Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Milling efficiency'

The master's thesis deals with the proposal of more effective production of a part. The theoretical part describes the technology of milling and drilling and the practical part focuses on the analysis of the current part production technology and the consumption of the machining time as assessment of the current machining process efficiency. The next part contains characteristics of the innovative technology, used tools and fixtures. In the conclusion both variants of production, the comparison of consumed machine time and production costs are evaluated.

Дисертація на здобуття наукового ступеня кандидата технічних наук за спеціальністю 05.05.11 – машини і засоби механізації сільськогосподарського виробництва. – Тернопільський національний технічний університет імені Івана Пулюя, м. Тернопіль, 2017.<br>Диссертация на соискание ученой степени кандидата технических наук по специальности 05.05.11 – машины и средства механизации сельского производства –Тернопольский национальный технический университет имени Ивана Пулюя. Тернополь 2017.<br>Thesis for a Candidate’s Degree in Technical Sciences, specialty 05.05.11 – Machinery and Means of Mechanization of Agricultural Production. – Ternopil Ivan Puliui National Technical University, Ternopil, 2017.<br>Дисертаційна робота присвячена проектуванню й виготовленню технологічного устаткування та інструментів машин, що подрібнюють і змішують корми для тваринництва. Для вирішення поставлених завдань проведено комплекс теоретичних та експериментальних досліджень процесів подрібнення й змішування кормів. Виведено аналітичні залежності для визначення силових, конструктивних і технологічних параметрів технологічного обладнання і оснащення. Досліджено вплив кількості обертів, коефіцієнта заповнення бункера та інших параметрів продуктивності та якості кормових сумішей. Визначено динамічні навантаження в елементах приводів подрібнювачів, розроблено програму розрахунку динамічних навантажень та відображення отриманих результатів у графічному та текстовому вигляді. Програма дає можливість визначити динамічні параметри системи під час пуску установки з навантаженням і без нього за різних режимів роботи.<br>Диссертационная работа посвящена проектированию и изготовлению технологического оборудования и инструментов для машин для измельчения и смешивания кормов. Для решения поставленных задач проведен комплекс теоретических и экспериментальных исследований процессов измельчения и смешивания кормов. Выведены аналитические зависимости для определения силовых, конструктивных и технологических параметров технологического оборудования и оснастки для изготовления кормов. Проведено исследование определения влияния количества оборотов, коэффициента заполнения бункера и других параметров на производительность и качество кормовых смесей. Определены динамические нагрузки в элементах приводов измельчителей. С помощью программы на языке Pascal в среде Delphi разработано программа расчета динамических нагрузок и отображения полученных результатов в графическом и текстовом виде. Программа дает возможность определить динамические параметры системы в различных режимах работы при пуске установки с нагрузкой и без нее для различных режимов работы. Получены математические соотношения, описывающие законы изменения определяющих параметров динамического процесса в зависимости от физико-механических, кинематических, геометрических параметров, внешних и внутренних факторов. Для обеспечения эффективной производительности процесса измельчения корнеплода, установлено линейную зависимость от ширины бункера B, скорости V и угла раствора бункера.<br>Thesis research is concerned with designing and making processing equipment and instruments for machines that mill and mix fodder for livestock. In order to solve the set tasks we have conducted a complex of theoretical and experimental investigations of the processes of milling and mixing fodder. Analytic dependencies for the determination of power, design and process parameters of processing equipment and tooling have been developed. Investigation of the influence of a number of revolutions, filling coefficient of a hopper and other parameters on the efficiency and on the quality of feed mix has been conducted. Dynamic loads on the elements of milling machines have been determined, with the help of Pascal program using Delphi technique a dynamic load screening program has been developed with further graphical and text representation of the obtained results. The program enables determining dynamic parameters of the system at its start both with load and without load under various operating conditions.

The full abstract for this thesis is available in the body of the thesis, and will be available when the embargo expires.<br>Applied Science, Faculty of<br>Mechanical Engineering, Department of<br>Graduate

A new method is presented to generate ball-end milling tool paths for the efficient three-axis machining of sculptured surfaces. The fundamental principle of the presented method is to generate the tool paths according to a preferred feed direction (PFD) field derived from the surface to be machined. In this work, the PFD at any point on the surface is the feed direction that maximizes the machining strip width. Theoretically, tool paths that always follow the direction of maximum machining strip width at each cutter contact point on the surface would maximize material removal, which leads to the shortest overall tool path length. Scallops are generated when a surface is machined using three-axis ball-end mills. There is no redundant machining if the scallop height is always maximized and the neighboring machining strips do not overlap. Unfortunately, these overlaps commonly exist for tool paths always following the preferred directions. Such redundant machining can be reduced via iso-scallop tool paths. Nonetheless, iso-scallop tool paths do not in general follow the preferred feed directions. To attain maximum machining efficiency via generating the shortest overall tool path length, the presented method analyzes the PFD field of the surface and segments the surface into distinct regions with similar PFD's by identifying the degenerate points and generating their separatrices. The tool paths of each region are generated by the iso-scallop method to mitigate redundant machining. Since a sequential approach is employed to generate the iso-scallop tool paths, an initial tool path is selected in such a way that the growing deviations of the subsequent tool paths from the PFD's are not significant. The proposed method has been validated with numerous case studies, showing that the generated tool paths have a shorter overall length compared with those generated by the existing methods.

Ковальчук, Є. С. Проект легкового автомобіля /комплексний проект/ з розрахунком рульового керування та розробкою технологічного процесу відновлення маточини переднього колеса : випускна кваліфікаційна робота : 274 «Автомобільний транспорт» / Є. С. Ковальчук ; керівник роботи Я. В. Кужельний ; НУ "Чернігівська політехніка", кафедра автомобільного транспорту та галузевого машинобудування. – Чернігів, 2021. – 155 с.<br>При виконанні магістерської роботи, визначили масові показники й параметри автомобіля, провели розрахунок двигуна автомобіля, розрахували показники динамічності автомобіля, його гальмівні властивості та паливну економічність. У спеціальній частині магістерської роботи було проведено аналіз системи рулового керування та розрахунок елементів рулового керування. Розроблено технологічний процес відновлення маточини автомобіля, який включає в себе такі моменти як: характеристика деталі, вибір способів відновлення, розрахунок припусків, режимів обробки та розрахунок норм часу.<br>During the master's thesis, the mass indicators and parameters of the car were determined, the car engine was calculated, the car dynamics indicators, its braking properties and fuel economy were calculated. In the special part of the master's work the analysis of the steering system and the calculation of the steering elements were carried out. The technological process of car hub restoration has been developed, which includes such moments as: characteristic of the part, choice of restoration methods, calculation of allowances, processing modes and calculation of time norms. Such programs as: ”Paint”, “Compass 3D” and “Mathcad” were used to perform calculations and graphical part.

Клишевський, Є. В. Проєкт вантажного бортового автомобіля з дослідженням технологічного процесу відновлення чашки диференціала і балансиру задньої підвіски /комплексний проект/ : випускна кваліфікаційна робота : 274 "Автомобільний транспорт" / Є. В. Клишевський ; керівник роботи В. В. Кальченко ; НУ "Чернігівська політехніка", кафедра автомобільного транспорту та галузевого машинобудування. – Чернігів, 2021. – 143 с.<br>Дана пердставлена робота магістерська була виконана в повному обсязі й оформлена зі всіма параметрами та вихідними даними. Всі робота це розрахунок та описання автомобіля МАЗ 6303 його параметрів для розрахунку. Булу виконано загальний розрахунок всього автомобіля, його коробки перемикання передач, двигуна та навантаження на двигун. Розраховані динамічні параметрита паливна економічність машини, також гальмівні та рухові властивості та шлях гальмування. У конструкторській частині було розраховано всію підвіску автомобіля, його параметри та інші елементи. Також досліджено процес відновлення балансиру задньої підвіски автомобіля МАЗ 6303.Після чого було складено звіт та оформлено магістерську роботу. Для виконання розрахунків та графічної частини використовувались такі спеціальні програми як: “МS Office”, “Mathcad”, “Компас 3D.<br>This presented master's thesis was completed in full and designed with all the parameters and initial data. All work is the calculation and description of the car MAZ 6303 its parameters for calculation. The general calculation of the whole car, its gearbox, engine and engine load was performed. Calculated dynamic parameters of fuel efficiency of the machine, as well as braking and driving properties and braking distance. In the design part, the whole suspension of the car, its parameters and other elements were calculated. The process of restoring the balancer of the rear suspension of the MAZ 6303 car was also studied. After that, a report was prepared and a master's thesis was drawn up. Special programs such as “MS Office”, “Mathcad”, “Compass 3D” were used to perform calculations and graphics.

Avec la mondialisation des marchés, les fabricants n'ont d'autre choix que de modifier leur façon de concevoir et d'innover. Un besoin croissant d'outils flexibles et prédictifs se fait clairement sentir afin de non seulement réduire les étapes de développement et d'optimisation mais aussi de limiter les campagnes de validation expérimentales lourdes et d'aider à la prise de décision. La simulation numérique apparaît comme un outil pertinent répondant à ces critères et capable de relever ce défi. Le fraisage est l'une des opérations d'usinage les plus utilisées dans l'industrie. Elle permet de traiter des pièces de formes complexes pour de nombreux secteurs industriels clés. Bien que considéré comme un processus connu, le fraisage n'est pas encore totalement maîtrisé, notamment en ce qui concerne les matériaux difficiles à usiner et les problèmes de durée de vie des outils. Par conséquent, être capable de prédire la durée de vie de l'outil et les conditions de coupe optimales pour toute combinaison de système d'outil de coupe et de matériau de travail est clairement une question de recherche d'actualité.Ce travail a proposé de mettre en place une stratégie innovante pour prédire efficacement l'usure de l'outil dans le fraisage frontal de l'acier inoxydable martensitique 15-5PH. Après une campagne expérimentale extensive visant à mieux comprendre l'usinabilité de cet acier en fraisage, l'objectif principal était de construire une méthodologie capable de traiter des géométries 3D et des trajectoires d'outils complexes dans un temps de calcul industriellement acceptable. Une nouvelle approche numérique 3D a été développée, basée sur la discrétisation du bord de coupe de l'outil en sections élémentaires 2D. Un modèle de coupe par éléments finis ALE 2D a été utilisé pour calculer en parallèle la pression de contact locale, la vitesse de glissement et la température le long de chaque section. Une équation d'usure élémentaire a été appliquée pour calculer le taux d'usure local après un incrément de temps donné et simuler tous les profils d'usure 2D. Ces derniers ont été fusionnés pour générer la géométrie 3D actualisée de l'outil usé, tandis qu'une procédure itérative a été menée pour simuler l'évolution de la géométrie de l'outil de coupe pendant une longue période de coupe. Des données d'entrée tribologiques cohérentes ont dû être mises en oeuvre pour obtenir une simulation d'usure robuste. Des tests expérimentaux ont été réalisés sur un tribomètre ouvert afin d'identifier les équations de friction et d'usure correspondantes.Enfin, la comparaison entre les observations expérimentales et les résultats numériques en fraisage a révélé une bonne corrélation en termes de longueurs de contact, d'épaisseur de copeaux et des efforts de coupe. Plusieurs équations d'usure ont été appliquées montrant le potentiel de cette méthodologie 3D mais confirmant également le besoin d'une meilleure caractérisation de l'interaction tribologique outil-matériau<br>With the globalization of markets, manufacturers have no choice but to modify their way of designing and innovating. A growing need for flexible and predictive tools is clearly rising in order not only to reduce the development and optimization steps but also to limit extensive experimental validation campaigns and support decision making. The numerical simulation appears as a relevant tool meeting these criteria and able to take up this challenge. Milling is one of the most widely used machining operations in the industry. It enables to process complex shaped parts for many key industrial sectors. Although considered as a known process, milling is still not fully under control, especially when difficult-to-cut materials and tool life issues are concerned. Therefore, being able to predict tool life and the optimal cutting conditions for any combination of cutting tool system and workmaterial is clearly an up-to-date research issue.This work proposed to set up an innovative strategy to efficiently predict tool wear in face milling of 15-5PH martensitic stainless steel. After an extensive experimental campaign directed towards a deeper understanding of its machinability in milling, the main objective was to build a methodology able to deal with complex 3D geometries and tool paths in an industrially acceptable computing time. A new 3D numerical approach was developed based on the discretization of the tool cutting edge in 2D elementary sections. A 2D ALE finite element cutting model was employed to compute in parallel the local contact pressure, sliding velocity and temperature along each section. An elementary wear equation was applied to compute the local wear rate after a given time increment and simulate all the 2D worn profiles. The latter were merged to generate the updated 3D geometry of the worn tool, while an iterative procedure was conducted to simulate the evolution of cutting tool geometry during a long cutting period. As consistent tribological input data had to be implemented to achieve a robust wear simulation. Experimental tests were performed on an open tribometer to identify the corresponding friction and wear equations.Finally, comparison between experimental observations and numerical results in milling revealed a good correlation in terms of contact lengths, chip thickness and cutting forces. Several wear equations were applied showing the potential of this 3D methodology but also confirming the need of a better characterization of the tool material tribological interaction

Шалигін, В. А. Проєкт легкового автомобіля /комплексний проєкт/ з розрахунком коробки перемикання передач та розробкою технологічного процесу відновлення веденого вала : випускна кваліфікаційна робота : 274 «Автомобільний транспорт» / В. А. Шалигін ; керівник роботи Я. В. Кужельинй ; НУ "Чернігівська політехніка", кафедра автомобільного транспорту та галузевого машинобудування. – Чернігів, 2021. – 145 с.<br>При виконанні кваліфікаційної роботи магістра, визначили масові показники й параметри автомобіля, провели розрахунок двигуна автомобіля, розрахували показники динамічності автомобіля, його гальмівні властивості та паливну економічність. У спеціальній частині магістерської роботи було розглянуто види коробок перемикання передач, та виконали розрахунок коробки перемикання передач автомобіля який проектується. Виконано відновлення веденого валу коробки перемикання передач, який складається з: характеристики деталі, вибіру способів відновлення деталі, розрахунок припусків на обробку й режимів обробки та розрахунок норм часу на кожну стадію обробки. Також кожен з розділів має креслення, в загальній кількості 12 аркушів формату А1 на всю магістерську роботу. Для виконання розрахунків та графічної частини використовувались такі програми як: “Mathcad”,“Компас 3D”.<br>During the qualification work of the master, determined the mass indicators and parameters of the car, calculated the car engine, calculated the dynamics of the car, its braking properties and fuel economy. In a special part of the master's thesis, the types of gearboxes were considered, and the calculation of the gearbox of the car being designed was performed. The transmission of the driven shaft of the gearbox, which consists of: characteristics of the part, the choice of methods for restoring the part, the calculation of allowances for processing and processing modes and the calculation of time norms for each stage of processing. Also, each of the sections has a drawing, a total of 12 sheets of A1 for the entire master's thesis. Programs such as “Mathcad”, “Compass 3D” were used to perform calculations and graphical part.

Юрченко, М. М. Дослідження процесу зносу деталей системи колінчастого вала та його впливу на ресурс та надійність автомобіля /комплексний проєкт/ : випускна кваліфікаційна робота : 274 «Автомобільний транспорт» / М. М. Юрченко ; керівник роботи В. І. Кальченко ; НУ "Чернігівська політехніка", кафедра автомобільного транспорту та галузевого машинобудування. – Чернігів, 2021. – 169 с.<br>Предметом магістерської роботи є розрахунок конструкції автомобіля. Об’єктом дослідження магістерської роботи є збільшення ресурсу та швидкості роботи колінчастого вала за допомогою нових конструкторських розробок та технологій їх виготовлення. Метою роботи є дослідження та аналіз методів та систем змащення колінчастого вала двигуна внутрішнього згоряння. При виконанні магістерської роботи визначили масові показники та параметри автомобіля, розрахували двигун автомобіля, розрахували динаміку автомобіля, його економію палива. В особливій частині магістерської роботи було проведено розрахунок та модернізацію гідропневматичного приводу механізму зчеплення. Вивчено типи систем змащення колінчастого валу, їх типи та основні компоненти систем. Для обчислень та графічної частини використовувались такі програми, як “Compass 3D” та “Mathcad”.<br>The subject of the master's thesis is the calculation of the car design. The object of research of the master's work is to increase the resource and speed of the crankshaft system with new design developments and technologies for their manufacture. The purpose of the work is to investigate and analyze the methods and systems of lubrication of the crankshaft of an internal combustion engine. When performing the master's thesis, determined the mass indicators and parameters of the car, calculated the car engine, calculated the dynamics of the car, its fuel economy. In a special part of the master's thesis, the calculation and modernization of the hydropneumatic drive of the clutch mechanism was carried out. The types of crankshaft lubrication systems, their types and main components of the systems were studied. Such programs as “Compass 3D” and “Mathcad” were used to perform calculations and graphical part.

How can local governments in the absence of national regulations or incentive schemesmotivate private owners of post-war mass-housing for investments into ambitious retrofittingfor energy efficiency? The million-program houses’ lifecycle currently makes renovationsnecessary and this would be an excellent opportunity to realize an upgrading of their energyefficiencystatus. Private owners do however show no inclination to do so. An intertwinedarray of barriers towards energy-efficient renovation is explored in this study, while it seeks tofind out which new drivers are needed to overcome these barriers and create an intrinsicmotivation for the owners to undertake the anticipated investments. In an exploratory casestudy, these points are investigated in the context of the exemplifying case of the Bygga omDialogen project in Malmö, Sweden.Bygga om Dialogen, is reframing the situation of investments into energy-efficiency in abroader socio-economic context and thrives to create new drivers pushing the owners toundertake the investments via the tools of strategic niche management and reflexivegovernance. This study explores how a strategic niche management and reflexive governancecan be used to motivate a variety of stakeholders to scrutinize and reconsider theirassumptions of the renovation-business-case and how this can stimulate the owners to activelycontribute to the establishment of a new, innovative, cross-sectoral approach seeking torealize energy-efficient investments in the context of holistic sustainable development in theneighborhood of Lindängen. Additionally it is explored how strategic niche management canbe used to deal with the contextual, strategic and institutional uncertainties that the establishednetwork is facing. Ideally the vision of mutually realizing energy-efficient renovations as partof an inclusive socio-economic upgrading of the neighborhood, could act as a building blockand exemplifying case for similar neighborhoods nationwide- or even all over Europe.

Ус, Д. О. Проєкт вантажного автомобіля /комплексний проєкт/ з розрахунком роздавальної коробки та розробкою технологічного процесу відновлення первинного вала : випускна кваліфікаційна робота : 274 «Автомобільний транспорт» / Д. О. Ус ; керівник роботи Я.В. Кужельний ; НУ "Чернігівська політехніка", кафедра автомобільного транспорту та галузевого машинобудування. – Чернігів, 2021. – 173 с.<br>При виконанні кваліфікаційної роботи магістра, визначили масові показники й параметри автомобіля, провели розрахунок двигуна автомобіля, розрахували показники динамічності автомобіля, його гальмівні властивості та паливну економічність. У спеціальній частині магістерської роботи було розглянуто види роздавальних коробок та виконали розрахунок роздавальної коробки автомобіля, який проектується. Розроблено технологічний процес відновлення первинного валу роздавальної коробки, який складається з наступних пунктів: характеристика деталі, вибіру способів відновлення деталі, розрахунок припусків на обробку й режимів обробки та розрахунок норм часу на кожну стадію обробки. Дипломна робота має креслення, в загальній кількості 12 штук формату А1 з графіками та схемами. Для виконання розрахунків та графічної частини використовувались такі програми як: “Mathcad”,“Компас 3D”.<br>During the qualification work of the master, determined the mass indicators and parameters of the car, calculated the engine of the car, calculated the dynamics of the car, its braking properties and fuel economy. In a special part of the master's thesis, the types of transfer cases were considered and the calculation of the transfer case of the car being designed was performed. Restoration of the primary shaft of the transfer case is made, which consists of the following points: characteristic of a detail, a choice of ways of restoration of a detail, calculation of allowances for processing and modes of processing and calculation of norms of time for each stage of processing. Thesis has drawings, a total of 12 pieces of A1 format with graphs and diagrams. Programs such as “Mathcad”, “Compass 3D” were used to perform calculations and graphical part.

Renovation of the existing buildings in Sweden represents a great potential to achieve the energy efficiency and carbon emission targets set by the European Union and the Swedish government. The Energy Performance Contracting (EPC) is regarded as an efficient way to manage and to outsource the risks of energy efficiency (EE) measures. The thesis aims to identify the theoretical framework of EPC in the Swedish scenario and, through a real case, develop a model that relates EE measures and its results considering the capital investment versus running costs of renovation projects. The work is based on the incorporation with the Morastrand AB. The research expects to assess EPC processes and measures as in Energy Service Companies (ESCO) and consequently help in the decision making and the management of the projects. The thesis is composed of two parts. The first part identifies the theoretical framework of energy contract models focusing on the EPC, while a case study with Morastrand AB is subsequently presented. It is suggested one approach for the preliminary comparison of different renovation measures in EE projects, corresponding to the first step of the planning phase of an EPC. General recommendations and sensitive factors were identified and can assist Morastrand AB to effectively implement EE projects in the future. For orienting investments, the Lifecycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) is a method to study solutions under economic aspects and further it can be extended to the complete Lifecycle Assessment of the upcoming projects. The theoretical framework of the EPC is composed by identifying the projects, performing the technical analysis, determinizing the potential in energy savings, deepening the analysis with auditions, tendering the project, designing and executing the project, commissioning, operating and supporting the systems with constant monitoring and maintenance. The biggest challenge for the EPC in Sweden is the relation between the ESCOs and their clients. The figure of the facilitator could improve the results and balance the knowledge gap between the parts. The actors of these projects are the ESCO, the client, the facilitator and the financing part. In Sweden, very frequently the client finances the operation. There are a few models of contracting, and the most popular are guaranteed savings and shared savings. The thesis performed the LCCA of three options for window replacement in a building at the end of its lifespan. The results show that the trends in prices and interest rates are sensitive factors. In this case, the projects with higher initial investments were more profitable. Those solutions can shield the company against energy prices escalates and contribute to the green policies.

Klimatförändringar i världen är ett faktum och för att hejda effekterna som utsläppen av växthusgaser orsakar måste samhället agera. Byggindustrin är en stor orsak till detta och det har lett till att energikrav upprättats med mål att minska klimatpåverkan. Flerbostadshusen som byggdes 1965-74, så kallade miljonprogramhus, är många och eftersom alla föråldrats i samma takt blir deras miljöbelastning stor.   Syftet med detta examensarbete är att undersöka hur fastighetsägare av miljonprogramhus kommer att agera på framtida renoveringar ur energisynpunkt. En förundersökning av relevant litteratur genomfördes för att få en ökad kunskap inom valt ämnesområde och lämpligt material till intervjuunderlaget.   Samtliga tillfrågade fastighetsägare arbetar med att energieffektivisera sitt bostadsbestånd och anser sig ha god ekonomi. Åtgärdsvalet baseras dock på huset skick och vilket avkastningskrav de arbetar efter. Fastighetsägarna ser sig uppnå målet om att minska sin energianvändning med 20 procent till år 2020 för sitt totala bostadsbestånd dock inte specifikt för deras miljonprogramhus. Detta beror på att fastighetsägarna har ett äldre bostadsbestånd som prioriteras först. För att nå visionen om en halvering av energianvändningen till år 2050 behöver majoriteten av fastighetsägarna utföra mer energieffektiviserande renoveringar.<br>Climate change in the world is a fact and to stop the effects that the greenhouse gas emissions causes requires the society to take action. The construction industry is a major cause of this and has led the government to establish energy requirements with the goal to reduce the carbon footprint. The large number of multi-apartment dwellings, the so called Million Homes Programme, built in 1965-74 causes severe environmental impact hence them aging at the same time.     The aim of this thesis is to, from an energy perspective, investigate how property owners of the Million Homes Programme will act on future renovations. A preliminary research of relevant literature was implemented to gain a better understanding in the chosen subject and appropriate material to perform the interviews.    All of the interviewed property owners are working on getting their houses more energy efficient and believe they have a good economy to carry through. However, the choice of action is based on the buildings condition and the required rate of return that the property owners are after. Further they are looking to achieve the goal of reducing their energy use by 20 percent by 2020 for their overall housing stock but not specifically for their Million Homes Programme. Great demands are made on the majority of the property owners to do more energy efficient renovations in order to reach the aim of a 50 percent energy use reduction by 2050.

Miljonprogrammet är namnet på det politiska projektet som pågick mellan åren 1965 och 1974 då riksdagen fattat ett beslut om att en miljon nya bostäder skulle byggas i Sverige, för att råda bot på bostadsbristen. Nu är det mer än 40 år sedan byggnaderna uppfördes och renoveringsbehovet är ett faktum, vilket gör ämnet aktuellt. Huvudsyftet med studien är att kartlägga de tre största städernas hantering av renoveringsbehovet. Huvudfrågan för studien är hur miljonprogrammets bostäder hanteras idag. Samtidigt har en rad andra frågor besvarats i studien; vilka skillnader som finns i lagarna då och nu, hur miljonprogramsområdena ser ut i de olika städerna och hur de behandlas i översiktsplanerna, vilka följder som uppstår av att husen behöver renoveras samt om det finns någon ekonomi i att renovera husen.Studien har genomförts med en kombination av kvalitativ och kvantitativ metod. En kvalitativ genomgång av skrivet material med anknytning till miljonprogrammet i de tre städerna har gjorts. Därutöver har också en kvantitativ enkätundersökning skickats ut till de tre kommunerna och dess kommunala bostadsbolag.Stockholm, Göteborg och Malmö har både likheter och skillnader gällande planering och visioner. Både Stockholm och Göteborg har valt att placera sina miljonprogramsområden utanför stadskärnan medan Malmös ligger i nära anslutning till centrum. De har alla visioner i sina översiktsplaner om att skapa en mer enhetlig och sammankopplad stad genom ökad integration och bättre kommunikationer mellan stadens olika delar.Det uppstod en renoveringsvåg under 80- och 90-talet i samband med ROT-avdraget och idag pågår flera projekt kring miljonprogrammet. Fasadrenovering är vanligt i alla tre städerna och även till viss del upprustning av balkonger och fönster. Göteborg har satsat mycket på energieffektiviserande åtgärder och i Stockholm har det blivit allt vanligare med energi-besparade ingrepp såsom tilläggsisolering.Lagstiftningen i Sverige har stor betydelse vid renoveringen då det idag finns krav på bl.a. energieffektivitet men även under renoveringsvågen på 80- och 90-talet då varsamhetskravet infördes i PBL 1987. Stommen i bostäderna är bra och de är funktionellt byggda vilket gör att renovering är mer kostnadseffektivt än att riva och bygga nytt. Problemet ligger alltså inte i renoveringsbehovet, då de flesta hus behöver renoveras efter så pass många år, utan antalet hus som behöver renoveras.<br>The million programme is a building era that took place between the years 1965 to 1974 when a politic decision was made to build a million new residences in Sweden, to correct the housing shortage. It´s now been more than 40 years since these residences were built and the need to renovate is a necessity, which makes this programme a very current subject. The purpose of this study is to map the three largest city´s handling of the need for renovation. The main question of this study is how the buildings of the million programme is being handled today. Meanwhile a series of other questions have been answered in this study; the difference between laws now and then, how the million programme areas looks in the different cities and how they are treated in the layout plans, what the need for renovation might lead to, and if there is any profit in restoring the buildings.It is a qualitative study as it is a situation in a few cities that are being studied, but through a survey this study gets a quantitative mixture as well. A survey was dispatched to the three municipalities and their communal real estate companies.Malmo, Gothenburg and Stockholm are both similar and different regarding planning and visions. Both Gothenburg and Stockholm placed their million programmes outside of the city´s core, whilst Malmo´s was located close to the centre of the city. They all have visions in their layout plans to create a more unified and connected city through increased integration and better communication between the city areas.There was a wave of renovation in the eighties and nineties because of the ROT-deduction and many projects concerning the million programme are still ongoing to this day. Facade renovation is common in all three cities and, to a certain degree, restoration of balconies and windows. Gothenburg has invested a lot in energy efficient measures and in Stockholm it has become increasingly more common with energy saving interventions like adding increased isolation. The image of the million programme´s constructions is "concrete ghettos", but the most common houses consists of three storeys with apartment size 3 rok.The Swedish legislation are of great importance during the renovation as there now are requirements on energy efficiency amongst other things, but also during the wave of renovation in the eighties and nineties when the demand of discretion was enforced in PBL 1987. The foundation in the million programme houses is satisfactory and they are functionally built which makes a renovation more cost-efficient than it would be to tear it down and build new buildings. The problem then does not reside in the need for renovation, as most houses needs restoration after so many years, but in the sheer number of buildings that would require a renovation.

I Sverige står bostads- och servicesektorn för cirka 40 % av landets totala energianvändning. Byggnader äldre än 30 år har ofta en god energibesparingspotential och energieffektivisering av dessa byggnader kan bidra till att uppnå energi- och miljömålen. Energibesparingarna har länge stått i fokus vid val av energieffektiviseringsåtgärd men på senare tid har växthusgaserna, främst CO2-utsläppen, fått ett ökat intresse vid ny- och ombyggnationer. En minskning av växthusgaser från bebyggelsen är en viktig åtgärd för att bidra till en minskad klimatpåverkan och för att klimatmålen ska uppnås, såsom Sveriges klimatmål om att senast år 2045 inte ha några nettoutsläpp av växthusgaser. Detta examensarbete har genomförts för det kommunägda och allmännyttiga bostadsföretaget Stockholmshem. Syftet var att undersöka vilka energiåtgärder som bör prioriteras i flerbostadshus från miljonprogrammet ur ett klimatperspektiv. Målet med arbetet är att det ska kunna användas som framtida beslutsunderlag vid energieffektivisering av flerbostadshus från miljonprogrammets tid. Arbetet utfördes på två flerbostadshus, Åkeshovsvägen och Axbyplan, som båda tillhör Stockholmshems fastighetsbestånd och är byggda under miljonprogrammet. Ett intresse fanns av att studera hur energiåtgärder påverkas av olika formfaktor, vilket gjorde att de valda flerbostadshusen ansågs lämpliga. Resultatet är tänkt att kunna appliceras på andra liknande flerbostadshus från denna tid, vilket gör att dessa byggnader ses som typbyggnader. I arbetet har energiberäkningar utförts där energiberäkningsprogrammet BV2 och nyckeltal har använts. Lönsamhetsberäkningar har genomförts med internräntemetoden, där kravet på kalkylräntan var 5 %. Klimatberäkningar utfördes för att undersöka hur många år det tar för olika energiåtgärder och åtgärdspaket att betala sig tillbaka klimatmässigt, vilket i rapporten benämns CO2-payback. Resultatet visade på högre energibesparingar för klimatskärmsåtgärder på Axbyplan, medan Åkeshovsvägen uppnådde högre energibesparing för ombyggnaden av ett F-system till ett FX-system. Detta beror främst på att byggnaderna besitter olika formfaktor och energiprestanda. En internränta på 5 till 8 % uppnåddes i de flesta fallen, vilket påvisar att energieffektivisering ofta kan vara lönsamt. I en känslighetsanalys där det undersöktes hur internräntan påverkas av energiprisutvecklingen, kan det konstateras att variationer i värme- och elpriset har en marginell påverkan på lönsamheten. Åtgärderna isolerruta och nytt fönster visade inte på någon större skillnad i energibesparing, däremot uppnådde isolerrutan bättre lönsamhet och kortare CO2-payback, vilket innebär att isolerrutan bör prioriteras före nytt fönster. Kombinationen av solceller och ett FX-system med 12 månaders drifttid påvisade bättre lönsamhet när värmepumparna kan drivas av solel och producera varmvatten sommartid, istället för enbart värmeproduktion 5 månader per år. Tillsammans med den energibesparing och CO2-payback som paketet Sol + FX uppnår, påvisar paketet att kombinationen av de två åtgärderna bör genomföras i de fall som byggnader har de rätta förutsättningarna. Med den klimatpåverkan som fjärrvärme- och elmixen har i dagsläget anses åtgärdernas och åtgärdspaketens CO2-payback vara relativt kort. Den är avsevärt kortare än deras tekniska livslängd, vilket innebär att de alla är klimatmässigt gynnsamma att genomföra. Fjärrvärme- och elmixen förväntas däremot att bli mer klimatneutrala. Det medför att åtgärdernas och åtgärdspaketens CO2-payback blir längre och att eventuellt flera av åtgärderna och åtgärdspaketen inte blir klimatmässigt gynnsamma. Åtgärderna värmeinjustering och styrning av värmesystem med temperaturgivare visade på en kort CO2-payback även med en klimatneutralare fjärrvärme, vilket innebär att de kommer vara klimatmässigt gynnsamma även i framtiden. Tillsammans med den energibesparing och lönsamhet som de två åtgärderna uppnår anses värmeinjustering och styrning vara bäst ur alla tre kategorier. Vilka åtgärder som är lämpligast att genomföra och som bör prioriteras beror däremot till stor del på varje byggnads förutsättningar. Det är viktigt att ta hänsyn till de specifika förutsättningarna i varje byggnad, då förutsättningarna har en påverkan på såväl energibesparing, lönsamhet som klimat. Genom det resultat som framkommit i arbetet kan en vägledning fås för vilka åtgärder och åtgärdspaket som är fördelaktiga att genomföra för olika typer av byggnadskonstruktioner.<br>In Sweden, the residential and service sector accounts for approximately 40 % of the country's total energy use. Buildings older than 30 years often have a good energy saving potential and by implementing energy efficiency measures to these buildings, the energy and environmental goals can easier be achieved. Energy savings have for a long time been in focus when selecting an energy efficiency measure, but more recently the greenhouse gases, mainly the CO2-emissions, have gained an increased interest in new constructions and reconstructions. A reduction of greenhouse gases from the buildings is an important measure to contribute to a reduced climate impact and to achieve the climate goals, such as Sweden's climate goal of not having any net greenhouse gas emissions by 2045. This master thesis has been carried out for the municipally owned and the public utility housing company Stockholmshem. The aim was to examine which energy measures that should be prioritized in apartment buildings from the Million Programme through a climate perspective. The objective is for it to be used as a future decision basis for energy efficiency improvement of apartment buildings from the Million Programme. The study was carried out on two apartment buildings, Åkeshovsvägen and Axbyplan, both of which are part of Stockholmshem's property portfolio and are built under the Million Programme. There was an interest in studying how the energy measures are affected by various form factors, which made the selected apartment buildings considered suitable. The result is intended to be applicable to other similar apartment buildings from this time, which makes these buildings seen as type buildings. Energy calculations have been performed in the study, where the energy calculation program BV2 and key figures have been used. Profitability calculations have been made using the internal rate method, where the required rate of return was 5 %. Climate calculations were carried out to investigate how many years it takes for different energy measures and package of measures to be paid back climate-wise, which in the report is called CO2-payback. The result showed higher energy savings for climate shell measures at Axbyplan, while Åkeshovsvägen achieved a higher energy saving for the conversion of a F-system to a FX-system. This is mainly due to the fact that the buildings have different form factor and energy performance. An internal rate of 5 to 8 % was achieved in most cases, which indicates that energy efficiency can often be profitable. In a sensitivity analysis that examined how the internal rate is affected by energy price trends, it can be found that variations in the heating and electricity prices have a marginal impact on the profitability. The insulating glass and the new window did not show any significant difference in energy savings. However, the insulating glass achieved better profitability and shorter CO2-payback, which means that the insulating glass should be prioritized before a new window. The combination of solar panels and an FX-system with 12 months operation time showed better profitability when the heat pumps can be powered by solar power and produce hot water during summertime, than only heat production 5 months per year. Along with the energy saving and CO2-payback that the package achieves, the package demonstrates that the combination of the two measures should be implemented in cases where buildings have the right conditions. With the climate impact that the district heating mix and electricity mix currently has, the CO2-payback for the measures and package of measures is considered to be relatively short. It is significantly shorter than their technical life time, which means that they are all climate favourable to implement. The district heating mix and the electricity mix are though expected to become more climate neutral. This means that the CO2-payback for the measures and package of measures will become longer and that possibly several of the measures and package of measures will not be climate favourable. Adjustment of heating system and control of heating system with temperature sensors was two measures that showed on a short CO2-payback even with a more climate neutral district heating. Therefore, they will be climate favourable in the future. Along with the energy savings and profitability achieved by the two measures, heat adjustment and control with temperature sensor are considered to be the best in all three categories. Which measures that are most appropriate to implement and which should be prioritized depend largely on the conditions of each building, as the conditions have an impact on both energy saving, profitability and climate. Through the results that have emerged in the work, a guide can be obtained for which measures and package of measures are advantageous to implement for different types of building constructions.

Between year 1961 and 1975 were about one million homes produced, which today is called the million programme. These homes are now in a great need of renovation as they contain hazardous substances in the materials, unnecessarily high energy use and they are in critical technical condition. Purpose: of the degree project is to identify how we can become increasingly sustainable in ROT-projects within the million programme areas. The degree projects studies among other things how a renovation will be sustainable, materials and waste impact, about the million programme rebuilding needs and rebuilding needs of low-energy houses in the million programme. The method: The degree project is based on a literature study, a questionnaire study and an interview study. The literature study has been carried out to gain an increased knowledge of how a ROT-project works and facts about the million programme. The survey consisted of questions about what the environmental work looks like in various ROT-projects. Entrepreneurs working on ROT-projects, landlords who manage housing in the million programme and tenants who live in the million programmehave participated in the survey. An interview study has been conducted with various ROT-entrepreneurs and landlords to get an overview of how the work of the million programmehas looked environmentally. The result: The million programme leak large amounts of energy and heat. Older have shown that greenhouse gas emissions and energy use have increased, so the need for renovation is becoming more apparent. Sustainable renovation is needed to reduce the negative environmental impact of greenhouse gas emissions and energy gas. In a construction process does material production have a major impact on the environment. When it comes to material selection and waste management is an important aspect for the environment within a ROT-project. In order to be able to work in an environmentally friendly way, it is necessary to plan in detail about various factors when handling the use of materials. The various factors are inventory, waste sorting, ordering materials in the right dimension, choosing materials with regard to the environment and handling the materials well during the construction process. Conclusion: The million programme homes are energyintesive and require among other things trunk replacement, ventilation replacement, replacement of electrical installations, windows, balconies and facades. In order to renovate the million programme homes good knowledge is required about ay hazardous substances in the materials and what measures are required to make the homes more energy efficient.

The content of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is increasing resulting in climate change and efforts to stop the negative trend need to be intensified. The energy use in the Swedish residential and service sector constitutes 40 % of the total energy use of 378 TWh in the country. Nationally there is a target to reduce the energy use per heated area with 20 % to 2020 and 50 % to 2050. Energy renovation of buildings from the Million Programme is foreseen to be able to contribute to achieving the targets owing to the large building stock and energy efficiency potential. In the master thesis cost optimal energy renovation strategies are investigated for two multi-family buildings in Linkoping built during the Million Programme, one with an unheated attic and one with a heated attic. The thesis is carried out by using life-cycle cost optimisation (LCC-optimisation) by utilising the software OPERA-MILP, developed at Linkoping University. The aim of the thesis is to obtain the energy renovation strategy that is optimal from an LCC-perspective and to investigate the energy reduction and LCC. Optimal energy renovation strategies are also investigated for energy renovation to levels of the Energy Classes of the National Board of Housing, Building and Planning in Sweden and the stricter limits for nearly zero-energy buildings (NZEB) that will likely come into force in 2021. Greenhouse gas emissions and primary energy use are also investigated for the different cases with the purpose of putting energy renovation in relation to climate impact. Local environmental factors are used for district heating while electricity is assigned values based on the Nordic electricity mix and Nordic marginal electricity respectively. The current LCC and annual energy use is 2 945 kSEK and 133 MWh for the building with an unheated attic and 3 511 kSEK and 162 MWh for the building with a heated attic. The result shows that LCC can be reduced by approximately 70 kSEK and 90 kSEK respectively. The optimal solution constitutes of a window change from windows with U=3,0 W/m2°C to windows with U=1,5 W/m2°C and results in a reduction of the energy use by 13 % and 15 % respectively. LCC increases with 240 kSEK for the building with unheated attic and decreases with 18 kSEK for the other building when Energy Class D is reached. Energy Class C is attained through an increase in LCC by 300 – 590 kSEK and Energy Class B through an increase by 1610 – 1800 kSEK. It is not possible to reach Energy Class A or the future requirements for NZEB (55 kWh/m2Aheated) with the energy renovation measures that are implemented in OPERA-MILP. The largest energy reduction that can be attained is approximately 60 %. The most cost optimal insulation measure is additional insulation of the attic floor/pitched roof followed by additional insulation of the ground concrete slab. It was shown to be more cost efficient to change to windows with U=1,5 W/m2°C in combination with additional insulation compared to changing to windows with better energy performance. For greater energy savings additional insulation on the inside of the external wall is applied, while insulation on the outside of the external wall is never cost optimal. To reach Energy Class B installation of HRV is required which gives a large increase in cost. Less extensive energy renovation is needed to reach the energy classes for the building with heated attic compared to the building with unheated attic. The annual use of primary energy in the reference case is 22 MWh for the building with an unheated attic and 26 MWh for the building with a heated attic. The emissions of greenhouse gases are 18 tonnes CO2e and 22 tonnes CO2e per year respectively when the emission factor of the Nordic electricity mix is applied and 20 tonnes CO2e and 25 tonnes CO2e respectively when the Nordic marginal electricity is applied. The yearly primary energy use can be reduced with up to 7 MWh through energy renovation. When the energy renovation leads to an increase in electricity use the primary energy can however increase with up to 12 MWh. The yearly greenhouse gas emissions can be decreased with up to 14 tonnes CO2e. When Nordic marginal electricity is applied to estimate the emissions of greenhouse gases for an energy renovation strategy that leads to an increase in electricity use the result is less beneficial from a climate perspective compared to when Nordic electricity mix is applied.

Under tidsperioden 1965-1974 byggdes i Sverige omkring en miljon nya bostäder, även kallat för Miljonprogrammet. Idag utgörs närmare en tredjedel av det svenska bostadsbeståndet av bostäder från denna period och många byggnader börjar uppnå sin tekniska livslängd. Sverige har efter EU-direktiv tagit fram nationella mål om en effektivare energianvändning. För att snabbare nå dessa mål kan renovering och upprustning av miljonprogrammet kombineras med våningspåbyggnad.   Sverige står också inför växande bostadsbrist, likt under miljonprogrammet, samtidigt som samhället har begränsade ytor såväl i stadskärnor som i tätorter. Genom att rusta upp bostäder från miljonprogrammet i samband med en våningspåbyggnad kan nya bostäder skapas på ett resurseffektivt sätt och energiprestandan för den befintliga byggnaden förbättras.   I det här projektet har energiprestandan för ett tidstypiskt flerbostadshus utvärderats och därefter jämförts mot då flerbostadshuset utrustats med en våningspåbyggnad. Projektet tilldelades ett referenshus i Nacka som efter uppbyggnad och simulering i programvaran IDA ICE resulterade i en årlig energianvändning på 197,1 kWh/m2. En våningspåbyggnad lades till på referenshuset och visade efter simulering i programvaran IDA ICE en ny årlig energianvändning på bland annat 169,7 kWh/m2.   Efter projektet stod det klart att med en våningspåbyggnad kan energiprestanda för ett miljonprogramshus förbättras och i bästa fall kan en byggnad likt referenshuset gå från en energiklass G till E. Bostadsförtätning med hjälp av våningspåbyggnad är gynnsam ur många aspekter. Förutom att det sänker den totala byggnadens energianvändning skapar det också nya bostäder på ett resurseffektivt sätt. Samhället måste försöka skapa incitament för fastighetsägare till att renovera och hitta energieffektiva åtgärder för sina fastigheter. Ett sådant exempel skulle kunna vara tredimensionell fastighetsbildning vilket även är en alternativ form till att finansiera investeringar som exempelvis renoveringar.<br>During the years 1965-1974 around one million new housing were built in Sweden, this was also known as the “miljonprogrammet”. Today, nearly a third of the Swedish housing stock is from this particular period, and many buildings are reaching the end of their technical lifetime. After the new EU directives Sweden have decided on developing it's on national goals to achieve smart energy consumption. To speed up this development can the renovations of the existing "miljonprogrammet" executed in combination with storey extension.   Sweden is also facing growing housing shortage, much like during construction of the “miljonprogrammet” as well as limited areas both in urban and densely populated areas. By refurbishing buildings from the “miljonprogrammet” in conjunction with a storey extension, new housing can be built in a resource and energy efficient way. This should also improve the energy performance of the existing building.   In this project, the energy performance of an apartment building, typical from this time, was evaluated and then compared to a modified building with a storey extension. A reference house located in Nacka, Sweden was used to simulate the annual energy usage in the software IDA ICE. The simulation yielded an energy usage of 197.1 kWh/m2 for the reference building and 167.1 kWh/m2 for the building with a storey extension.   After the project it became clear that a storey extension on a building from the “miljonprogrammet” improved the existing building's energy consumption. At best, a building like the reference house can improve the energy classification from energy class G to E. Residential densification using storey extension is beneficial in many aspects. In addition to lowering the total energy consumption of the building it also creates new homes in a resource efficient manner. Society must seek to create enticements for property owners to renovate and execute energy efficient measures on their properties. One such example would be three-dimensional property formation which is also an alternative form of financing investment such as a renovation.<br><p>Denna studentuppsats, som inte är ett examensarbete, är genomförd i projektkursen 5EN040 under hösten 2015. Studentarbetet har bedrivits i sammarbete med Tyréns Umeå.</p><br>Uppsatsen ingår som ett kursmoment i projektkursen 5EN040 i energiteknik

O Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana (HIV) é o agente etiológico da Síndrome da Imunodeficiência Adquirida (AIDS). A AIDS é uma doença de distribuição mundial, e estima-se que existam atualmente pelo menos 36,9 milhões de pessoas infectadas com o vírus. Durante o seu ciclo replicativo, o HIV promove diversas alterações na fisiologia da célula hospedeira a fim de promover sua sobrevivência e potencializar a replicação. A rápida progressão da infecção pelo HIV-1 em humanos e em modelos animais está intimamente ligada à função da proteína acessória Nef. Dentre as diversas ações de Nef está a regulação negativa de proteínas importantes na resposta imunológica, como o receptor CD4. Sabe-se que esta ação resulta da indução da degradação de CD4 em lisossomos, mas os mecanismos moleculares envolvidos ainda são totalmente elucidados. Nef forma um complexo tripartite com a cauda citosólica de CD4 e a proteína adaptadora 2 (AP-2), em vesículas revestidas por clatrina nascentes, induzindo a internalização e degradação lisossomal de CD4. Pesquisas anteriores demonstraram que o direcionamento de CD4 aos lisossomos por Nef envolve a entrada do receptor na via dos corpos multivesiculares (MVBs), por um mecanismo atípico, pois, embora não necessite da ubiquitinação de carga, depende da ação de proteínas que compõem os ESCRTs (Endosomal Sorting Complexes Required for Transport) e da ação de Alix, uma proteína acessória da maquinaria ESCRT. Já foi reportado que Nef interage com subunidades dos complexos AP-1, AP-2, AP-3 e Nef não parece interagir com subunidades de AP-4 e AP-5. Entretanto, o papel da interação de Nef com AP-1 e AP-3 na regulação negativa de CD4 ainda não está totalmente elucidado. Ademais, AP-1, AP-2 e AP-3 são potencialmente heterogêneos devido à existência de isoformas múltiplas das subunidades codificadas por diferentes genes. Todavia, existem poucos estudos para demonstrar se as diferentes combinações de isoformas dos APs são formadas e se possuem propriedades funcionais distintas. O presente trabalho procurou identificar e caracterizar fatores celulares envolvidos na regulação do tráfego intracelular de proteínas no processo de regulação negativa de CD4 induzido por Nef. Mais especificamente, este estudo buscou caracterizar a participação do complexo AP-1 na modulação negativa de CD4 por Nef de HIV-1, através do estudo funcional das duas isoformas de ?-adaptina, subunidades de AP-1. Utilizando a técnica de Pull-down demonstramos que Nef é capaz de interagir com ?2. Além disso, nossos dados de Imunoblot indicaram que a proteína ?2-adaptina, e não ?1-adaptina, é necessária no processo de degradação lisossomal de CD4 por Nef e que esta participação é conservada para degradação de CD4 por Nef de diferentes cepas virais. Ademais, por citometria de fluxo, o silenciamento de ?2, e não de ?1, compromete a diminuição dos níveis de CD4 por Nef da membrana plasmática. A análise por imunofluorêsncia indireta também revelou que a diminuição dos níveis de ?2 impede a redistribuição de CD4 por Nef para regiões perinucleares, acarretando no acúmulo de CD4, retirados por Nef da membrana plasmática, em endossomos primários. A depleção de ?1A, outra subunidade de AP-1, acarretou na diminuição dos níveis celulares de ?2 e ?1, bem como, no comprometimento da eficiente degradação de CD4 por Nef. Além disso, foi possível observar que, ao perturbar a maquinaria ESCRT via super-expressão de HRS (uma subunidade do complexo ESCRT-0), ocorreu um acumulo de ?2 em endossomos dilatados contendo HRS-GFP, nos quais também detectou-se CD4 que foi internalizado por Nef. Em conjunto, os resultados indicam que ?2-adaptina é uma importante molécula para o direcionamento de CD4 por Nef para a via ESCRT/MVB, mostrando ser uma proteína relevante no sistema endo-lisossomal. Ademais, os resultados indicaram que as isoformas ?-adaptinas não só possuem funções distintas, mas também parecem compor complexos AP-1 com diferentes funções celulares, já que apenas a variante AP-1 contendo ?2, mas não ?1, participa da regulação negativa de CD4 por Nef. Estes estudos contribuem para o melhor entendimento dos mecanismos moleculares envolvidos na atividade de Nef, que poderão também ajudar na melhor compreensão da patogênese do HIV e da síndrome relacionada. Em adição, este trabalho contribui para o entendimento de processos fundamentais da regulação do tráfego de proteínas transmembrana no sistema endo-lisossomal.<br>The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is the etiologic agent of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). AIDS is a disease which has a global distribution, and it is estimated that there are currently at least 36.9 million people infected with the virus. During the replication cycle, HIV promotes several changes in the physiology of the host cell to promote their survival and enhance replication. The fast progression of HIV-1 in humans and animal models is closely linked to the function of an accessory protein Nef. Among several actions of Nef, one is the most important is the down-regulation of proteins from the immune response, such as the CD4 receptor. It is known that this action causes CD4 degradation in lysosome, but the molecular mechanisms are still incompletely understood. Nef forms a tripartite complex with the cytosolic tail of the CD4 and adapter protein 2 (AP-2) in clathrin-coated vesicles, inducing CD4 internalization and lysosome degradation. Previous research has demonstrated that CD4 target to lysosomes by Nef involves targeting of this receptor to multivesicular bodies (MVBs) pathway by an atypical mechanism because, although not need charging ubiquitination, depends on the proteins from ESCRTs (Endosomal Sorting Complexes Required for Transport) machinery and the action of Alix, an accessory protein ESCRT machinery. It has been reported that Nef interacts with subunits of AP- 1, AP-2, AP-3 complexes and Nef does not appear to interact with AP-4 and AP-5 subunits. However, the role of Nef interaction with AP-1 or AP-3 in CD4 down-regulation is poorly understood. Furthermore, AP-1, AP-2 and AP-3 are potentially heterogeneous due to the existence of multiple subunits isoforms encoded by different genes. However, there are few studies to demonstrate if the different combinations of APs isoforms are form and if they have distinct functional properties. This study aim to identify and characterize cellular factors involved on CD4 down-modulation induced by Nef from HIV-1. More specifically, this study aimed to characterize the involvement of AP-1 complex in the down-regulation of CD4 by Nef HIV-1 through the functional study of the two isoforms of ?-adaptins, AP-1 subunits. By pull-down technique, we showed that Nef is able to interact with ?2. In addition, our data from immunoblots indicated that ?2- adaptin, not ?1-adaptin, is required in Nef-mediated targeting of CD4 to lysosomes and the ?2 participation in this process is conserved by Nef from different viral strains. Furthermore, by flow cytometry assay, ?2 depletion, but not ?1 depletion, compromises the reduction of surface CD4 levels induced by Nef. Immunofluorescence microscopy analysis also revealed that ?2 depletion impairs the redistribution of CD4 by Nef to juxtanuclear region, resulting in CD4 accumulation in primary endosomes. Knockdown of ?1A, another subunit of AP-1, resulted in decreased cellular levels of ?1 and ?2 and, compromising the efficient CD4 degradation by Nef. Moreover, upon artificially stabilizing ESCRT-I in early endosomes, via overexpression of HRS, internalized CD4 accumulates in enlarged HRS-GFP positive endosomes, where co-localize with ?2. Together, the results indicate that ?2-adaptin is a molecule that is essential for CD4 targeting by Nef to ESCRT/MVB pathway, being an important protein in the endo-lysosomal system. Furthermore, the results indicate that ?-adaptins isoforms not only have different functions, but also seem to compose AP-1 complex with distinct cell functions, and only the AP-1 variant comprising ?2, but not ?1, acts in the CD4 down-regulation induced by Nef. These studies contribute to a better understanding on the molecular mechanisms involved in Nef activities, which may also help to improve the understanding of the HIV pathogenesis and the related syndrome. In addition, this work contributes with the understanding of primordial process regulation on intracellular trafficking of transmembrane proteins.

The volume of slurry in a rotary mill has a bearing on the presence of a pool of slurry and therefore on milling efficiency. Load behaviour was investigated at different volumes of slurry. The insight gained was then used to evaluate the implications of slurry pooling on milling. First, the effects of viscosity on mill charge behaviour were measured using photographic techniques applied to a Perspex mill. A model of the angular location of the free surface of the slurry pool, as affected by slurry filling was proposed. Next, a real ore was used and the load behaviour was measured using non-invasive sensors fitted to a pilot mill. At this point, the angular position of the pool and the net power draw were correlated to the volume of slurry for mill speeds ranging from 65 to 85 % of critical. An additional series of tests was carried out on a mill filled with grinding media only, for speeds spanning from approximately 24 to 110 % of critical. The aim here was to isolate and study the media charge. Lastly, a laboratory mill was used to run batch grinding tests on a Platinum ore for slurry fillings U between 1.0 and 3.0 and at 65 % solids content. Two ball fillings were considered for identical slurry volumes: J = 20 % and 30 %. Results showed that not only did the proposed pool model work well using an artificial slurry in the Perspex mill, but it also worked for the Platinum ore tested in the Wits pilot mill. The behaviour of the media charge was not substantially affected by slurry viscosity and slurry filling. The net power drawn by the ‘dry mill’ compared well with DEM prediction for non-centrifuging speeds. The effect of slurry pooling on net power draw, on the other hand, was best accounted for using a Torque-arm model and an empirical model developed to this end. As for milling kinetics, results suggested that the slurry pool should be avoided because milling efficiency deteriorated as a result. However, the production of fines was not largely altered.

碩士<br>國立彰化師範大學<br>電機工程學系<br>98<br>Abstract High speed technology is the trend of tool machine development, including high speed machining(HSM) and high speed feed (HSF), which are both high speed processing. The so called high speed processing is to combine the technology of HSM, HSF and low radial/axial cutting depth to reach the precision of only few µm. High speed machining and feed are important technologies to improve productivity efficiency by high speed spindle and offering. The thesis aims to research on effects of different cutting processes by high carbon S50C-type steel and middle carbon P5-type steel of disposable blade to compare different cutting and offering speed. The cutting characteristic under different cutting and offering speed is investigated to find out better cutting process condition. Different cutting forces, the wear of blade and the type of cutting are compared in the study. Besides, the efficiency and surface coarse roughness of the refinement piece under high speed cutting is examined. After experiment, it can be found that, by decreasing the force of the cutting blade, the surface brightness of the working piece can be improved, thus better cutting refinement can be obtained. Moreover, the cutting of middle carbon P5-type steel presents bad cutting strips, while the cutting of high carbon S50C-type steel presents better cutting conditions.

碩士<br>國立虎尾科技大學<br>機械與電腦輔助工程系碩士班<br>104<br>Due to the prosperity of 3C technology, milling cutters, drills or reamers of the machine tools are essential to manufacturing industry in recent years. More and more people pay attention to the appearance, color and weight of 3C products, instead of the functions. Therefore, there are a variety of materials processed into smartphone shells and intelligent products, such as the engineering plastic, titanium, or aluminum. This study emphasizes how to improve the tool life and the surface quality of the machining workpieces. The end mills used in the experiments are the single-blade cutter and the milling workpieces are the polycarbonate plus siloxane that is the polymerization of engineering plastics. This thesis divides into two parts. The first part is the analysis of tool geometry optimization and the second part is tool grinding efficiency optimization. Both of them used the experimental configuration Taguchi method which is L9 (34) and L32 (21 x49). The most important geometry of end mills in the first part is the rake angle and the relief angle. The goal of the experiment is to increase tool life and reduce the flash of workpieces. The analysis of variance and multiple characteristics analysis showed that the main factors affecting tool wear is the relief angle and affecting the flash is the rake angle. The factors in the second part are the most important parameter when milling cutting tools. They are the surface speed of a wheel, feed, and grain size. The main target of the second experiment is to reduce processing time of tool grinding and improve the quality of tools, such as the surface roughness of flank of end mills and the flatness of cutting edges. We found the principal parameter is the grain size of the fluting wheel by the variance and multiple characteristics analysis when we discussed the flatness of the cutting edges. The flute is the last part of the entire machining procedure, we could pick a better grain size of the fluting wheel and improve the feed of the others procedures. Experiments showed that one could obtain the better grinding quality, and spend the less time for the grinding procedures.

碩士<br>國立高雄第一科技大學<br>機械與自動化工程研究所<br>104<br>In the metal cutting process,if is necessary to add cutting fluid. But the impact of cutting fluid to the environment is very importamt issue. Thus, how to use the cutting fluids,researcher propose dry cutting,but it is not enough of efficiency and must find other method to replace it. Minimum Quantity Lubrication, (MQL) spray the oil to the range of cutting with high pressure air,and obtain the efficiency of lubrication. MQL is mainly for the research of milling aluminum alloy. Thus,if we can milling steel to do the research of MQL, to observe the effect of MQL on alloy steel and obtain the processing efficiency of MQL.In the past,the condition of MQL parameter is no basis in research. Thus, this study of minimal quantity lubrication AISI4140 alloy application. The research target of this paper the research target of this paper is end milling AISI4140 alloy steel with MQL. In the milling process, discussing the lubrication efficiency of MQL with experimental data,specific cutting energy and surface roughness. Observing the change of specific cutting energy and surface roughness with different the viscosity of cutting oil and parameter condition of MQL, and obtain the better quality of surface.It is Efficient to know the effect of process and provide reference information for user. According to the result of experiment, it can obtain the better quality of surface when using lower depth, lower air pressure and lower the amount of oil, it is the same result for using higher depth, lower air pressure and higher the amount of oil, when using high viscosity cutting oil,it is can obtain the fine quality of surface, but it is opposite result for using low viscosity cutting oil and high air pressure, In addition, it is compared with traditional wet cutting, using MQL can obtain the better quality of surface than traditional wet cutting. Thus, experimental proof for MQL can replace of the traditional wet cutting.

碩士<br>南開科技大學<br>車輛與機電產業研究所<br>102<br>This dissertation proposed an integration methodology in which traditional industry processing machine integrates automated technigue to promote the efficiency of automation production. Generally, traditional industry processing machine can be broadly divided into the lathe machine, milling machine, planer, grinder, drill press etc. Efficient production emphasizes the characteristic of faster and higher accuracy. Robot arm can achieve the heed under rigorous condition. The ABB robot fits the need of high-efficiency automation. In this research, the analyses of robot hardware and software applications, signal connection and machine communication of mechatronics systems are illustrated. The unmanned process will be an exploring issue in the future.

碩士<br>淡江大學<br>水資源及環境工程學系碩士班<br>99<br>Municipal solid waste incinerator (MSWI) fly ash with high alkalinity, high chloride and heavy metals problems. The chlorine and heavy metal will form easily dissolved salts in fly ash. In this study, the water extraction procedure as a pre-treatment to remove plenty of chlorine salts. Then stability of heavy metals with wet ball milling technology. The study is to investigate heavy metal stabilization efficiency and mechanism during the wet ball milling for MSWI fly ash. And adding a known concentration of lead fluid in experimental. Observed the lead by mechano-chemical of change. According to the results of water-extracted fly ash leaching of heavy metals, the lead of the leached concentration was 9.76 mg/L. It was higher than with the USEPA regulatory limit of 5mg/L. Therefore, the future tendency is to discuss Pb stabilization by milling. According to the experimental results, stabilizing effect of lead using the mixing ratio of milling media 1:1(diameter of milling media is 1 and 5 mm respectively) is better than a single small diameter 1mm milling media. However, the mutual milling of the water-extracted fly ash and concentration 10g/L、40g/L lead fluid was 8 hours and then extractable lead by TCLP. The results show that 93%、82% of lead stabilization efficiency respectively. The water-extracted fly ash and concentration 40g/L lead fluid milled 0-20 hours. The results by XRD analysis showed with the long milled of the lead crystalline particles were hardly to identify. The observation of SEM indicates that milled fly ash to from solid solution which led the lead into fly ash to result in stabilization. According to mathematical projections, mechano-chemical treatment can increase 37-40% stabilization efficiency of heavy metals. Chemical reaction to form a stable compound that only 12% stabilization efficiency of heavy metals. The lead to form a stable adsorption can increase 18% stabilization efficiency of heavy metals. Finally, the results by XRD analysis showed the lead milled 8 hours. The predominant species of lead was identified to be Pb7O6Cl2 into insoluble state PbO2. Confirmed that mechano-chemical treatment can effectively inhibited the elution of lead from fly ash.

Die Dissertation befasst sich grundlegend mit der Herausforderung der Trennung der Drehzahl der primären Antriebsquelle und der Drehzahl des Arbeitswerkzeugs. Nach einer Analyse der verfügbaren Technologien wird ein neues System entwickelt. Der Konzeptentwicklung schließt sich eine eingehende analytische Betrachtung an. Durch Simulationsrechnungen werden die Leistungsfähigkeit und Effizienz hervorgehoben. Mit Hilfe einer Nutzwertanalyse erfolgt schließlich eine Auswahl des finalen Systems, welches zum Abschluss in die Realisierung geht. Die Arbeit schließt mit ersten Ergebnissen des in Hardware aufgebauten Systems.

Miljonprogrammet syftar till bostadsbyggandet i Sverige mellan åren 1965 – 1974 där drygten miljon bostäder upprättades, varav majoriteten var flerbostadsfastigheter. Vid upprättandetav miljonprogrammets bostäder prövades nya arbetsmetoder och inga krav ställdes påenergiförbrukning. Idag är dessa flerbostadsfastigheter eftertraktade investeringsobjekt, mende är samtidigt i behov av teknisk upprustning. I samband med detta finns det forskare somhävdar att energieffektiviserande åtgärder bör utföras. Dock påpekar en del fastighetsbolag attde avstår från att utföra energieffektiviserande investeringar då det är svårt att göra dessalönsamma. För att utröna lönsamheten i en investering utförs investeringskalkyler, vilkavanligen utgör en del av ett beslutsunderlag. Energieffektiviserande investeringar innehållerdock osäkerheter vilket gör de svåra att beräkna på ett vis så att kalkylens utfall ligger nära detverkliga utfallet. Denna studie undersöker därför vilken roll investeringskalkylen har förbeslutsfattare vid investering i energieffektiviserande åtgärder av flerbostadsfastigheter frånmiljonprogrammet. För att undersöka detta fenomen har teori gällande investeringskalkylersanvändning som beslutsunderlag tagits fram. Teoretiskt har det även påvisats att andrafaktorer såsom erfarenhet, strategi och intuition påverkar investeringsbeslut, och då det finnsosäkerheter vid investeringsbeslutet kan dessa övriga faktorer användas mer eller mindre. Detbidrar till att investeringskalkylens roll vid beslut påverkas. Empiriskt har vi använt enkvalitativ metod där intervjuer har utförts med fyra fastighetsbolag. Telefonintervjuer ochpersonliga möten har tillämpats. Fastighetsbolagen har valts utifrån ett minimikrav gällandeden andel fastigheter från miljonprogrammet de besitter.I studien har det framkommit att investeringskalkyler alltid finns med som en del av ettbeslutsunderlag vid investering i energieffektiviserande åtgärder. På grund av osäkerheterbehöver kalkylerna dock kompletteras med övriga faktorer såsom erfarenhet, strategi ochkompetens. Dessa övriga faktorer möjliggör en mer precis kalkyl, men visar även påmervärdet av en investering. Teoretiskt har intuition påvisats vara relevant vidinvesteringsbeslut, emellertid har denna faktor inte framkommit som relevant i vår kontext.<br>Between the years 1965-1974 over a million residences were built in Sweden, this is referredto as the Million Programme. The majority of the buildings that were established during theMillion Programme were so called multidwelling units (MDUs). When establishing thebuildings of the Million Programme new construction methods were tested and there were norequirements regarding energy consumption. Today these MDUs are coveted investmentobjects, but they are still in need of refurbishment. Some researchers point out that energyefficient actions should be implemented in conjunction with this. However, some real estatecompanies argue they refrain from implementing energy efficient investments since they aredifficult to make profitable. Investment calculations are made to determine the profitability ofan investment, these calculations are usually used as a basis of a decision. Energy efficientinvestments, however, contains uncertainties and because of this they are hard to calculateclose to actual outcome. Therefore this study examines the role of the investment calculationfor decision makers while investing in energy efficiency in the Million Programmes MDUs.To examine this phenomenon theory regarding investment calculations as a basis for decisionmaking has been gathered. It has also been shown theoretically that other factors such asstrategy, experience and intuition affect decisions. When an investment contains uncertaintiesthese factors can be used more or less. This affect the investment calculations role in thedecision. Empirically we have been using a qualitative approach. Interviews by telephone andpersonal meetings have been made with four real estate companies. The real estate companiesthat have been examined possess a certain proportion of MDUs from the Million Programmein their property portfolio.The study has shown that the investment calculation always is a part of a decision regardinginvestments in energy efficiency. Due to uncertainties investment calculations however needto be supplemented with other factors such as experience, strategy and competence. Theseother factors enables an investment calculation that is more precise estimated, but they canalso show the added value an investment in energy efficiency may result in. Theoreticallyintuition has been proved to be relevant in investment decisions, however this factor has notbeen emerged as relevant in our empirical context.