Academic literature on the topic 'Mines and mineral resources. Mines and mineral resources Nickel mines and mining Cobalt mines and mining'

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Journal articles on the topic "Mines and mineral resources. Mines and mineral resources Nickel mines and mining Cobalt mines and mining"

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Proenza, Joaquín A., Lisard Torró, and Carl E. Nelson. "Mineral deposits of Latin America and the Caribbean. Preface." Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana 72, no. 3 (November 28, 2020): A250820. http://dx.doi.org/10.18268/bsgm2020v72n3a250820.

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The region that encompasses Latin America and the Caribbean is a preferential destination for mining and mineral exploration, according to the Mineral Commodity Summaries 2020 of the US Geological Survey (https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/). The region contains important resources of copper, gold, silver, nickel, cobalt, iron, niobium, aluminum, zinc, lead, tin, lithium, chromium, and other metals. For example, Chile is the world’s largest copper producer and the second largest lithium producer. Brazil is the world’s leading niobium producer, the second largest producer of iron ore, and the third-ranked producer of tantalum. Cuba contains some of the largest reserves of nickel and cobalt in the world, associated with lateritic Ni-Co deposits. Mexico is traditionally the largest silver producer and contains the two largest mines in this commodity and, along with Peru, Chile, Bolivia and Argentina, accounts for more than half of the total amount of global silver production. The region also hosts several world-class gold mines (e.g., Pueblo Viejo in the Dominican Republic, Paracotu in Brazil, Veladero in Argentina, and Yanacocha in Peru). Also, Bolivia and Brazil are among the world’s leading producers of tin. The region hosts a variety of deposit types, among which the most outstanding are porphyry copper and epithermal precious metal, bauxite and lateritic nickel, lateritic iron ore from banded iron-formation, iron-oxide-copper-gold (IOCG), sulfide skarn, volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS), Mississippi Valley type (MVT), primary and weathering-related Nb-bearing minerals associated with alkaline–carbonatite complexes, tin–antimony polymetallic veins, and ophiolitic chromite. This special issue on Mineral Deposits of Latin America and the Caribbean in the Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana contains nineteen papers. Contributions describe mineral deposits from Mexico, Panama, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Chile, and Argentina. This volume of papers covers four mineral systems (mafic-ultramafic orthomagmatic mineral systems, porphyry-skarn-epithermal mineral systems, iron oxide copper-gold mineral systems, and surficial mineral systems). This special issue also includes papers on industrial minerals, techniques for ore discovery (predictive modelling of mineral exploration using GIS), regional metallogeny and mining history.
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Proenza, Joaquín A., Lisard Torró, and Carl E. Nelson. "Mineral deposits of Latin America and the Caribbean. Preface." Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana 72, no. 3 (November 28, 2020): P250820. http://dx.doi.org/10.18268/bsgm2020v72n3p250820.

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The region that encompasses Latin America and the Caribbean is a preferential destination for mining and mineral exploration, according to the Mineral Commodity Summaries 2020 of the US Geological Survey (https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/). The region contains important resources of copper, gold, silver, nickel, cobalt, iron, niobium, aluminum, zinc, lead, tin, lithium, chromium, and other metals. For example, Chile is the world’s largest copper producer and the second largest lithium producer. Brazil is the world’s leading niobium producer, the second largest producer of iron ore, and the third-ranked producer of tantalum. Cuba contains some of the largest reserves of nickel and cobalt in the world, associated with lateritic Ni-Co deposits. Mexico is traditionally the largest silver producer and contains the two largest mines in this commodity and, along with Peru, Chile, Bolivia and Argentina, accounts for more than half of the total amount of global silver production. The region also hosts several world-class gold mines (e.g., Pueblo Viejo in the Dominican Republic, Paracotu in Brazil, Veladero in Argentina, and Yanacocha in Peru). Also, Bolivia and Brazil are among the world’s leading producers of tin. The region hosts a variety of deposit types, among which the most outstanding are porphyry copper and epithermal precious metal, bauxite and lateritic nickel, lateritic iron ore from banded iron-formation, iron-oxide-copper-gold (IOCG), sulfide skarn, volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS), Mississippi Valley type (MVT), primary and weathering-related Nb-bearing minerals associated with alkaline–carbonatite complexes, tin–antimony polymetallic veins, and ophiolitic chromite. This special issue on Mineral Deposits of Latin America and the Caribbean in the Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana contains nineteen papers. Contributions describe mineral deposits from Mexico, Panama, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Chile, and Argentina. This volume of papers covers four mineral systems (mafic-ultramafic orthomagmatic mineral systems, porphyry-skarn-epithermal mineral systems, iron oxide copper-gold mineral systems, and surficial mineral systems). This special issue also includes papers on industrial minerals, techniques for ore discovery (predictive modelling of mineral exploration using GIS), regional metallogeny and mining history.
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Wang, Wei Zhi, and Chun Guang Yang. "Comprehensive Utilization and Resources of Gold Mining Tailings." Key Engineering Materials 480-481 (June 2011): 1438–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.480-481.1438.

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The gold mine discharges tailings massively every day,which results in gold and useful metal draining,simultaneously brings the enormous harm to the environment The approach to comprehensive utilization of tailings of gold mines, including recycle of usable mineral and direct use of ore tailings,is analyzed in the paper, laying a foundation for continuous development of gold mines,comprehensive utilization of resource,and protection of environment.
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Meng, Xian Fu. "Discussion on Geological and Geochemical Methods for Prospecting at Surrounding of Crisis Mines." Advanced Materials Research 616-618 (December 2012): 246–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.616-618.246.

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As the supply situation of the mineral resources is gradually worse, the subject of resources crisis mines is becoming a hot topic at domestic related research fields. Prospecting potentiality of crisis mines is an enormous. But how to find new deposits in deep and surrounding of crisis mines by using the data of geology, deposits exploration and adopting resonable prediction manner is a very urgent problem which confronts with mining industry. Author analyze the regional metallogenic geological setting, predicate and evaluate surrounding favorable region by similarity analogy principle and research data of geochemistry which obtain from mining. This may provide theoretical guidance and scientific basis to other crises mines deep and surrounding resources exploration.
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Nguyen, Ngoc Minh, and Duc Thang Pham. "Tendencies of Mining Technology Development in Relation to Deep Mines." Mining science and technology 4, no. 1 (April 27, 2019): 16–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.17073/2500-0632-2019-1-16-22.

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Mineral demand rapidly increases; as a result, underground mining activities gradually dig into the earth’s crust to deeper levels. For instance, the depth of coal mines has reached 1500 m, whereas the depth of mines for nonferrous metals has already achieved around 4500 m. Deep mining faces a number of technical and environmental challenges, first of all, great rock mass stresses, high temperature and long winding distance. The traditional technologies are hardly capable to provide the development and extraction efficiency and safety. That is why the need in developing and implementation of new modern mining technologies arose. In roadheading, TBM (tunnelboring machine) method is gradually introduced. A TBM combines the functions of rock breaking, support installation, mucking and conveying rock. In mining industry, smart mining based on mechanized and automated mining methods is successfully implemented at coal mines. Besides, a technical concept of fluidized mining for deepseated mineral resources (6000 m and more) was proposed. This paper presents the review of the current global status of deep mining and highlights some of the newest technological achievements in roadheading and the mineral extraction processes.
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Tran, Hieu Quang, Nam Xuan Bui, Hoang Nguyen, Tuan Anh Nguyen, and Long Quoc Nguyen. "Applicable posssibility of advanced technologies and equipment in surface mines of Vietnam." Journal of Mining and Earth Sciences 61, no. 5 (October 10, 2020): 16–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.46326/jmes.ktlt2020.02.

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Vietnam has abundant and diversified mineral resources with more than 5, 000 mines of 60 discovered and exploited minerals. Besides of surface coal mines mainly located in Quang Ninh, the types of minerals being exploited by surface mining method consist of metal ores (iron, titanium, manganese, gold, zinc, copper, antimony) and non - metallic ores, and construction materials (stone, sand, gravel, etc.). In the paper, authors researched and proposed the advanced technologies and equipment based on Industry 4.0, that can apply effectively for surface mines in Vietnam in order to ensure safety and enhance surface mining effect.
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Sermet, Edyta, and Marek Nieć. "Not Mining Sterilization of Explored Mineral Resources. The Example of Native Sulfur Deposits in Poland Case History." Resources 10, no. 4 (March 31, 2021): 30. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/resources10040030.

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The sterilization of mineral resources makes considerable amounts inaccessible for future use and may be a barrier to the free supply of commodities. During the exploitation of mineral deposits, some parts of their resources become sterilized as inaccessible because of natural hazards or unfavorable economic conditions. Not mining land use and the social opposition against mining is the purpose of sterilization of considerable demonstrated mineral resources of deposits not yet engaged in exploitation. The native sulfur deposits in Poland are a good example of such “not mining” sterilization, which makes a considerable part of known resources inaccessible. On the northern border of the Carpathian Foredeep within the Miocene gypsum formation, the systematic exploration had demonstrated about 1 billion tons of sulfur resources located in the deposits of varied dimensions. The sulfur opencast mining and underground melting (the modified Frasch method) flourished from 1958 up to 1993. The increasing sulfur supply, recoverable from hydrocarbons, caused the closing down of sulfur mines, leaving a place with considerable untouched resources. About 67% of sulfur resources left by closed mines and of other explored but not exploited deposits are sterilized by the advancement of settlements, industrial plants, road construction, and by social opposition against mining.
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Zhou, Xue Lian. "Development and Utilization of Circular Economy and Urban Mining - Chengdu City Based Renewable Resource Industry Survey." Applied Mechanics and Materials 768 (June 2015): 644–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.768.644.

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Along with the process of economic growth and urbanization, China has entered a peak period of electronic appliances and automotive industry products obsolescence. On one hand, municipal waste disposal is increasing and causing environmental pollution and damage; on the other hand, native mineral resources’ exhaustion has increased year by year along with exploitation difficulty and mineral resources import growth. Meanwhile, urban industrial scrap, aka "urban mines", does contain abundant of renewable resources, such as copper, iron, and aluminum. Therefore, based on the theory of circular economy, the exploitation of these "urban mines" is the key strategic industry of China’s "12th five-year plan". This paper is based on the survey of Chengdu city regeneration resources industry situation. We analyzed the current status of regeneration resources recycling industry in Chengdu city, finding problems such as the number of existing garbage collection stations inadequate for renewable resources, and processing technology out of date. Generally speaking, the renewable resources industry in Chengdu is under developed.
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Ruberti, Marcello, and Stefania Massari. "Are the World-Leading Primary Silver Mines Exhausting?" Sustainability 10, no. 8 (July 26, 2018): 2619. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su10082619.

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Silver is one of the rarest metals in nature and certainly among the most used ones, not only as precious good for financial investments but also for many industrial critical applications. Because it would be very difficult to analyze the situation regarding the future global availability of silver as a commodity in general, due to the necessity of a large amount of data which are hardly available, we have focused only on the mining production of primary silver. In particular, the study regards the activities of a sample consisting of twelve of the world top fifteen leading primary silver mines, which represent the 54% of the worldwide primary silver production and 16% of the global silver mining production. We have investigated the related exploitation state and trends of these twelve sites by elaborating their last ten-years statistics on silver production, ore grades, resources and reserves. The findings of this study, in short, are that the cumulative average silver ore grades, both in extracted mineral, resources and reserves, of the above selected mines, have decreased and also that the new mining fields (Dukat, San Bartolomé, Pirquitas, Saucito) have lower silver content indexes than the older ones.
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CLARY, RENEE M. "THE ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES: HENRY DE LA BECHE’S CONVERGENCE OF PROFESSIONALIZATION AND PUBLIC ADVOCACY." Earth Sciences History 39, no. 2 (November 12, 2020): 291–304. http://dx.doi.org/10.17704/1944-6187-39.2.291.

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ABSTRACT Several European countries instituted mining schools in the late 1700s, including France, Germany, Hungary, and Russia. However, since England’s mining industry was privatized with little government involvement, Great Britain was decades behind with the creation of a school of mines. In 1835, Henry De la Beche (1796–1855) became the first director of the Ordnance Geological Survey, precursor to the British Geological Survey. De la Beche used this position to advance geology’s professionalization, which would include the establishment of an applied geology museum, mining records storehouse, and a school of mines. The Museum of Economic Geology, displaying the country’s mineral resources and geology, was De la Beche’s first success. Founded in 1835, it opened to the public in 1841. The Mining Records Office opened in 1840 as a repository for plans of working and abandoned mines. An early public advocate for workers’ safety, De la Beche lobbied for government inspections of collieries, immediate reporting of mining accidents, and proper plans of mines. The School of Mines was De la Beche’s third accomplishment in geology’s professionalization. As an outgrowth of the museum, it was formally opened in 1851 along with the larger Museum of Practical Geology, the Museum of Economic Geology’s successor. De la Beche’s intent for the School of Mines—instruction as a combination of science and practice—seems modern in its approach. In 1843, funding was allocated for lectures on the practical applications of geology, but these were not implemented until the School of Mines opened in 1851. In his effort to educate everyone—from miner to mine owner—De la Beche transcended social boundaries and supported open, public lectures. As a result, some considered him a class traitor. De la Beche used his position to advocate for advancement of the mining industry to include miner safety and public education. Therefore, while the Royal School of Mines emerged later than many of its European counterparts, it was part of a systematic professionalization of geology, coupled with education and a public advocacy for mining participants.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Mines and mineral resources. Mines and mineral resources Nickel mines and mining Cobalt mines and mining"

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Mengwe, Moses Seargent. "Towards social impact assessment of copper-nickel mining in Botswana." Thesis, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/10948/1443.

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This research study is more of an initiative towards Social Impact Assessment of copper-nickel mining in Botswana. The specific objectives of the study were centred on the assessment of the social impacts of copper-nickel mining in Botswana from the initial mining stage of exploration, surveying and mine site development to mine closure. The study was carried out under the broad hypotheses that mining influences population movement that impact on areas of mining; mining activities have both economic benefits and deleterious social impacts on the local communities found in the areas where mining is taking place; and mine closure has far reaching socio-economic, investment and developmental implications over and above the obvious interests of project owners. To achieve the broad aim as summarised above, the research study used a multi-disciplinary methodology and approach that required several kinds of expertise and sources of information. Hence it used both primary and secondary sources centred on interactive informative interviews, site visits and observations, questionnaires, census data records, mining companies’ publications, published textbooks and journal articles. The research study comprised of three different mines operated by three different mining companies in three varied socio-cultural and ethnic regions of Botswana. First was a detailed Social Impact Assessment of the initial phase of exploration, surveying and mine site development represented by Mowana mine project operated by African Copper in the rural areas of Dugwi and Mosetse. This case study yielded results showing that the social impacts of mining in the area are diverse and extensive. The findings suggest that the impacts relate not only to the possible economic benefits of foreign exchange, employment, the optimal use of available mineral resources and the possible development of Dugwi and Mosetse villages, but extends to the deleterious social impacts. The results also indicated that the social impacts have just begun in the two communities. Hence they point towards a possible disruption within the socio-cultural system of the local people if serious mitigation measures are not put in place; thus suggesting that the early stages of exploration and mine site development results in the most conflict between the mine and the local people. Second was a comprehensive Social Impact Assessment of Tati-Nickel Phoenix mining project in the peri-urban areas of Matshelagabedi and Matsiloje areas representing the mining stage of mine production and expansion. The results from this case study suggest that during vi mine production and expansion, many people were relocated. However, the overriding impression gained from the case study was Tati-Nickel Mining Company’s elaborate corporate policies that suggested good corporate governance and best practices that promote sustainable development. A notable milestone on good corporate governance and best practice that the other two case studies (mining company) could benchmark on is Tati-Nickel’s corporate social responsibility programme that has been designed to ensure that the communities within a fifty kilometre mine radius benefit from the mine. The results from the case study also distinguished the mining stage of production and expansion from the other two because it is associated with the deep entrenchment of the social impacts into the communities near to mining areas. Third was a detailed Social Impact Assessment on Bamangwato Concession Limited mine in the industrial town of Selebi-Phikwe. The case study represented the stage of mine closure. Through the findings of this case study, it became apparent that the economic dependence of Selebi-Phikwe on mining has seen the town developing into a mining town, increasing its vulnerability at mine closure. The results from the case study further suggest that mine closure will degrade the socio-economic sector of the town with ever far reaching socio-economic implications as many people lose their gainful employment, hence suggesting that a possible complete mine closure will be the most traumatic phase leading to major social conflict within the area. Thus the results suggest that at mine closure, the deleterious social impacts will overspill to other areas in Botswana with disastrous effects for the economy of the country. The results yielded through this study established in clear and passionate language that copper-nickel mining in Botswana influences population movements that lead to positive and negative impacts on the communities found in mining areas. Another major finding of the study is that copper-nickel mining activities have both economic benefits and deleterious social impacts on the local communities, hence the recommendation that the copper-nickel mining companies should embrace the concept of sustainable mining for sustainable development to avoid most of the negative impacts of their operations on the local communities.
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Li, Zhongxue. "Determining the size and life of underground coal mines." Diss., This resource online, 1987. http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-10022008-063243/.

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Altamirano, Nelson. "Essays on mining countries : Dutch disease, development and copper markets /." Diss., Connect to a 24 p. preview or request complete full text in PDF format. Access restricted to UC IP addresses, 2000. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/ucsd/fullcit?p9975891.

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Webber, R. C. W. "Determining the physical and economic impact of environmental design criteria for ultra-deep mines." Pretoria : [s.n.], 2006. http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/available/etd-07242006-105847/.

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McGill, Jeannette Elizabeth. "Technical risk assessment techniques in mineral resources management with special reference to the junior and small-scale mining sectors." Pretoria : [s.n.], 2005. http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/available/etd-02092006-124915.

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Yu, Zhanjing. "A study of building response and damage due to mining-induced ground movements." Diss., This resource online, 1990. http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-07112007-092849/.

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Walter, Timothy George. "METALS DISTRIBUTION AT THE SAN ANTONIO MINE, SANTA EULALIA MINING DISTRICT, CHIHUAHUA, MEXICO." Thesis, The University of Arizona, 1985. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/275296.

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Kille, J. Dee. "United by gold and glory : the making of mining culture in Goldfield, Nevada, 1906-1908 /." abstract and full text PDF (UNR users only), 2008. http://0-gateway.proquest.com.innopac.library.unr.edu/openurl?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:dissertation&res_dat=xri:pqdiss&rft_dat=xri:pqdiss:3311916.

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Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Nevada, Reno, 2008.
"May 2008." Includes bibliographical references (leaves 457-464). Library also has microfilm. Ann Arbor, Mich. : ProQuest Information and Learning Company, [2009]. 1 microfilm reel ; 35 mm. Online version available on the World Wide Web.
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Bainton, Nicholas Alexander. "Virtuous sociality and other fantasies pursuing mining, capital and cultural continuity in Lihir, Papua New Guinea /." Connect to thesis, 2006. http://eprints.unimelb.edu.au/archive/00003343.

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Madalane, Thembi. "The obligation to rehabilitate mining areas : post mining activities." Thesis, University of Limpopo (Turfloop Campus), 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/10386/905.

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Thesis (LLM) -- University of Limpopo, 2012
The study focuses on rehabilitation, since absence of proper rehabilitation process result in indelible damage to the environment. South Africa, like many other countries, is faced with many environmental problems caused by mining. These problems are particularly caused by, inter alia, abandoned mining areas without rehabilitation, inadequate environmental impact assessment after closure, inadequate financial provision for rehabilitation, and lack of monitoring and aftercare system after post mine closure. The study found that many Companies ignore laws governing prospecting, extraction and rehabilitation. The main purpose of this research is to investigate and recommend guidelines in the rehabilitation process so as to instil respect for the environment. The study therefore recommended strict legislation relating to environmental protection against mining.
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Books on the topic "Mines and mineral resources. Mines and mineral resources Nickel mines and mining Cobalt mines and mining"

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Buydos, John F. Mines, mining, and mineral resources. Washington, D.C: Science Reference Section, Science and Technology Division, Library of Congress, 1994.

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Community, Southern African Development. Mining. [Gaborone]: Southern African Development Community, 1994.

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Indonesia. Directorate of Mineral Resources Inventory. Indonesia mining & mineral: Exploring potential resources. Bandung]: Directorate of Mineral Resources Inventory, Directorate General of Geology and Mineral Resources, Dept. of Energy and Mineral Resources in cooperation with PT. Fery Agung Corporation, 2005.

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Johns, Robert K. Cornish mining heritage. South Australia: Dept. of Mines and Energy, 1986.

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Siddiqui, Mahmood. Minerals & mining. Quetta: IUCN, The World Conservation Union, 2000.

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Jourdan, Paul. Mining sector policy study. Harare: Zimbabwe Economic Policy Analysis and Research Unit, 2012.

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Yachir, F. Mining in Africa today: Strategies and prospects. Tokyo: United Nations University, 1988.

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International Symposium "Mineral Resources of Russia" (2nd 1994 St. Petersburg, Russia). Mineral resources of Russia: Diamonds and gold : proceedings of the Second International Symposium "Mineral Resources of Russia", 26-29 October, 1994, St. Petersburg. St. Petersburg: Vsegei, 1995.

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Haley, Sharman. Social indicators for Arctic mining. Anchorage, Alaska: Institute of Social and Economic Research, University of Alaska Anchorage, 2011.

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Waszkis, Helmut. Mining in the Americas: Stories and history. Cambridge, Eng: Woodhead, 1993.

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Book chapters on the topic "Mines and mineral resources. Mines and mineral resources Nickel mines and mining Cobalt mines and mining"

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Traoré, Pierre A., and Olle Ostensson. "2. Strategies for Development of Small/Medium Scale Mines in Africa; An Integrated Participatory Framework for the Exploitation of Mineral Resources in the Context of Sustainable Development — The Case of Namaqualand, South Africa." In Mining on a Small and Medium Scale, 17–34. Rugby, Warwickshire, United Kingdom: Practical Action Publishing, 1997. http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/9781780445489.002.

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Singer, Donald, and W. David Menzie. "Mineral Resources and Society." In Quantitative Mineral Resource Assessments. Oxford University Press, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195399592.003.0005.

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Modern society cannot live without electric and electronic products, concrete, glass, fertilizers, ceramics, motor vehicles, airplanes, refrigerators, stoves, and medical equipment, all of which are made with products of mining. In the 1950s and again in the 1970s there was serious concern about whether we would run out of mineral resources. This recurring theme is driven largely by the increasing amounts of mineral material produced from mines and used by society over time. One of the most striking aspects of the increasing quantities of mineral materials produced has been that prices of many minerals have been declining for more than 100 years. Historically, prices of nonfuel mineral materials have declined relative to consumer goods and wages (Barnett and Morse, 1963). The declining prices have had a positive influence on general economies of mineral users by reducing prices of the factors of production of finished goods. Because mineral commodities are the building blocks of so many industries and products, the declining prices reverberate throughout the economy. Declining mineral commodity prices have largely been due to the successes of mining engineers in repeatedly lowering mining and processing costs and of geologists in lowering discovery costs of mineral deposits. Demonstrating the variability of commodity prices, between 2003 and 2008 prices have dramatically increased, and in 2008 they declined again. Understanding how it is possible to have both increasing production and decreasing and more recently increasing and then decreasing prices of minerals is important to assessors and to decision-makers. Decision-makers, whether concerned about regional development, exploration, or land management, are faced with the dilemma of obtaining new information, or allowing or encouraging others to obtain it, and the possible benefits and costs of development if mineral deposits of value are discovered. The intent in this chapter is to provide decision-makers and assessors a modern perspective on the geologic controls of mineral supply and demand and on the importance to supply of different kinds of mineral deposits and occurrences.
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Singer, Donald, and W. David Menzie. "Economic Analysis." In Quantitative Mineral Resource Assessments. Oxford University Press, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195399592.003.0008.

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Estimated undiscovered mineral resources are based on grade-and-tonnage models made up of deposits of varying economic viability (chapter 6). Many deposits used in grade-and-tonnage models have not been developed because they cannot yet be mined economically. Although technological advances act over time to lower mining costs and environmental impacts, thereby allowing formerly uneconomic deposits to become operating mines, some deposits in these models might “never” be mined for one or more of a variety of reasons, including relatively low tonnages and grades, deep burial, or occurrence in or near environmentally sensitive areas. Few nonacademic problems related to mineral resources are resolved by knowing the amount of metal that exists in some piece of land. Mineral policy issues and problems typically revolve around the effects of minerals that might be economically extracted. This is true if the problem concerns exploring or developing minerals, values of alternative uses of the land, or environmental consequences of minerals development. In resource assessments of undiscovered mineral deposits and in the early stages of exploration, including planning, a need for prefeasibility cost models exists. In exploration, these models separate economic from uneconomic deposits to help focus on targets that can benefit the exploration enterprise. In resource assessment, these cost models can be used to eliminate deposits that would probably be uneconomic even if discovered and allow estimation of the social value of the resources. Data used in grade-and-tonnage models do not necessarily represent economic deposits. Many of the deposits used in the models were found not to be economic and were not mined, whereas other deposits were mined long ago under economic conditions that no longer exist. In this chapter we briefly explore some alternative measures of value used in assessments and then develop the basis for simplified economic filters to separate the clearly economic from the clearly uneconomic deposits. The equations used are not difficult, but they require care in their application because many of the apparently small cost factors can have large effects on the final economic discrimination.
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Gordon, Robert B., and Patrick M. Malone. "Fuel and Materials." In The Texture of Industry. Oxford University Press, 1994. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195058857.003.0014.

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As American entrepreneurs enlarged their undertakings and began to shift them from waterpowered shops in the countryside to factories in the cities, they created a demand for new sources of energy and larger quantities of raw materials. The coal and, later, oil that they used to power their factories were brought to manufacturing centers on canals and railways and by coastal or river shipping. They used the wood and water resources of North America more heavily than ever, but they also created new kinds of workplaces. Their workplaces in the coal and oil fields, on canals and railways, in mills that made iron with mineral coal, and in the nonferrous-metal mines and mills were outside any previous experience of American artisans. Often, these workplaces were not adequately described or recorded before they were replaced. Material evidence helps us fill this gap in the historical record. In mining anthracite, both miners and mine operators faced a complex underground environment where there were few reliable clues to guide their work (Chapter 4). Geologists could help little, and, as anthracite was not much used elsewhere in the world, mining expertise could not be easily borrowed; instead, mining methods were developed through experience and error on the part of individual miners. The technological and social practices that endured in anthracite mining were largely established in the years between 1827 and 1834 by inexperienced adventurers whose aim was to obtain coal quickly and with the least trouble. Many of these practices were later adopted in underground bituminous mines. We can reconstruct a picture of the work of anthracite miners from study of the remaining mines, artifacts, and accounts of mine operation. Each breast in a mine was worked by a miner, who was paid on piece rate. He directed and paid one or two helpers, for whom he provided the necessary tools and supplies. They reached the breast where they worked by walking through the haulage ways and gangways that were the common ground in the mine.
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