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1

Parkkinen, Veli-Pekka. "Are Model Organisms Theoretical Models?" Disputatio 9, no. 47 (December 1, 2017): 471–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/disp-2017-0015.

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AbstractThis article compares the epistemic roles of theoretical models and model organisms in science, and specifically the role of non-human animal models in biomedicine. Much of the previous literature on this topic shares an assumption that animal models and theoretical models have a broadly similar epistemic role—that of indirect representation of a target through the study of a surrogate system. Recently, Levy and Currie (2015) have argued that model organism research and theoretical modelling differ in the justification of model-to-target inferences, such that a unified account based on the widely accepted idea of modelling as indirect representation does not similarly apply to both. I defend a similar conclusion, but argue that the distinction between animal models and theoretical models does not always track a difference in the justification of model-to-target inferences. Case studies of the use of animal models in biomedicine are presented to illustrate this. However, Levy and Currie’s point can be argued for in a different way. I argue for the following distinction. Model organisms (and other concrete models) function as surrogate sources of evidence, from which results are transferred to their targets by empirical extrapolation. By contrast, theoretical modelling does not involve such an inductive step. Rather, theoretical models are used for drawing conclusions from what is already known or assumed about the target system. Codifying assumptions about the causal structure of the target in external representational media (e.g. equations, graphs) allows one to apply explicit inferential rules to reach conclusions that could not be reached with unaided cognition alone (cf. Kuorikoski and Ylikoski 2015).
2

Nawy, Tal. "Non–model organisms." Nature Methods 9, no. 1 (December 28, 2011): 37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.1824.

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Levy, Arnon, and Adrian Currie. "Model Organisms are Not (Theoretical) Models." British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 66, no. 2 (June 1, 2015): 327–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/bjps/axt055.

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4

Rine, Jasper. "A future of the model organism model." Molecular Biology of the Cell 25, no. 5 (March 2014): 549–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1091/mbc.e12-10-0768.

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Changes in technology are fundamentally reframing our concept of what constitutes a model organism. Nevertheless, research advances in the more traditional model organisms have enabled fresh and exciting opportunities for young scientists to establish new careers and offer the hope of comprehensive understanding of fundamental processes in life. New advances in translational research can be expected to heighten the importance of basic research in model organisms and expand opportunities. However, researchers must take special care and implement new resources to enable the newest members of the community to engage fully with the remarkable legacy of information in these fields.
5

Maas, Richard. "Humans as Model Organisms." Cell 96, no. 4 (February 1999): 455–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0092-8674(00)80633-9.

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6

Sterelny, Kim. "Humans as model organisms." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 284, no. 1869 (December 13, 2017): 20172115. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2017.2115.

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Like every other species, our species is the result of descent with modification under the influence of natural selection; a tip in an increasingly large and deep series of nested clades, as we trace its ancestry back to increasingly remote antecedents. As a consequence of shared history, our species has much in common with many others; as a consequence of its production by the general mechanisms of evolution, our species carries information about the mechanisms that shaped other species as well. For reasons unconnected to biological theory, we have far more information about humans than we do about other species. So in principle and in practice, humans should be usable as model organisms, and no one denies the truth of this for mundane physical traits, though harnessing human data for more general questions proves to be quite challenging. However, it is also true that human cognitive and behavioural characteristics, and human social groups, are apparently radically unlike those of other animals. Humans are exceptional products of evolution and perhaps that makes them an unsuitable model system for those interested in the evolution of cooperation, complex cognition, group formation, family structure, communication, cultural learning and the like. In all these respects, we are complex and extreme cases, perhaps shaped by mechanisms (like cultural evolution or group selection) that play little role in other lineages. Most of the papers in this special issue respond by rejecting or downplaying exceptionalism. I argue that it can be an advantage: understanding the human exception reveals constraints that have restricted evolutionary options in many lineages.
7

ARMSTRONG, J. DOUGLAS, NIGEL H. GODDARD, and DAVID SHEPHERD. "NEUROINFORMATICS IN MODEL ORGANISMS." Journal of Neurogenetics 17, no. 2-3 (January 2003): 103–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/neg.17.2-3.103.116.

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8

Neuhaus, Carolyn P. "Humans as Model Organisms." Ethics & Human Research 41, no. 2 (March 2019): 35–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/eahr.500011.

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9

Armstrong, J. Douglas, Nigel H. Goddard, and David Shepherd. "NEUROINFORMATICS IN MODEL ORGANISMS." Journal of Neurogenetics 17, no. 2 (January 1, 2003): 103–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/714049411.

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10

Coelho, Susana M., and J. Mark Cock. "Brown Algal Model Organisms." Annual Review of Genetics 54, no. 1 (November 23, 2020): 71–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-genet-030620-093031.

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Model organisms are extensively used in research as accessible and convenient systems for studying a particular area or question in biology. Traditionally, only a limited number of organisms have been studied in detail, but modern genomic tools are enabling researchers to extend beyond the set of classical model organisms to include novel species from less-studied phylogenetic groups. This review focuses on model species for an important group of multicellular organisms, the brown algae. The development of genetic and genomic tools for the filamentous brown alga Ectocarpus has led to it emerging as a general model system for this group, but additional models, such as Fucus or Dictyota dichotoma, remain of interest for specific biological questions. In addition, Saccharina japonica has emerged as a model system to directly address applied questions related to algal aquaculture. We discuss the past, present, and future of brown algal model organisms in relation to the opportunities and challenges in brown algal research.
11

Ankeny, Rachel A., Sabina Leonelli, Nicole C. Nelson, and Edmund Ramsden. "Making Organisms Model Human Behavior: Situated Models in North-American Alcohol Research, since 1950." Science in Context 27, no. 3 (July 28, 2014): 485–509. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0269889714000155.

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ArgumentWe examine the criteria used to validate the use of nonhuman organisms in North-American alcohol addiction research from the 1950s to the present day. We argue that this field, where the similarities between behaviors in humans and non-humans are particularly difficult to assess, has addressed questions of model validity by transforming the situatedness of non-human organisms into an experimental tool. We demonstrate that model validity does not hinge on the standardization of one type of organism in isolation, as often the case with genetic model organisms. Rather, organisms are viewed as necessarily situated: they cannot be understood as a model for human behavior in isolation from their environmental conditions. Hence the environment itself is standardized as part of the modeling process; and model validity is assessed with reference to the environmental conditions under which organisms are studied.
12

Brunet, Anne. "Model Organisms: Grandeur in the Diversity of Aging Organisms." Innovation in Aging 4, Supplement_1 (December 1, 2020): 743. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igaa057.2667.

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Abstract Aging is a complex process that converts vigorous and healthy individuals into frail and decrepit ones, with increased susceptibility to a constellation of diseases. Human aging is influenced by many factors, including genetics, environment, lifestyle, sex, and socio-economic status. While aspects of aging can be studied directly in humans, discovering the causative factors that modulate this process often requires interventions and modeling. Traditional models will likely continue to provide a wealth of translatable information. Studying ‘extremophiles’ has exciting potential for providing new concepts that could be implemented for lifespan regulation. The development of new experimental models uniquely tailored to aging studies is also an essential step. This symposium will discuss African killifish, planarian, naked mole rats, and domestic dogs as new models for aging and exceptional longevity and rejuvenation. The iteration between new models and humans could be particularly helpful in delineating strategies to promote healthy aging and extend the disease-free portion of life.
13

Ye, Alice L., and Needhi Bhalla. "Reproductive aging: insights from model organisms." Biochemical Society Transactions 39, no. 6 (November 21, 2011): 1770–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bst20110694.

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Aging was once thought to be the result of a general deterioration of tissues as opposed to their being under regulatory control. However, investigations in a number of model organisms have illustrated that aspects of aging are controlled by genetic mechanisms and are potentially manipulable, suggesting the possibility of treatment for age-related disorders. Reproductive decline is one aspect of aging. In model organisms and humans of both sexes, increasing age is associated with both a decline in the number of progeny and an increased incidence of defects. The cellular mechanisms of reproductive aging are not well understood, although a number of factors, both intrinsic and extrinsic to an organism's germline, may contribute to aging phenotypes. Recent work in a variety of organisms suggests that nuclear organization and nuclear envelope proteins may play a role in these processes.
14

Leonelli, Sabina, and Rachel A. Ankeny. "Re-thinking organisms: The impact of databases on model organism biology." Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 43, no. 1 (March 2012): 29–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsc.2011.10.003.

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15

Wahlberg, Niklas. "Model Organisms and Model Systems for Ecologists?" Ecology 85, no. 3 (March 2004): 879–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(2004)085[0879:moamsf]2.0.co;2.

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16

Okajima, Kei, Shunsuke Shigaki, Takanobu Suko, Duc-Nhat Luong, Cesar Hernandez Reyes, Yuya Hattori, Kazushi Sanada, and Daisuke Kurabayashi. "A novel framework based on a data-driven approach for modelling the behaviour of organisms in chemical plume tracing." Journal of The Royal Society Interface 18, no. 181 (August 2021): 20210171. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2021.0171.

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We propose a data-driven approach for modelling an organism's behaviour instead of conventional model-based strategies in chemical plume tracing (CPT). CPT models based on this approach show promise in faithfully reproducing organisms’ CPT behaviour. To construct the data-driven CPT model, a training dataset of the odour stimuli input toward the organism is needed, along with an output of the organism’s CPT behaviour. To this end, we constructed a measurement system comprising an array of alcohol sensors for the measurement of the input and a camera for tracking the output in a real scenario. Then, we determined a transfer function describing the input–output relationship as a stochastic process by applying Gaussian process regression, and established the data-driven CPT model based on measurements of the organism’s CPT behaviour. Through CPT experiments in simulations and a real environment, we evaluated the performance of the data-driven CPT model and compared its success rate with those obtained from conventional model-based strategies. As a result, the proposed data-driven CPT model demonstrated a better success rate than those obtained from conventional model-based strategies. Moreover, we considered that the data-driven CPT model could reflect the aspect of an organism’s adaptability that modulated its behaviour with respect to the surrounding environment. However, these useful results came from the CPT experiments conducted in simple settings of simulations and a real environment. If making the condition of the CPT experiments more complex, we confirmed that the data-driven CPT model would be less effective for locating an odour source. In this way, this paper not only poses major contributions toward the development of a novel framework based on a data-driven approach for modelling an organism’s CPT behaviour, but also displays a research limitation of a data-driven approach at this stage.
17

Manrique, Pedro, Mason Klein, Yao Sheng Li, Chen Xu, Pak Ming Hui, and Neil Johnson. "Decentralized Competition Produces Nonlinear Dynamics Akin to Klinotaxis." Complexity 2018 (July 22, 2018): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/9803239.

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One of the biggest challenges in unravelling the complexity of living systems, is to fully understand the neural logic that translates sensory input into the highly nonlinear motor outputs that are observed when simple organisms crawl. Recent work has shown that organisms such as larvae that exhibit klinotaxis (i.e., orientation through lateral movements of portions of the body) can perform normal exploratory practices even in the absence of a brain. Abdominal and thoracic networks control the alternation between crawls and turns. This motivates the search for decentralized models of movement that can produce nonlinear outputs that resemble the experiments. Here, we present such a complex system model, in the form of a population of decentralized decision-making components (agents) whose aggregate activity resembles that observed in klinotaxis organisms. Despite the simplicity of each component, the complexity created by their collective feedback of information and actions akin to proportional navigation, drives the model organism towards a specific target. Our model organism’s nonlinear behaviors are consistent with empirically observed reorientation rate measures for Drosophila larvae as well as nematode C. elegans.
18

Thangavelu, Madan. "Model organisms in Ayurvedic research." Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine 1, no. 3 (2010): 173. http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0975-9476.72610.

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19

Suzuki, Teruhiko, Shiho Nobesawa, and Ikuo Tahara. "Tree-Structured Digital Organisms Model." Transactions of the Japanese Society for Artificial Intelligence 24 (2009): 178–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1527/tjsai.24.178.

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20

Taormina, Giusi, Federica Ferrante, Salvatore Vieni, Nello Grassi, Antonio Russo, and Mario G. Mirisola. "Longevity: Lesson from Model Organisms." Genes 10, no. 7 (July 9, 2019): 518. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/genes10070518.

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Research on longevity and healthy aging promises to increase our lifespan and decrease the burden of degenerative diseases with important social and economic effects. Many aging theories have been proposed, and important aging pathways have been discovered. Model organisms have had a crucial role in this process because of their short lifespan, cheap maintenance, and manipulation possibilities. Yeasts, worms, fruit flies, or mammalian models such as mice, monkeys, and recently, dogs, have helped shed light on aging processes. Genes and molecular mechanisms that were found to be critical in simple eukaryotic cells and species have been confirmed in humans mainly by the functional analysis of mammalian orthologues. Here, we review conserved aging mechanisms discovered in different model systems that are implicated in human longevity as well and that could be the target of anti-aging interventions in human.
21

Tissenbaum, Heidi A. "Model organisms in drug discovery." Drug Discovery Today 9, no. 7 (April 2004): 309. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1359-6446(04)03049-1.

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22

Hagen, Joel B. "A History of Model Organisms." BioScience 60, no. 5 (May 2010): 389–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/bio.2010.60.5.9.

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23

Müller, Bruno, and Ueli Grossniklaus. "Model organisms — A historical perspective." Journal of Proteomics 73, no. 11 (October 2010): 2054–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jprot.2010.08.002.

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24

BUGGS, RICHARD J. A. "Towards natural polyploid model organisms." Molecular Ecology 17, no. 8 (March 19, 2008): 1875–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294x.2008.03758.x.

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25

Hunter, Philip. "The paradox of model organisms." EMBO reports 9, no. 8 (August 2008): 717–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/embor.2008.142.

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26

Southall, T. D., and A. H. Brand. "Chromatin profiling in model organisms." Briefings in Functional Genomics and Proteomics 6, no. 2 (September 3, 2007): 133–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/bfgp/elm013.

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27

Kellogg, E. A., and H. B. Shaffer. "Model Organisms in Evolutionary Studies." Systematic Biology 42, no. 4 (December 1, 1993): 409–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/42.4.409.

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28

Alberts, B. "Model Organisms and Human Health." Science 330, no. 6012 (December 22, 2010): 1724. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1201826.

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29

Davis, Rowland H. "The age of model organisms." Nature Reviews Genetics 5, no. 1 (January 2004): 69–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrg1250.

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30

Petsko, Gregory A. "In praise of model organisms." Genome Biology 12, no. 5 (2011): 115. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/gb-2011-12-5-115.

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31

Muda, Marco, and Sean McKenna. "Model organisms and target discovery." Drug Discovery Today: Technologies 1, no. 1 (September 2004): 55–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ddtec.2004.08.001.

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32

Feng, Yuehan, Valentina Cappelletti, and Paola Picotti. "Quantitative proteomics of model organisms." Current Opinion in Systems Biology 6 (December 2017): 58–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.coisb.2017.09.004.

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33

Ling, Shuang, and Jin-Wen Xu. "Model Organisms and Traditional Chinese Medicine Syndrome Models." Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2013 (2013): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/761987.

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Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is an ancient medical system with a unique cultural background. Nowadays, more and more Western countries due to its therapeutic efficacy are accepting it. However, safety and clear pharmacological action mechanisms of TCM are still uncertain. Due to the potential application of TCM in healthcare, it is necessary to construct a scientific evaluation system with TCM characteristics and benchmark the difference from the standard of Western medicine. Model organisms have played an important role in the understanding of basic biological processes. It is easier to be studied in certain research aspects and to obtain the information of other species. Despite the controversy over suitable syndrome animal model under TCM theoretical guide, it is unquestionable that many model organisms should be used in the studies of TCM modernization, which will bring modern scientific standards into mysterious ancient Chinese medicine. In this review, we aim to summarize the utilization of model organisms in the construction of TCM syndrome model and highlight the relevance of modern medicine with TCM syndrome animal model. It will serve as the foundation for further research of model organisms and for its application in TCM syndrome model.
34

Agapite, Julie, Laurent-Philippe Albou, Suzi Aleksander, Joanna Argasinska, Valerio Arnaboldi, Helen Attrill, Susan M. Bello, et al. "Alliance of Genome Resources Portal: unified model organism research platform." Nucleic Acids Research 48, no. D1 (September 25, 2019): D650—D658. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkz813.

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Abstract The Alliance of Genome Resources (Alliance) is a consortium of the major model organism databases and the Gene Ontology that is guided by the vision of facilitating exploration of related genes in human and well-studied model organisms by providing a highly integrated and comprehensive platform that enables researchers to leverage the extensive body of genetic and genomic studies in these organisms. Initiated in 2016, the Alliance is building a central portal (www.alliancegenome.org) for access to data for the primary model organisms along with gene ontology data and human data. All data types represented in the Alliance portal (e.g. genomic data and phenotype descriptions) have common data models and workflows for curation. All data are open and freely available via a variety of mechanisms. Long-term plans for the Alliance project include a focus on coverage of additional model organisms including those without dedicated curation communities, and the inclusion of new data types with a particular focus on providing data and tools for the non-model-organism researcher that support enhanced discovery about human health and disease. Here we review current progress and present immediate plans for this new bioinformatics resource.
35

McEachern, Lori A. "Transgenic Epigenetics: Using Transgenic Organisms to Examine Epigenetic Phenomena." Genetics Research International 2012 (March 27, 2012): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/689819.

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Non-model organisms are generally more difficult and/or time consuming to work with than model organisms. In addition, epigenetic analysis of model organisms is facilitated by well-established protocols, and commercially-available reagents and kits that may not be available for, or previously tested on, non-model organisms. Given the evolutionary conservation and widespread nature of many epigenetic mechanisms, a powerful method to analyze epigenetic phenomena from non-model organisms would be to use transgenic model organisms containing an epigenetic region of interest from the non-model. Interestingly, while transgenic Drosophila and mice have provided significant insight into the molecular mechanisms and evolutionary conservation of the epigenetic processes that target epigenetic control regions in other model organisms, this method has so far been under-exploited for non-model organism epigenetic analysis. This paper details several experiments that have examined the epigenetic processes of genomic imprinting and paramutation, by transferring an epigenetic control region from one model organism to another. These cross-species experiments demonstrate that valuable insight into both the molecular mechanisms and evolutionary conservation of epigenetic processes may be obtained via transgenic experiments, which can then be used to guide further investigations and experiments in the species of interest.
36

Spradling, Allan, Barry Ganetsky, Phil Hieter, Mark Johnston, Maynard Olson, Terry Orr-Weaver, Janet Rossant, Alejandro Sanchez, and Robert Waterston. "New Roles for Model Genetic Organisms in Understanding and Treating Human Disease: Report From The 2006 Genetics Society of America Meeting." Genetics 172, no. 4 (April 1, 2006): 2025–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/172.4.2025.

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Abstract Fundamental biological knowledge and the technology to acquire it have been immeasurably advanced by past efforts to understand and manipulate the genomes of model organisms. Has the utility of bacteria, yeast, worms, flies, mice, plants, and other models now peaked and are humans poised to become the model organism of the future? The Genetics Society of America recently convened its 2006 meeting entitled “Genetic Analysis: Model Organisms to Human Biology” to examine the future role of genetic research. (Because of time limitations, the meeting was unable to cover the substantial contributions and future potential of research on model prokaryotic organisms.) In fact, the potential of model-organism-based studies has grown substantially in recent years. The genomics revolution has revealed an underlying unity between the cells and tissues of eukaryotic organisms from yeast to humans. No uniquely human biological mechanisms have yet come to light. This common evolutionary heritage makes it possible to use genetically tractable organisms to model important aspects of human medical disorders such as cancer, birth defects, neurological dysfunction, reproductive failure, malnutrition, and aging in systems amenable to rapid and powerful experimentation. Applying model systems in this way will allow us to identify common genes, proteins, and processes that underlie human medical conditions. It will allow us to systematically decipher the gene–gene and gene–environment interactions that influence complex multigenic disorders. Above all, disease models have the potential to address a growing gap between our ability to collect human genetic data and to productively interpret and apply it. If model organism research is supported with these goals in mind, we can look forward to diagnosing and treating human disease using information from multiple systems and to a medical science built on the unified history of life on earth.
37

Pallauf, Kathrin, Gerald Rimbach, Petra Maria Rupp, Dawn Chin, and Insa M.A. Wolf. "Resveratrol and Lifespan in Model Organisms." Current Medicinal Chemistry 23, no. 41 (December 23, 2016): 4639–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/0929867323666161024151233.

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38

Walhout, Albertha J. M., and Marc Vidal. "Protein interaction maps for model organisms." Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology 2, no. 1 (January 2001): 55–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/35048107.

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39

Marx, Vivien. "Model organisms: beyond the inner circle." Nature Methods 10, no. 6 (May 30, 2013): 471–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.2484.

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Ankeny, Rachel A., and Sabina Leonelli. "What’s so special about model organisms?" Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A 42, no. 2 (June 2011): 313–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsa.2010.11.039.

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41

Hebert, P. D. N. "Cladocera as model organisms in biology." Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 209, no. 1-2 (February 1997): 310–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0022-0981(96)02621-4.

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42

Warren, Graham. "In praise of other model organisms." Journal of Cell Biology 208, no. 4 (February 16, 2015): 387–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1083/jcb.201412145.

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The early cell biological literature is the resting place of false starts and lost opportunities. Though replete with multiple studies of diverse organisms, a few of which served as foundations for several fields, most were not pursued, abandoned largely for technical reasons that are no longer limiting. The time has come to revisit the old literature and to resurrect the organisms that are buried there, both to uncover new mechanisms and to marvel at the richness of the cellular world.
43

Powers, William T. "Control theory: A model of organisms." System Dynamics Review 6, no. 1 (1990): 1–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sdr.4260060102.

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Rubio-Aliaga, Isabel. "Model organisms in molecular nutrition research." Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 56, no. 6 (June 2012): 844–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.201100784.

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45

Peng, Y., K. J. Clark, J. M. Campbell, M. R. Panetta, Y. Guo, and S. C. Ekker. "Making designer mutants in model organisms." Development 141, no. 21 (October 21, 2014): 4042–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.102186.

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46

Vázquez, José. "Model Organisms: Guinea Pigs & Co." CBE—Life Sciences Education 7, no. 2 (June 2008): 173–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1187/cbe.08-03-0014.

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47

Cobb, Jennifer A., and Lotte Bjergbaek. "RecQ helicases: lessons from model organisms." Nucleic Acids Research 34, no. 15 (August 26, 2006): 4106–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkl557.

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48

Gonzales, Daniel L., Krishna N. Badhiwala, Benjamin W. Avants, and Jacob T. Robinson. "Bioelectronics for Millimeter-Sized Model Organisms." iScience 23, no. 3 (March 2020): 100917. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2020.100917.

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49

Godfray, H. C. J., and Masakazu Shimada. "Parasitoids as model organisms for ecologists." Researches on Population Ecology 41, no. 1 (April 20, 1999): 3–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/pl00011980.

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Yilmaz, L. Safak, and Albertha JM Walhout. "Metabolic network modeling with model organisms." Current Opinion in Chemical Biology 36 (February 2017): 32–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpa.2016.12.025.

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