111) from potentially polluting pariahs, the excrement of other nations, refugees. The net result of these activities was the putting in place of a series of emergency measures to ensure Australia’s borders were ‘protected’, including moving the legal definition of borders, rigorous enforcement of imprisonment in detention centres, providing a two thousand dollar incentive to return to their countries of origin, and increased sea and air surveillance. Recent moves by the government to make seeking asylum more difficult have continued this trend. Continents and Continence Now what do incontinence and the Tampa crisis have in common? Obviously both are attempts to contain filth, ensuring boundary maintenance of the individual and the national body. The desire of the Australian government to clarify Australia’s boundaries by reducing them to its mainland is indicative of a concern with keeping national boundaries precise and clear. The threat of breaches from outside spurs this attempt to ensure closure, but it is simultaneously evidence of the fear of violation. Australia’s attempts at boundary maintenance are forms of ‘pollution rituals’ designed to maintain the definition of Australia as the domain of white Anglo-Saxon Christians (Hage; Saxton; Pickering). Being racially, ethnically and religiously different, asylum seekers challenge cherished notions of what ‘we’ Australians are – they are matter-out-of-place, challenging the integrity of the nation. As Pickering notes: ‘Asylum seekers transgress many boundaries: physical, geographic, language, legal, national, social and political. In so doing they routinely disrupt established, although precarious, orders’ (Pickering 170). The ‘breach’ panic, and consequent attempts to fortify ‘fortress Australia’, function symbolically to reaffirm the social order and maintain the classification of in-group and out-group. Conclusion The parallels drawn between these two initiatives are not meant to assert a causal relationship, but rather a form of ‘elective affinity’ (Weber). Thus, my argument is rather more than a recognition of the ways in which body metaphors are used as ‘convenient way[s] for talking or thinking about the moral and political problems of society’ (Turner 1), but less than a suggestion that one is in a direct causal relationship to the other. If pollution behaviour is that which condemns objects or ideas which might confuse cherished classifications, then government attempts to keep national boundaries contained and bodies secure are both examples of pollution behaviours. The National Continence Management Strategy and the concerns about Australia’s border protection are both symbolic manifestations of the same concern over unsealed boundaries and boundary crossings. Both result from a barely contained hysteria manifest in a fear of things coming in, and things going out, and a frustrated recognition of the impossibility of keeping entries and exits secure. The National Continence Management strategy mirrors the macro concerns over boundary maintenance and security. The tightening up of movements of matter across bodies, and movements of people across nations, are signs of attempts to control identity. But from whence has this concern arisen? One possibility is the general destabilising of national identities resulting from the broad postmodern recognition of hybridity and fluidity in the construction and maintenance of identity. A specific example of this is the fact that while Australia has long been proud of its identity as a white nation of the Antipodes, at the same time it is developing an identity as multicultural. The traditional values of white society are being challenged and the resulting destabilization is threatening (Hage; Ang; Phillips). Postmodern constructions of identity as contextual, fuzzy, and open ended, destabilize identity as singular and unproblematic. Hall and du Gay, Bhabha, and others have noted the discomfort attendant on a version of identity which is hybrid and liminal, which challenges the notion that categories are clear cut and people are either ‘in’ or ‘out’. This discomfort results in the need to shore up individual and national identities through efforts to define and maintain boundaries and to contain them – in essence to re-establish and defend ‘fortress Australia’ by containing matter in its proper place, and excluding filth. References Bhabha, Homi, ed. Nation and Narration. London: Routledge, 1990. Douglas, Mary. Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966. Elias, Norbert. The Civilizing Process. Trans. E. Jephcott. Oxford: Blackwell, 1994. Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Trans A. Sheridan. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1979. Gelber, Katherine. “A Fair Queue? Australian Public Discourse on Refugees and Immigration.” Journal of Australian Studies 1 March 2003: 23-30. Goffman, Erving. Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1963. Hage, Ghassan. White Nation: Fantasies of White Supremacy in a Multicultural Society. Annendale NSW: Pluto Press, 1998. Hall, Stuart, and Paul du Gay, eds. Questions of Cultural Identity. London: Sage, 1996. Hepworth, Mike. Stories of Ageing. Buckingham: Open University Press, 2000. Manne, Robert, with David Corlett. “Sending them Home: Refugees and the New Politics of Indifference.” Quarterly Essay 13. Melbourne: Black, 2004. Murcott, Anne. “Purity and Pollution: Body Management and the Social Place of Infancy.” In Sue Scott and David Morgan, eds. Body Matters. London: The Falmer Press, 1993. Pickering, Sharon. “Common Sense and Original Deviancy: News Discourses and Asylum Seekers in Australia.” Journal of Refugee Studies 14.2 (2001):169-86. 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 Tilbury, F. (Nov. 2006) "Filth, Incontinence and Border Protection," M/C Journal, 9(5). Retrieved echo date('d M. Y'); ?> from <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0610/06-tilbury.php>.