Academic literature on the topic 'Mopane worms'

Mopane worms (Gonimbrasia belina) are an important source of food and income for households in Northern Namibia. However, their access and availability in many areas have declined, mainly due to climate change and human activities. This has affected many households’ livelihoods, making them vulnerable to poverty and food insecurity. With these factors in mind, this study sought to identify the extent to which the availability and distribution of mopane worms are influenced in the Tsandi and Okahao constituencies. The study used structured questionnaires to collect information from households in the study area, to interview key informants, and to carry out group discussions. A total of 70 households and 6 key informants were interviewed, along with 4 focus group discussions that were carried out to elicit perceptions, and to obtain views on the availability of mopane worms, and possible causes of the decline in the study area. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, while GIS was used to determine trends in vegetation cover, temperature and rainfall in the area. The rainfall trend indicates variability, with a generally declining trend. A slight increase in temperature has been observed too. Vegetation showed a browning trend in the study area, indicating declining habitats of mopane worms. The results have indicated that more women depend on mopane worms for survival, mainly as a source of income. Thus the decline in their availability greatly affects their food sources and their income diversification opportunities. Trading was found to be an important form of employment for the unemployed rural people, but with the potential to generate higher income levels that can improve their livelihoods. Moreover, despite the climatic factors, human activities seemed to indicate a greater influence on the availability of mopane worms, due to activities such as overharvesting, land clearing for agriculture and household use/fencing. Thus, there is a greater need to control the harvesting of mopane worms and to control tree cutting activities in order to reduce the impacts of climatic and non-climatic factors on their availability.

ABSTRACTThe mopane worm, which is the caterpillar form of the Saturnid moth Imbrasia belina Westwood, is – like other edible insects and caterpillars – a vital source of protein in southern African countries. The worms live and graze on mopane trees, which have alternative uses. With increasing commercialization of the worm, its management, which was hitherto organized as a common property resource, has been degraded to almost open access. This paper uses a bioeconomic modelling approach to show that for some optimal allocation of the mopane forest stock, the restrictive harvest period policy advocated by community leaders may not lead to sustainable harvesting of the worm.

Edible insects have long been consumed as part of the diet of many Asian, African and South American cultures. The study sought to determine the microbial quality of dried insects (mopane worms, termites and stink bugs) sold around Thohoyandou markets, South Africa. For the study, 45 samples of dried mopane worms, termites and stink bugs were purchased from street vendors. About fifteen samples for each dried set of insects were randomly purchased and subjected to microbial analyses such as coliforms, Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Staphylococcus aureus, total plate count, yeasts and moulds count. The results revealed that street vendors were not following good standards of food safety and hygiene. They need training and awareness on how to handle the food products sold at the open market. During the study, we found that the mopane worms had the highest coliforms count of 1.9964±0.02 log10 CFU/g. Termites had the highest E. coli, S. aureus and total plate count of 1.9907±0.05, 2.2562±0.02 and 6.3564±1.10 log10 CFU/ g. Termites and stink bugs had the highest amount of Salmonella spp. (1.9827±0.03 log10 CFU/g). Stink bugs had the highest yeast and mould count ranging from 1.9804±0.14 to 1.9491±0.56 log10 CFU/g as compared to other insects. The outcome of this study will be used to teach vendors about good food safety and hygiene measures. The study results are also useful in determining whether these edible insects sold at the market are microbiologically safe for human consumption.

Consumption of edible insects is an indigenous practice that has played an essential role in human nutrition across Africa. The traditional use of insects forms an important part of food culture in Africa, and insects are consumed either as a delicacy, emergency, or staple source of food. However, indigenous knowledge about insect consumption is being lost because recent generations have adopted western methods and paid less attention to traditional practices. We conducted 500 questionnaires in five local municipalities in Kwazulu-Natal (KZN), and 122 questionnaires in four local municipalities in Vhembe district in Limpopo, South Africa, to document indigenous knowledge about edible insects’ consumption, collection, and preparation methods used in Limpopo and KZN. Eight insect species belonging to five insect orders were used as food in Limpopo and KZN, with mopane worms (94%) and termites (70%) being the most preferred species by respondents in Limpopo and KZN, respectively. Ninety-five percent of the respondents occasionally consumed insects in Limpopo, while only 28% did so in KZN. Nutritional benefits and tradition were the main reasons for consuming insects. Edible insects are a nutritious diet and play an important role in people’s livelihoods in rural areas. However, there was a notable decline in entomophagy, particularly in KZN. The decline may be related to occidental acculturation, discomfort associated with eating insects, and declining insect availability. To promote entomophagy, the authorities should encourage people to include edible insects in their diets because of their nutritional value. In addition, edible insect flour should be incorporated in food products such as biscuits, bread, energy bars, cereal, and cookies to promote acceptability.

For centuries, nontimber forest products have been key aspects of household diets throughout the world. In southern Africa, mopane worms are widely harvested for household consumption and traded for income generation. This study investigated the contribution of mopane worm harvesting to rural livelihoods, and the effects of environmental change on mopane worm harvesting in rural households in order to understand how households attain sustainable livelihoods under different tenure types in rural areas in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Specific objectives were to determine the current significance and contribution of mopane worm harvesting and trading to rural livelihoods; to gauge the perceptions of harvesters and traders on forms of environmental change which have affected mopane worm availability and how consumption and trade patterns have changed in the last 20 years; to assess access and management of mopane resources under different tenure types; and, to explore mopane worm use in the context of the sustainable livelihoods framework. The research was conducted in the villages of Bokmakierie, Matiyani, Ha Gumbu, Masisi, Zwigodini, and Mphambo in Vhembe district and Nkomo village in Mopani district in the Limpopo Province, South Africa. Additional interviews were conducted with traders at markets in Thohoyandou, Makhado, Malamulele, Giyani and Elim in the Vhembe and Mopane districts, Limpopo Province. The study employed qualitative methods to collect data and included semi-structured household and key informant interviews. The respondents and key informants were identified through snowball sampling techniques. The significance of mopane worms in the study area is three-fold: it is an important source of food, it is a valuable trading commodity, and it is an intrinsic part of local cultural practices. The findings of this study indicated that the historical value placed on mopane worms as a food source and trading commodity has been passed down for generations. Trading was found to be important form of employment for rural people who have limited prospects of formal employment, and had the potential to generate higher income levels than wage labour in rural contexts. The decline in mopane tree density, vegetation change, lower-than-normal precipitation, and higher-than-normal temperatures were the leading forms of environmental change which have significantly affected mopane worm availability and outbreak events. Household consumption and trade patterns were altered as a result of the weather and climatic conditions shock arising from the El Niño phenomenon. Land tenure type was found to be the primary determinant of resource management and access regimes in the harvesting areas. Within the context of the sustainable livelihoods framework, the following findings were made. The limited availability of mopane worms presented a key constraint for the households and traders. The high availability of labour from family of the harvesters suggests human capital is strong. Furthermore, the strong social links and networks which resulted from family-level and community-wide participation strengthened the social capital opportunities. Physical and financial capital were found to have greatest threat to the attainment of sustainable livelihood. Households suffer poverty and are not easily able to access financial resources. This served as a hindrance for households and limited their income earning potential. In respect of these findings the following recommendations are made: further empirical investigations should be undertaken to determine the status of mopane worm populations; improved cooperation between traditional leaders, harvesters and local government is suggested as an option for management of the communal harvesting areas; the interplay between access, land tenure and harvesting requires further research.

Thesis (Ph. D. (Botany)) -- University of Limpopo, 2020<br>Colophospermum mopane (Benth.) J. Léonard, commonly known as mopane, is a dominant tree or shrub in the mopane woodland. It is distributed in the low-lying areas of southern Africa’s savannas. Mopane maintains its foliage well into the dry season, and thus provides nutritional forage for browsers such as Tragelaphus strepsiceros, commonly known as the greater kudu. Despite its wide distribution and value as a source of forage for browsers, especially during the dry season, knowledge of the effect of browsers on mopane leaf quality is limited. There is also inadequate knowledge of the diet composition of the greater kudu during different seasons in the mopane woodland. Such information is important for proper management of browsers in the mopane woodland. As a result, a field experiment was conducted at Musina Nature Reserve, Limpopo Province, South Africa to determine the effect of pruning on mopane leaf phenology, production, macronutrients, trace elements and secondary metabolites. Pruning was conducted to simulate the effect of browsing by large herbivores such as the greater kudu on mopane leaf quality. In addition, rumen content analysis of greater kudu was conducted in order to quantify the amount of mopane and other plants browsed during the dry and wet seasons. Collected datasets were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. A two-tailed Mann-Whitney U-test was used to test the effect of pruning on mopane leaf phenology and production. The effect of pruning on the monthly concentration of macronutrients, trace elements and secondary metabolites was tested using a two-tailed t-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Equal Variance. The seasonal and annual effect of pruning on the concentration of macronutrients, trace elements and secondary metabolites was tested using One-Way Anova. Rumen datasets were analysed using the Pearson Correlation Coefficient. This study found that the rate of leaf phenology and production, including the concentration of certain macronutrients (Ca, K, N, P, S, Cl, Na, protein and fibre), trace elements (Fe, Mn, Mo, Cu, Zn and Se) and secondary metabolites (TP, CT and PPT) increased during leaf flush in October and then declined as the leaves ii matured and aged. However, the concentration of selected macronutrients (Mg and NO3) and trace elements (B, Co and F) increased when the leaves reached maturity in June, particularly during the leaf senescence stage, and declined thereafter. The concentration of macronutrients, trace elements and secondary metabolites between the control and pruned trees was statistically insignificant at P>0.05 for most samples. This study further showed that C. mopane contributed most (47%) to the diet of the greater kudu during the dry season. Other important dry season browse plants were Dichrostachys cinerea (30%), Commiphora edulis (12%), Grewia bicolor (6%) and Combretum apiculatum (5%). However, when gender was considered, the diet of the female greater kudu during the dry season consisted mainly of C. mopane (71%) and D. cinerea (22%). The diet of the male greater kudu contained less C. mopane (33%), but similar proportions of D. cinerea (31%) and other browse species. However, during the wet season, the diet of the greater kudu was mainly composed of C. apiculatum (43%). Other wet season browse plant species were Sclerocarya birrea (24%), C. mopane (12%) and Senegalia nigrescens (8%), with the contribution of the remaining species to the diet being insignificant. The diet of the female greater kudu in the wet season consisted mainly of C. apiculatum (44%) and C. mopane (20%), while the diet of the male mostly contained S. birrea (38%) and C. apiculatum (34%). It is concluded that the concentration of macronutrients, trace elements and secondary metabolites in mopane leaves is not dependent on <10% pruning, but seems to be associated with leaf growth stages. It is further concluded that the concentration of nutrients and chemical compound in mopane leaves has implications on the diet composition of browsers such as the greater kudu in the mopane woodland. The dependency of the greater kudu on species such as C. mopane and C. apiculatum as main sources of browse indicates the importance of these species to the diet of the greater kudu in the mopane woodland.<br>Deutscher Akademischer Austausch Dienst (DAAD) , National Research Foundation (NRF) and University of Limpopo (Biodiversity Research Chair)

M.Sc.<br>Imbrasia belina is a well-utilised natural resource in southern Africa. This resource can only be utilised sustainably after a thorough study of its ecology, breeding system and its genetic structures are assessed. The implementing of breeding programmes should be evaluated with well-defined management and conservation controls and regulations. The purpose of this study was to establish the amount of genetic variation and gene flow in two wild populations and the staggered generations of I. be/ina, and to determine which developmental stage should be used for further studies. Gene products of 41 protein-coding loci were analysed by horizontal starch gel electrophoresis. High levels of polymorphism (42% and 47%) and heterozygosity (0.182 to 0.21 0) were present in all groups. Results from initial studies indicated developmental constraints on the expression of several loci, namely CK, GPO and PEP-S. After further studies with larger sample sizes, it now appears that there are only allozyme and not isozyme differences between the individuals from the various developmental stages. The groups studied exhibit a large amount of variation within, but little differentiation and a large amount of gene flow between them. Results of the study indicate that the genetic diversity of I. be/ina populations is healthy. Thus, sustainable utilisation of the Messina Experimental farm (November/December) group is recommended due to the high heterozygosity and genetic variation in this population.

The main objective of this study is to examine the potential contribution of households’ involvement in mopane worm activities (harvesting, commercialisation and consumption) to households’ food security in the Mopani District of the Limpopo Province. Data was collected using a structured questionnaire from a stratified sample of 120 households, 60 of which are mopane worm harvesters. The Binary Logit Model was used to determine households’ socio-economic factors affecting participation in mopane worm harvesting. The results revealed that gender of the household head, age of the respondent, households’ size and the level of income per month increases the probability of households participating in mopane worm harvesting whilst distance to the market and food expenditure as well as religion (belonging to the Zion Christian Church) decreased the probability of being mopane worm harvester. The Ordinary Least Square (OLS) model was used to identify households’ socio-economic factors that determine the rate of commercialisation of mopane worms within harvesting households. 53 percent of the households commercialized their harvest. The model identified that gender, harvesting experience and income from mopane worm sales are the main factors determining commercialisation within harvesting households. The Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) was used to determine household food security status. The result revealed that about 20 percent of the harvesters were food secure, while 80 percent where food insecure. In addition, about 12 percent of the non-harvesters were food secured. An OLS model was also used to examine the impact of mopane worms in the food security status of the households in the Limpopo Province. The results revealed that age, education level of a household head, level of income, income from mopane worm sales and frequency of consuming mopane worm/day improve the food security status of households whilst households’ size and the distance to the market worsens the food security status of the households. The study found that about 48 to 60 percent of the households to be adopting less pervasive strategies like asking neighbours/family relatives for help, borrowing money for food and selling mopane worms for cash to protect their food consumption and over 70 percent adopted strategies like reducing food intake, portion size and eating less preferred food were adopted to modify their food consumption. The findings indicated that policy priorities should be focused on the promotion of harvesters associations for collective marketing and creating an enabling environment for sustainable harvesting and commercialisation.<br>M. Sc. Agric. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg 2013.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. August 2015<br>The impacts of mining on the environment continue to pose a risk in many regions. Palabora Mining Company (PMC) situated in Limpopo Province, South Africa is of environmental interest because of its shared border with South Africa’s Kruger National Park. PMC generates both gaseous (emitted from the reverberator (Rev; also known as a smokestack)) and solid (stored in the tailings storage facility (TSF)) waste products. To assess possible pollution to the environment from PMC’s activities, two study species were chosen, the Anomalous Emperor Moth (Imbrasia belina [Westwood 1849] (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae)) and its primary host the mopane tree (Colophospermum mopane [Kirk ex Benth.]). In addition to these two species being abundant on and around PMC, the mopane moth and all stages of its lifecycle are a source of food to many animals, and mopane caterpillars are a valuable source of food and income to many people in this region. Mopane caterpillars and mopane leaves were collected from on and around PMC at varying distances from the reverberator and TSF, as well as from several control sites. The elemental contents of these samples were analysed for 25 elements, focusing on copper, iron, aluminium, silicon, arsenic, zinc, nickel, lead, mercury, chromium and cadmium. In addition to these elemental analyses, the carbon and nitrogen isotopic compositions of these samples as well as caterpillar headwidth, body mass and mandible wear were also measured to assess the impacts of elemental concentrations on caterpillar growth. No mopane caterpillars were found at the two reverberator sites closest to the reverberator itself. Overall these two reverberator sites appear to be most contaminated, as concentrations of 14 of the 25 elements measured were highest in the mopane leaves from these two sites. The copper concentrations at these two sites, 42 ppm and 29 ppm respectively, were at levels that are considered toxic to plants. Assuming that 10 mopane caterpillars (each weighing 5g) are consumed a day, copper concentrations in the mopane caterpillar bodies across sites (between 8 ppm and 12 ppm) would equate to a maximum of 0.56 mg.day-1, which is less than the recommended maximum intake level of 10 mg.day-1 suggested for humans. As there was little difference between sites in terms of leaf carbon and nitrogen composition, elemental concentrations do not appear to be affecting the nutritional content of the leaves. This would suggest that caterpillar growth is not affected by elemental concentrations at sites where they can survive. Similarly, caterpillar headwidths did not vary greatly between sites for each instar, suggesting that elemental concentrations are not affecting mopane caterpillar growth. Headwidths and mandible wear were found to be useful tools to age mopane caterpillars within an instar, and can be used in future to ascertain if mopane caterpillars are bioaccumulating elements or eliminating excess elements when they moult.

Doctoral thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy to the Department of Development Studies, Faculty of Humanities at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2016.<br>Abstract This study examines the dynamics of power and the significance of local environmental knowledge in natural resource management in Zimbabwe’s communal areas. It uses a case study of Bulilima District, broken down into into 3 components (Wards) for manageability of the study, to analyse the power configurations and the role played by local environmental knowledge in influencing decision-making processes among actors in the district with regard to mopane worms (Imbrasis beilina is the scientific name while icimbi is the vernacular name) and mopane woodlands (Colophospermum mopane is the scientific name while iphane is the vernacular name). It examines the significance of local environmental knowledge, i.e. indigenous knowledge and knowledge that developed as a result of a combination of knowledges from different ethnic groups and modern science. The study further examines the dynamics of the gendered nature of mopane worms and woodlands tenure regimes by putting under the spotlight the spaces and places where men and women interact, use and exert control over mopane worms and woodlands. It places history at the centre of our understanding of contemporary power dynamics and helps us to appreciate the importance of how local environmental knowledge has changed over time. To this end, the study argues that some of the contemporary conflicts over resources have their roots in the colonial era when the colonial government appropriated land from the locals and introduced discourses and practices such as conservation. Furthermore, it argues and demonstrates that the state is a critical player in determining access, use and control of natural resources. Based on rich ethnographic data collected by means of critical observations, in-depth interviews, narratives, and archival data, as well as aided by a brief survey, the study concluded that natural resource governance is a complex phenomenon in developing states. Power and knowledge play significant roles in influencing access, use and control of mopane worms and woodlands. Furthermore, while some locals still possess indigenous knowledge, practices and belief systems related to natural resource management, these are now less significant in influencing decisions on natural resource management. Indeed, the interplay of knowledge and power in resource management sees scientific culture and outside knowledge taking precedence over local forms of knowledge in the management of natural resources in the district. Key words: power, local environmental knowledge, indigenous knowledge, ZANU PF, natural resource management, access, mopane worms and woodlands, Bulilima, Zimbabwe<br>GR2017

MSc (Zoology)<br>Department of Zoology<br>Mopane worm (Gonimbrasia belina Westwood) is an indigenous edible insect that periodically has population eruptions in Mopane tree (Colosphermum mopane) dominated vegetation. This insect is a valuable source of food and has become an economic commodity for commercial harvesters. Despite its importance, little is known of the population dynamics of mopane worm. Considerable attention has been paid to the nutritional and social dimensions of mopane worm consumption. However, anecdotal evidence suggests there is a decline in the spatial extent of their distribution due to unsustainable utilization, land transformation, and commercialization. This is paralleled with a decrease of harvest yield, thereby affecting local communities, commercial harvesting operations, and market product availability. Partial domestication of this species may be a way of ensuring sustainable and reliable utilization of this edible insect because it improves natural survival rates. Here I explore mopane worm ecology by mainly focusing on understanding spatial structuring and the role of domestication in the development of sustainable harvest techniques of Mopane worms (G. belina). Spatial structuring of mopane worms was investigated at both a fine (10m x 10m) and medium-scale (1 km2) at sites with and without commercial harvesting. Mopane worm populations were experimentally treated through transplant experiments and manipulating access of predators to 1st – 3rd instar larvae. The role of tree characteristics (height, canopy volume and number of stems) on both spatial and experimental treatments were explored using generalized linear mixed models. Moran’s Eigenvector Maps (MEM’s) were used to represent spatial structures at various scales and the role of soil. Relative to control, seeding of worms was successful in establishing new populations in unoccupied areas while transplant and application of sleeve nets had no significant effect on larval survival. Populations at sites where no harvesting takes place were spatially structured, while this was not true where commercial harvesting takes place. Canopy volume also accounted for egg packets distribution although the relationship was ambiguous. The density of larvae increased with an increase in sodium concentration in soil. Seeding of the population provides a viable option for the sustainable utilization of mopane worms and educating people on how to domesticate mopane worms. This study also highlights that populations of mopane worms are not only clumped in time but also in space and at various spatial scales.<br>NRF

Mopane (Colophospermum mopane) trees are browsed upon by two key species, namely mopane caterpillars (Imbrasia belina) and African elephants (Loxodonta africana), which each inflict a different type of damage while feeding, namely defoliation (leaf removal) and pruning (branch and/or stem breakage). Damage type can have a significant influence on plant responses, and these induced changes in morphological and chemical characteristics of regrowth can influence the subsequent feeding behaviour by each species. The objective of this study was therefore partly to investigate the differential effect of defoliation by mopane caterpillars and pruning by elephants on mopane trees, and then to investigate whether these two taxonomically different species interact through their shared food resource, by looking specifically at the effect of elephant utilisation of mopane on mopane caterpillar abundance. To determine the comparative effect of each browsing type, mopane trees were subjected to simulated mopane caterpillar or elephant utilisation treatments, at various frequencies and times within the year. Regrowth characteristics were then measured on treatment and control trees, as well as on naturally utilised and unutilised trees. Reproductive investment was also recorded on naturally utilised and unutilised trees. Additionally, the impact of mopane caterpillar defoliation and elephant pruning on plant stress was investigated by measuring the level of fluctuating asymmetry (FA) in leaves. Then, to determine whether there is an interaction between elephants and mopane caterpillars, mopane caterpillar egg mass abundance in areas of high elephant impact was compared to that in areas of low elephant impact. Firstly, however, in areas without elephant damage, those tree characteristics determining host tree preference by ovipositing mopane moths were identified. From this, an understanding of how elephant utilisation may influence mopane caterpillar abundance could therefore be gained. Defoliation and pruning had a significant different effect on mopane regrowth responses. Shoot and leaf length were significantly longer on pruned trees than control trees, for both naturally utilised and simulated elephant treatment trees, while there was no difference in shoot density. Defoliation, however, resulted in shorter shoots and leaves, particularly on naturally defoliated trees, which also had leaves of a higher nutritional value (tannin:protein ratio and total polyphenolic content) than control trees. A similar increase in leaf nutritional value was recorded in areas of high elephant impact in the Kruger National Park, but not after simulated or natural elephant damage in Venetia, where natural elephant utilization was less intense. Time since damage (i.e. first versus second flush) had a significant influence on regrowth after pruning, as shoot and leaf length were significantly longer on trees flushing for the first time, while within-season timing of damage was important for defoliation, as late-season defoliation had a greater negative impact than mid-season defoliation. Late-season defoliation also had a negative effect on leaf carriage into the dry season, while pruning appeared to aid leaf retention. Reproductive investment was found to be unaffected by mopane caterpillar defoliation or elephant pruning, as mean pod density and pod mass on utilised trees was no different to unutilised trees. Defoliation also had no influence on a plant’s likelihood of flowering that same season, with flowering being determined more by tree height. Unlike pod production, however, mean leaf density was significantly reduced in the regrowth of defoliated trees, presumably due to the use of stored resources for reproduction prior to the onset of regrowth. Neither simulated nor natural defoliation by mopane caterpillars and pruning by elephants was found to affect the level of leaf FA in mopane trees, even though the degree of damage inflicted on trees was considerably higher than in studies on other species where increases in FA were observed. Mopane therefore appears to be extremely tolerant of herbivory in comparison to other species. A positive relationship between leaf nutritional value (higher protein and lower tannin and polyphenolic content) and FA was detected, but only when trees from all study areas (i.e. a wide range of environmental conditions) were considered simultaneously. Environmental conditions, rather than herbivory, therefore appear to have a greater stressing affect on mopane. In the absence of heavy elephant utilisation of mopane trees, tree size, rather than shoot length, leaf length, leaf FA or leaf nutritional value, was found to have the greatest influence on oviposition behaviour of mopane moths. Ovipositing moths showed a preference for the tall riverine habitat over the shorter woodland and scrub mopane. This preference for large trees was, however, not evident at the individual tree level, as even though egg mass number per tree was positively related to tree height, large trees were not utilised more than expected according to the available canopy volume in each size class (resource availability). Heavy elephant utilisation of mopane had a negative impact on the density of tall trees within an area, due to branch and stem breakage while feeding. Unsurprisingly then, mopane caterpillar egg mass abundance was also significantly reduced in these areas, even though the nutritional value of leaves was higher than in non-elephant impacted areas. Elephants therefore appear to have a negative effect on mopane caterpillar abundance, primarily due to their negative impact on the density of tall mopane trees. This megaherbivore and invertebrate do therefore interact through their shared food resource, mopane trees.<br>Thesis (PhD (Zoology))--University of Pretoria, 2007.<br>Zoology and Entomology<br>unrestricted

The aim of this study was to investigate the evolution and impacts of mopane worm harvesting in central Botswana. Commercialisation of mopane worms has increased over the years and it is allegedly due to an ever-increasing demand both locally and regionally. Harvesters in some areas of southern Africa have employed new harvesting practices that quicken the harvesting process. Based on perceptions of the harvesters, the study assesses how harvesters in central Botswana have responded to the demand and how this response has impacted harvesting outputs. In order to assess motivations for harvesting, how harvesting trends have evolved over time and whether they have an impact on the mopane worms and their habitat, semi-structured interviews of harvesters were coupled with participant observations in the Tamasane-Kgagodi area, central Botswana. The survey was conducted during the harvesting season in December 2009. In contrast to previous studies this study revealed that harvesting methods have not changed significantly but that the number of mopane worms has declined due to climatic factors and over-harvesting due to a greater number of harvesters. People harvest mopane worms primarily for consumption and commercialisation purposes. The increasing number of harvesters is of concern and warrants active engagement of the government with rural communities to foster sustainable harvesting of mopane worms.