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Journal articles on the topic 'Moral Education in Africa'
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1
Kibera, Prof Lucy Wairimu. "Decolonizing Moral Education." International Journal for Innovation Education and Research 8, no. 11 (2020): 14–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.31686/ijier.vol8.iss11.2688.
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This paper has examined the importance of African Indigenous Moral Education versus Moral Education introduced by the colonizers in maintaining social fabric. In doing so, concepts pertaining to colonialism, decolonization, education, morals, have been defined. Further, aims of education of African Indigenous people have been articulated as well as their status in these societies and corresponding state of morality among Indigenous African people versus the rest of the world today. Finally, suggestions towards integration of African Indigenous Moral Education into school curriculum has been made.
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Poudiougo, Bakaye, and Sunil Kumar Saroha. "Moral Education and the Condition of Africa." Humanities and Social Sciences 8, no. 5 (2020): 147. http://dx.doi.org/10.11648/j.hss.20200805.13.
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Mapana, Kedmon Elisha. "Why the Enculturative Context of Moral Education Matters." Utafiti 15, no. 1 (2020): 28–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/26836408-15010021.
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Abstract Auto-ethnography is an effective methodology to reflect upon the moral values and their acquisition among the Wagogo people in central Tanzania against the background of postmodernity. In so doing I have identified the enculturative contexts within which I came to acquire the moral values that I live by, in particular my immediate family (i.e. my parents), the religion I was brought up in, and traditional school experiences (i.e. my initiation). I argue that despite contemporary theories of African character formation generating from the impact in Africa of cultural diversity and neuroscientific research, our traditional enculturative contexts of parenting, religious upbringing, and indigenous initiation ceremonies continue to have a central and enduring impact on the development of moral values among the Wagogo people of central Tanzania.
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Wolhuter, Charl, Jan Germen Janmaat, Johannes (Hannes) L. van der Walt, and Ferdinand J. Potgieter. "The role of the school in inculcating citizenship values in South Africa: Theoretical and international comparative perspectives." South African Journal of Education 40, Supplement 2 (2020): S1—S11. http://dx.doi.org/10.15700/saje.v40ns2a1782.
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In view of the serious moral decay in South African society, this article reports on our research regarding the role of the school in the inculcation of citizenship values (as part of the brief of South African education). We regard a set of citizenship values consonant with a democratic dispensation to be a core component of a moral order essential for South Africa. Using a combination of interpretive-constructivist and comparative approaches, we examine and evaluate the experiences of other post-conflict societies in using education to inculcate citizenship values. We conclude that schools can be successful with respect to the inculcation of citizenship values, provided that the curriculum itself does not discriminate against any group or category of people. Desegregation can only be beneficial in the absence of negative depiction (including criminalisation) or the unequal treatment of any particular societal grouping. Our research suggests that active citizenship education is needed in schools. For this reason, we contend that teacher education has to form an integral part of a moral revival project. Lastly, we highlight the importance of finding democratically agreed-upon ways to continually engage with parents, legal caregivers and other stakeholders and role-players before and during the execution of any such project.
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van den Toren, Dr Benno. "Teaching Ethics in the Face of Africa’s Moral Crisis: Reflections from a Guest." Transformation: An International Journal of Holistic Mission Studies 30, no. 1 (2013): 1–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0265378812468405.
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Though the Christian faith has in recent years increasingly shown itself to be a truly African religion, a variety of African authors such as Kä Mana, George Kinoti, Hannah Kinoti, August Shutte and Efoé Julien Penoukou have noted that sub-Saharan Africa is facing a moral crisis. This article explores this crisis in as far as it is caused by difficulties in the reception of the (Western) Christian ethic by African Christian communities. It points out that this crisis is visible in (a) double morality, (b) immorality and (c) legalism. It shows that it is both caused by rapid social change in contemporary Africa and by the way the Christian ethic was introduced with a lack of attention for (a) the relationship between worldview and ethics, (b) the social impact of changing cultural practices and (c) the importance of virtue ethics. In this way it also points to the shape Christian moral education for present-day Africa should take.
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Utietiang Ukelina, Bekeh. "The Mis-education of the African Child: The Evolution of British Colonial Education Policy in Southern Nigeria, 1900–1925." ATHENS JOURNAL OF HISTORY 7, no. 2 (2021): 141–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.30958/ajhis.7-2-3.
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Education did not occupy a primal place in the European colonial project in Africa. The ideology of "civilizing mission", which provided the moral and legal basis for colonial expansion, did little to provide African children with the kind of education that their counterparts in Europe received. Throughout Africa, south of the Sahara, colonial governments made little or no investments in the education of African children. In an attempt to run empire on a shoestring budget, the colonial state in Nigeria provided paltry sums of grants to the missionary groups that operated in the colony and protectorate. This paper explores the evolution of the colonial education system in the Southern provinces of Nigeria, beginning from the year of Britain’s official colonization of Nigeria to 1925 when Britain released an official policy on education in tropical Africa. This paper argues that the colonial state used the school system as a means to exert power over the people. Power was exercised through an education system that limited the political, technological, and economic advancement of the colonial people. The state adopted a curricular that emphasized character formation and vocational training and neglected teaching the students, critical thinking and advanced sciences. The purpose of education was to make loyal and submissive subjects of the state who would serve as a cog in the wheels of the exploitative colonial machine.
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Beyers, Eefke. "Towards a Formulation of a Philosophical Base for Education in South Africa." South African Journal of Psychology 26, no. 3 (1996): 191–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/008124639602600309.
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The reconstruction of educational practice in South Africa, should have as an aim the accommodation of local realities. It is argued that this can be achieved when educational practice is inspired by a specific idea of what it means to be fully human. A definition is given of what is meant by the term ‘humanness’ in the following terms: Full humanness exists where a person achieves agency. Agency can be conceptualized in terms of the three phenomena — autonomy, reflexivity and mutuality, the latter being the situational condition for the existence of the former. Autonomy and reflexivity develop on two conditions: (1) where the intersubjective experiences of a person are open and take place in a spirit of mutuality and through talk; and (2) where the moral order which regulates the intersubjectivity, protects both autonomy and reflexivity. In turn, the moral order should also be protected by the intersubjective context. Two paradoxical positions are therefore emphasized: humanness as an expression of agency and the moral order which supports the agency. Further thoughts are given on how this idea of full humanness differs from what has up to now dominated the educational scene, also on why it should lead to its improvement.
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Swartz, Sharlene. "The pain and the promise of moral education in sub‐Saharan Africa." Journal of Moral Education 39, no. 3 (2010): 267–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2010.497608.
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Muasya, Juliet Njeri. "Decolonizing Religious Education to Enhance Sustainable Development in Africa: Evidence from Literature." East African Journal of Education Studies 3, no. 1 (2021): 77–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.37284/eajes.3.1.320.
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Decolonizing knowledge is the process of questioning, changing and transforming imposed theories and interpretations brought about by colonial systems. In particular, decolonizing Religious Education involves challenging religious systems and structures imposed by colonial masters. During the colonial period, religion was used as a tool of 'racism', 'apartheid' ‘indoctrination’, ‘evangelisation’ and ‘exploitation’, yet it is a subject that acknowledges and respects the diversity of African beliefs and culture. By decolonizing the Religious Education curriculum, the subject is likely to become a powerful tool for promoting sustainable development in Africa. In this paper, I argue that decolonized Religious Education is likely to contribute to development in Africa in a variety of ways; resolving conflict and peacebuilding, management and conservation of natural resources, in addition to promoting appropriate religious beliefs and moral values. I conclude this paper by presenting a rationale for the inclusion of a multi-faith Religious Education curriculum in Kenya, while decolonizing Religious Education pedagogical approaches, in order to actualise Kenya's Vision 2030 and Big Four Agenda of the Jubilee Government
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Tavernaro-Haidarian, Leyla. "Decolonization and development: Reimagining key concepts in education." Research in Education 103, no. 1 (2019): 19–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0034523719839750.
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In view of the importance and urgency of transformation within post-colonial educational settings, this article considers key concepts in relation to re-curriculation efforts. It specifically discusses how the concepts of development and decolonization are typically understood and how they can be reimagined through the realism provided by the African moral philosophy of ubuntu. Ubuntu foregrounds deeply relational and immaterial notions of power, and through its lens development can be thought of in terms of ‘mutual empowerment’ and decolonization as a process of ‘constructive resilience’. The author elaborates on these definitions and draws on a practical example from an educational project in Limpopo, South Africa, to show how this can be operationalized and translated into the genesis of materials and methods that facilitate participatory citizenship.
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Joshua Narteh Kudadjie, Rev. "Challenges facing religious education and research in Africa: the Ghana case1." Religion and Theology 3, no. 2 (1996): 180–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157430196x00185.
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AbstractThis paper gives a sketch of religious education in Ghanaian schools from colonial and missionary times to the present. It makes some comments on the current Government policy, and advocates that religious and moral education should be given at all levels of the educational ladder. Difficulties facing religious education and the relative marginalistion of the subject are discussed, and some suggestions made to overcome them. The importance and relevance of religion in society is reiterated.
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Moses, Michele S. "Moral and Instrumental Rationales for Affirmative Action in Five National Contexts." Educational Researcher 39, no. 3 (2010): 211–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/0013189x10365086.
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The author’s primary aims are to clarify the differing rationales for affirmative action that have emerged in five nations—France, India, South Africa, the United States, and Brazil—and to make the case for the most compelling rationales, whether instrumentally or morally based. She examines the different social contexts surrounding the establishment and public discussion of each nation’s policy. Next, she examines four justifications for affirmative action in these nations: remediation, economics, diversity, and social justice. She offers philosophical analysis of the justifications for affirmative action in each country and synthesizes federal and state legislation, court decisions, news media sources, and research-based scholarship. She argues that the social justice rationale ought to be invoked more centrally, underscoring affirmative action’s role in fostering a democratic society.
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Daun, Holger. "Primary Education in Sub-Saharan Africa--a moral issue, an economic matter, or both?" Comparative Education 36, no. 1 (2000): 37–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03050060027755.
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Moja, Teboho, and Nico Cloete. "Transforming Higher Education in South Africa: A New Approach to Governance." Issue: A Journal of Opinion 24, no. 1 (1996): 10–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1548450500004893.
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A recent review of South African universities concluded that higher education institutions have “in place considerable facilities and a substantial capacity to respond to the reshaping of post-apartheid education. However, in general the historically white institutions (and a number of black institutions) have little moral and political legitimacy. In contrast, the majority of black institutions (and a few white institutions) have little or no academic credibility. Overall, the ‘system’ is seen as one that perpetuates inequality, is hugely wasteful and is not serving the human resource needs of the country. These problems have led to numerous demands for reforms in order to redress inequalities, and to ensure greater relevance, accountability and democracy.”
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Moja, Teboho, and Nico Cloete. "Transforming Higher Education in South Africa: A New Approach to Governance." Issue: A Journal of Opinion 24, no. 1 (1996): 10–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s004716070050211x.
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A recent review of South African universities concluded that higher education institutions have “in place considerable facilities and a substantial capacity to respond to the reshaping of post-apartheid education. However, in general the historically white institutions (and a number of black institutions) have little moral and political legitimacy. In contrast, the majority of black institutions (and a few white institutions) have little or no academic credibility. Overall, the ‘system’ is seen as one that perpetuates inequality, is hugely wasteful and is not serving the human resource needs of the country. These problems have led to numerous demands for reforms in order to redress inequalities, and to ensure greater relevance, accountability and democracy.”
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Swartz, Sharlene. "‘Moral ecology’ and ‘moral capital’: tools towards a sociology of moral education from a South African ethnography." Journal of Moral Education 39, no. 3 (2010): 305–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2010.497611.
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Mouton, Nelda, G. P. Louw, and G. Strydom. "Critical Challenges Of The South African School System." International Business & Economics Research Journal (IBER) 12, no. 1 (2012): 31. http://dx.doi.org/10.19030/iber.v12i1.7510.
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The emphasis in the new curriculum after 1996 in South Africa was placed on the transition from the traditional aims and objectives approach to Outcomes-based education (OBE) and Curriculum 2005. This paradigm shift was interpreted as a prerequisite for achievement of the vision of an internationally competitive country. When analysing the school system in South Africa it became clear that the education system was flawed, with poorly performing teachers, poor work ethics, lack of community and parental support, poor control by education authorities, poor support for teachers and very low levels of accountability. These factors further spilled over into the morale of learners and could be seen in the lack of discipline, brutal violence in schools, low moral values, truancy, absenteeism, late coming and high dropout rates from Grade 1 to Grade 12 and very poor performance in essential areas such as Mathematics and Literacy. Citizens in historically disadvantaged areas tend to become victims of poverty, gangs and drug abuse. These factors further blend with the evil of politics in South African schools which are furthermore plagued by various forms of corruption and socio-economic challenges. Eighteen years after the end of the apartheid dispensation, apartheid is still blamed by many for any real or imagined ills in society, but the reality is that there is no political will to enforce the law or to meet public expectations of accountability, efficiency and delivery. In the light hereof, recommendations are proposed that will address these challenges. The critical message of this article will convey that the fact of the matter is that learner enrolment is not the same as attendance and attendance does not imply learning. Therefore, teaching in South Africa must become a profession of preference and pride as opposed to the present very lackadaisical attitude.
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Jensen, Geoffrey. "Toward the ‘Moral Conquest’ of Morocco: Hispano–Arabic Education in Early Twentieth-Century North Africa." European History Quarterly 31, no. 2 (2001): 205–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026569140103100204.
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Trowler, Vicki, Robert Allan, and Rukhsana Din. "The Mystery of the Missing Men." Boyhood Studies 12, no. 2 (2019): 51–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/bhs.2019.120204.
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There is something of a moral panic about the relative paucity of men in higher education in many countries. Closer examination shows that it is often men from subordinate groups in their contexts, such as working-class men (in the UK context) or African men (in the South African context) who are most underrepresented. This article draws on research in Scotland, South Africa and England to examine the experiences of young men positioned as “nontraditional” in their localized HE contexts who do attend university. Our studies found their experience of “belong-ing” to be mediated by their underrepresentation, as well as constructions of masculinity at system/context or at individual/group level. Understanding the latter can help ameliorate the effects of the former.
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Washington, Valora. "Child Care Policy, African Americans, and Moral Dilemmas." Journal of Negro Education 60, no. 3 (1991): 388. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2295491.
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Wandera, Moses. "Indigenous African Education for Socio- Economic Development." Msingi Journal 1, no. 1 (2018): 267–316. http://dx.doi.org/10.33886/mj.v1i1.64.
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Education in Africa has been in existence since time immemorial. This study sought to examine the activities of Lantana in Benin on their specialised training, Dogon of Mali in their world view, Futo Toro of Senegal in their various trades, Poro of Sierra Leone in the training of the youth, Takensi of Ghana in their social order and the Akan of Ghana. Also examined are the activities of the Chamba and Yoruba of Nigeria in their adult centred training and forecasting of the future respectively. The Chagga of Tanzania and the Abakwayaare were also examined on their initiative plays and economic activities. The paper also studied the Ndembu of Zambia on the past analysis and the activities of the Mijikenda of Kenya among other Kenyan tribes. The study used the theoretical framework of Emile Durkheim on the social and moral order, while the design of the study was on content analysis of available information and expectations. The study recommends positive approaches in the indigenouseducation that can be adapted, mainly for Kenya in its desire to achieve Vision 2030. However, further research should be done on specific values, foods, attitudes and the rule of law, how achieve social, political and economic progress in African nations and especially how the current economic integration blocks have followed the same pattern of the communities and their values.
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Price, Leigh. "Conserving (not preserving) culture: Avoiding the damage to culture of veiled moralism in HIV education." Southern African Journal of HIV Medicine 10, no. 2 (2009): 12. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/sajhivmed.v10i2.295.
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Language mechanisms in much HIV discourse insist that a Western-based moralism dominates. These mechanisms include: the use of strategic absences of information about the moral grounding of texts; and slippages of meaning, where one word is used to refer to many meanings. A common slippage of meaning is the use of the word ‘polygamy’ to refer to a range of behaviours, thus hiding low HIV risk sexual practices (polyfidelity) under the same umbrella as high risk practices (promiscuity) and advocating their general removal. Another dubious method of achieving a moral position is to take a true premise and use it to advance a false conclusion. For example, the true premise that wife inheritance in its historical form is an HIV risk does not automatically lead to the conclusion that wife inheritance ‘must’ be eradicated. This is only one possible conclusion. Another, more culturally sensitive, conclusion could be that wife inheritance should be embarked upon, as should all sexual relationships, in a context of HIV tests, and safer sexual practice. I argue that moralism (such as ‘wife inheritance is morally wrong’) cloaked as science (the claim that science ‘proves’ the moral position that wife inheritance is wrong) is a threat to traditional culture and discriminates against up-holders of traditional lifestyles. Drawing primarily from my experience of HIV education in a development setting in Southern Africa, I offer a weak (realist) moral relativism as an alternative to, on the one hand, the positivist-based, absolutist morality which threatens to destroy traditional cultures in the name of HIV education and, on the other hand, extreme cultural relativism in which ‘anything goes’. Possibly, HIV educators have not done enough to include some traditional safer sex practices in their professional inventory of acceptable behaviours, such as hlobonga (thigh sex) and polygamy interpreted as polyfidelity. My hope is that by being more respectful of traditional culture, whilst encouraging cultural change where necessary, HIV education will register greater success in achieving safer sexual practice. This article will be particularly useful for writers and researchers tasked with achieving behavioural change and/or tasked with writing educational materials on HIV in the Southern African context.
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Ndubuwa, Ohaeri Nnaemeka. "Leadership flaws in 2 Samuel 11: lessons for African leaders." OGIRISI: a New Journal of African Studies 15, no. 1 (2020): 1–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/og.v15i1.1s.
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Flaws in leadership are as old as man but in contrast to Divine purpose for humanity. The good intention of the Creator was for human Beings to lead and enjoy all creatures on earth, but human deviation from Divine instruction flawed that leadership mandate and ushered suffering to human race. Similarly, the high rate of moral decadence, insecurity, insurgency, poverty, and political instability in Africa have recently gained global attention and shock, considering the wealth of human and natural resources endowed. Scholars had blamed African leaders for underdevelopment due to corruption whereas inadequate effort had been exacted on theological lessons from the Old Testament to salvage Africa from the menace. This paper employed a historical-critical method to examine the leadership flaws in 2 Samuel 11, and apply same to African context, with the aim of elucidating the causes and effects of leadership failures in governance. The paper discovered that leadership flaws are not spontaneous but evolve from untamed sporadic dispositions of inward indiscipline that manifest in form of lust, hypocrisy, conspiracy, assassination, promiscuity, hubris, cupidity and other social vices. The attitude of African leaders, in recent times, have hampered the democratic process in governance thereby giving room to ethnic divisions, imposition pattern of leadership selection process, inequitable resource control, economic backwardness and mediocrity in education amongst others. This paper therefore recommended self-discipline, fear of God, dialogue, equitable resource control, religious reproof, empathy, checks and balances for the minimization of leadership fallibilities and maximization of good governance in African Society.
Keywords: Leadership, Flaws, Africa, Lessons
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Mogadime, Dolana, PJ (Kobus) Mentz, Denise E. Armstrong, and Beryl Holtam. "Constructing Self as Leader: Case Studies of Women Who Are Change Agents in South Africa." Urban Education 45, no. 6 (2010): 797–821. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0042085910384203.
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The present article draws from the biographical narratives of three South African high school female principals which are part of a larger research study in which 26 aspiring and practicing women school leaders were interviewed. Narratives were constructed from in-depth interviews with each participant and analyzed for themes that provided insights into the skills, knowledge, and understanding that contribute to an effective African-centered leadership style that values three key principles of ubuntu: spirituality, interdependence, and unity. Findings indicate these women’s narratives are a testimony to their moral and ethical commitments in which social emancipation, compassion, and care for the community’s children are firmly rooted at the center of their leadership style. This study answers the call for research that explores context-specific leadership.
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Cazarin, Rafael. "The Social Architecture of Belonging in the African Pentecostal Diaspora." Religions 10, no. 7 (2019): 440. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel10070440.
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From megachurches in movie theatres to prayer groups held in living rooms, Pentecostals worldwide are constantly carrying out religious activities that ultimately aim to integrate diverse worshippers into the kingdom of God. Born-again Christians refashion their ‘ways of being’ by breaking down and re-establishing the interpersonal relationships shaped and changed by emerging diasporic modernities. I examined some of these changing ways of being by comparing the discursive practices of African Pentecostal pastors in Johannesburg (South Africa) and Bilbao (Spain). These case-studies demonstrate how these migrant-initiated churches create a ‘social architecture’, a platform on which African worshippers find social and spiritual integration in increasingly globalized contexts. I argue that the subdivision of large congregations into specialized fellowship groups provides African migrants with alternative strategies to achieve a sense of belonging in an expanding diasporic network. Their transformative mission of spiritual education, by spreading African(ized) and Pentecostal values according to age, gender, or social roles, helps to uplift them from being a marginalized minority to being a powerful group occupying a high moral ground.
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Lamlani Khathi, Joseph. "Lived Experiences of Teachers on the Integration of Values Education in Learners in South African High Schools." African Journal of Development Studies (formerly AFFRIKA Journal of Politics, Economics and Society) 11, no. 1 (2021): 147–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.31920/2634-3649/2021/v11n1a7.
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Value education is seen as one of the necessary tools for addressing moral deterioration in the South African society of today. The school is viewed as one of the key change agents in nurturing children into adulthood, where teaching of values can give the growing generation the needed moral development. The aim of this study is to explore teachers’ experiences on the integration of values education into learners in South African high schools. Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development was used as a lens to understand the integration of values education in a semi-structured focus group interview with five purposively selected teachers from each school. A total of 25 teachers from five public schools in King Cethswayo district in KwaZulu-Natal province participated. The collected data was thematically analysed and themes were interpretively discussed. The findings revealed that teachers’ perception of values education affect its integration in schools. The role modelling of the learners by both teachers and parents is central to saving the society from moral decadence. However, limitations such as over crowded classes, single parenthood, and social media affect the effective integration of values education in schools. The study therefore, recommends mutual cooperation between the school and parents, the Department of Basic Education should provide adequate professional development training for teachers on the integration of values education, and schools should be provided with counselling psychologists to correct learners’ misbehaviours and promote effective integration of values education in schools.
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Nzembe, Alois. "Lecturers′ Perceptions of Leadership Traits which Promote Motivation in a South African Technical and Vocational, Education and Training (TVET) College." Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies 6, no. 2 (2017): 49–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/ajis-2017-0006.
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Abstract Educator morale has been a focus of educational leaders and managers throughout the world, because without educator motivation and morale the learning and teaching in our schools would be grossly compromised. It is against this background that this research was carried out to find out lecturers’ perceptions of leadership traits which promote motivation in a Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) college in South Africa. The research questions which guided this research were as follows: What are lecturers′ perceptions of leadership traits which promote motivation in an educational and training institution in South Africa? How can educational leaders and management in South Africa integrate their experiences and practices with what educators believe are the main drivers of high lecturer morale? A qualitative study was used to generate data that would be useful in answering the research questions. The nature of this qualitative study required in-depth interviews with participants where qualitative data was generated and interpreted. The researcher saw it fit to use in-depth interviews because this method of data generation would enable the researcher to capture the perspectives, views and opinions of participants about leadership traits which facilitate motivation in the South African TVET College in particular and the South African education system in general. The views of the participants showed that leadership traits such as accountability, responsibility, empathy, decisiveness, assertiveness, charisma, pro-activeness, motivation and communication are the life-blood, foundation and bed-rock of effective leadership and management in the TVET College.
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Iita, Ananias, and Sakaria M. Iipinge. "The Implementation of New Religious and Moral Education Curriculum in Post-Independent Namibia." Msingi Journal 1, no. 2 (2018): 58–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.33886/mj.v1i2.77.
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This paper investigated the perceptions of Religious and Moral Education (RME) teachers with regard to the implementation of RME syllabus in Namibia. The paper engages a crucial global debate on paradigms for teaching religion and moral values while contributing to the literature through research in the Ompundja Circuit of Oshana Region, Namibia. Contrary to the previous colonial era when Christianity was the only recognized religion, the Republic of Namibia adopted a new constitution making it a secular state upon independence in 1990. This new constitution, however, brought new challenges to teachers who were previously trained only to teach Biblical Studies as a school subject. With this new constitution, Namibia adopted a policy of teaching a multi-cultural religious and moral education curriculum. The teaching of RME replaced Biblical Studies in the Namibian curriculum. Teachers are now required to make their learners aware of the different religious and moral values of Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, African traditional religions, Bahai and others inextricably. This, paper, therefore, presents findings from a case study research conducted at Ompundja Circuit of Oshana Region in Namibia that examined the perceptions of Religious and Moral Education (RME) teachers with regard to the implementation of RME syllabus. Fourteen teachers from selected schools participated in this study. Teachers were interviewed, observed and later completed a set of questionnaire. Findings indicated that teachers’individual religious and moral values shaped the teaching and learning process; teachers’ individual religious and moral values played a major role regarding conflicting concerns over RME; and as most RME teachers were Christian, they felt a commitment to share their personal Christian religious beliefs and moral values. The paper recommends that teachers be provided with the necessary teaching resources and be trained to develop more confidence and broad understanding of RME as a subject.
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Mwamwenda, Tuntufye S. "Three Educational and Moral Questions regarding AIDS among South African Education Students." Psychological Reports 92, no. 1 (2003): 349–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.2003.92.1.349.
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Two objectives were explored: the extent to which undergraduates supported the admission to school of children with HIV, whether HIV sufferers were to blame for their illness, and AIDS was direct punishment from God. While 93 of 164 respondents did not think AIDS was punishment from God and 105 did not support exclusion of school children with AIDS, 75 and 49 held the opposite views, respectively. There was no conclusive support for whether HIV carriers were to blame for their disease; 70 responded yes, 75 no, and 12 I don't know.
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Metz, Thaddeus. "Higher Education, Knowledge for Its Own Sake, and an African Moral Theory." Studies in Philosophy and Education 28, no. 6 (2009): 517–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11217-009-9141-7.
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Parrott, R. Joseph. "Boycott Gulf! Angolan Oil and the Black Power Roots of American Anti-Apartheid Organizing." Modern American History 1, no. 2 (2018): 195–220. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/mah.2018.13.
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In the early 1970s, the African American divestment and boycott campaign against Gulf Oil's operations in colonial Angola bridged the gap between Black Power and anti-apartheid, two movements generally viewed separately. The success of the Boston-based activist couple Randall and Brenda Robinson in educating and mobilizing African Americans against investment in colonialism—first with the Southern Africa Relief Fund (SARF) and later with the Pan-African Liberation Committee (PALC)—reveals how a leftist anti-imperial ideology linked the domestic concerns of black Americans with African revolutions. At the same time, the Gulf campaign's participatory tactics, moral appeals, and critique of the global economic system proved attractive beyond radical Black Power advocates, allowing the PALC to cultivate relationships with African American politicians and build alliances across racial divides. Randall Robinson later replicated this organizing model as the founding director of TransAfrica, which became the most prominent African American organization opposing apartheid in the 1980s.
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Falah, Ahmad. "KONSEP PENDIDIKAN ANAK MENURUT IBNU KHALDUN (Studi Atas Kitab Muqaddimah)." ThufuLA: Jurnal Inovasi Pendidikan Guru Raudhatul Athfal 2, no. 1 (2018): 83. http://dx.doi.org/10.21043/thufula.v2i1.4267.
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<p>The concept of a child’s education, according to Ibn Khaldun<br />in his book Prolegomena can be grouped into several important part of<br />the concept and his thinking, ie on the basics of education, the division<br />of sciences, there is science and science naqliyah aqliyah, the basic<br />principles of Islamic education, educational purposes, methods, materials,<br />nature educators and students as well as a discussion of the teaching<br />of the Koran and Arabic for the countries of the Arab world and Africa<br />The purpose of education according to Ibn Khaldun is the religious and moral<br />education, Islamic education and the world’s attention to the interests of<br />religion, Islamic education prioritize aspects of expediency, Islamic education<br />to educate children to study not merely for science alone but for the provisions<br />that can be applied to the next life, Islamic education is concerned with<br />vocational education (vocational), art, carpentry in order to find work and<br />good luck.<br />Curriculum (material) according to Ibn Khaldun is material to the base rate<br />includes: Koran, joints religion, reading, writing, arithmetic, the basics of the<br />Arabic language, moral education, stories, syi’ir and ktrampilan, and material<br />to a high level (higher education) include religion and literatures, and sciences<br />that support the life eg foreign language.</p>
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Azuakor, Okwuchukwu. "Human rights and leadership in Africa: the Nigerian connection in Buhari Administration." UJAH: Unizik Journal of Arts and Humanities 20, no. 3 (2020): 151–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ujah.v20i3.9.
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Human Rights are moral norms or principles which describe certain standards of human behaviour. These rights are regarded under municipal and international law as natural and legal entitlements of all individuals and are thus protected. Such rights include right to life, right to social security, right to freedom of thought, right to freedom of speech, right to religious freedom, right to private property, right to democracy, right to gainful employment, etc. The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights lists 30 of such rights. The Nigerian constitution also covers human rights. But leadership in Africa has many times been faced with issues of abuse of human rights; Nigeria not being an exception. This paper is interested in investigating the extent to which these rights have been respected or abused in Africa, but with special focus on Nigeria, and the Buhari administration as the special interest. The theoretical framework is the historical and the tools of enquiry are the critical, the analytical and expository. Recommendations include: evolution of solid political ideology of leadership couched on service for Africa by Africans, demolition of the cankerworm of tribalism in Africa/Nigeria, the elimination of religious fanaticism, education in ideal humanity from earliest childhood, etc.
Keywords: Human Rights, Africa, Nigeria, leadership, Buhari administration
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Botha, Annalie, Ina Joubert, and Anna Hugo. "Children’s perceptions of democratic values: Implications for democratic citizen education." South African Journal of Childhood Education 6, no. 1 (2016): 8. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/sajce.v6i1.343.
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A new generation of children are learning the importance of democratic values at a level which makes sense to them. Appropriate ‘democratic values’ for South Africa are set out in the Constitution, and the national curriculum aims to equip all learners with the knowledge and skills necessary for meaningful participation in society. In many schools, these values – responsibility, respect and the freedom of self-expression – are merely posted on the walls of classrooms, but are not integrated into the subject content. This article proposes that teachers need to determine children’s perceptions of the values in question, and these should be the starting point for teaching democratic values. Young children need to understand and experience values in the classroom, suitable to the development of their moral reasoning. To concretise concepts of values, we used the ‘pledge tree’ activity in an intervention, in which 9-year-old children wrote their values on paper ‘leaves’ which they then posted on a huge polystyrene tree. The paper reports on this experience as a research investigation, capturing children’s ideas.
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Harsh, Matthew, Kerry Holden, Jameson Wetmore, G. Pascal Zachary, and Ravtosh Bal. "Situating science in Africa: The dynamics of computing research in Nairobi and Kampala." Social Studies of Science 49, no. 1 (2019): 52–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0306312719829595.
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Since the turn of the century, both Kampala and Nairobi have experienced a dramatic growth of computer science research, challenging accepted views of science in Africa. We deploy qualitative methods to follow active computer science researchers, graduate students, policy makers, administrators and entrepreneurs, in order to understand how computer science is enacted in these two cities. Our analysis focuses on four interrelated areas of labor, institutions, identities and scale. We illustrate the dynamics and frictions of computer science research across these areas, revealing the interlacing of moral economies of science and the political economy of higher education, the management of precarious professional lives and desire to get research done, and the pluralistic imaginations and multiple scales of computer science. Urban centers in East Africa are increasingly active in supporting granular and connective research communities that are socially transformative in ways that challenge conventional views of Africa as technologically dry. In this way, the computer science communities of Nairobi and Kampala are instructive for thinking about new geographies of science and technology studies.
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Wilder, Lynn, David Sanon, Cecil Carter, and Michael Lancellot. "Narrative Ethnographies of Diverse Faculty in Higher Education: “Moral” Multiculturalism among Competing Worldviews." Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies 4, no. 2 (2017): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/76.
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Since the Civil Right Movement in the United States, African Americans and other diverse students have forged through “integrated” educational systems to terminal graduate degrees. Some studies suggest racial integration in U. S. schools made White participants less prejudiced toward others, although the data showed that after schooling, many Whites again lived (and still do) in segregated neighborhoods with separation in places of employment, churches, and social groups (Wells, Holme, Revilla, & Atanda, 2004). One diverse participant in this study asked whether, after decades of integration, there has been any real progress, citing excellent educational experiences with all Black teachers within the all Black schools where he grew up. Is it truly progress for diverse students when they are bussed across town to be treated as minorities in mostly White schools? More diverse students do graduate from college; however, the diversity rate of professors is still abysmal. This study reports the contextual experiences of three African American (one an administrator) and one Latina faculty member with decades of experience in the public educational system and as they engaged in the culture of higher education struggling with a moral multiculturalism—whether worldviews (therefore free speech) could be morally determined and whether they as diverse faculty truly belong and are truly respected.
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METZ, THADDEUS. "The Final Ends of Higher Education in Light of an African Moral Theory." Journal of Philosophy of Education 43, no. 2 (2009): 179–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9752.2009.00689.x.
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Mitchell, Gordon. "Principles in the Development of Religious and Moral Education in South African Schools." British Journal of Religious Education 18, no. 1 (1995): 55–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0141620950180108.
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Isaak, Paul. "Education and Religion in Secular Age from an African Perspective." Education Sciences 8, no. 4 (2018): 155. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/educsci8040155.
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In this article the author shall argue that before Namibian independence in 1990, Christianity was used by some as a weapon of breaking down, or as a tool of, colonialism, racism, and apartheid. In the name of a religious god unashamed acts of violence and wars were committed and resulted in genocide of 1904 to 1908. However, such brutalities did not conquer the African spirit of what is identified in this article as the Ubuntu (humaneness). Inspired by their sense of Ubuntu the Africans, in the face of German colonialism and the South African imposed Apartheid system, finally emerged victorious and accepted the model of religious pluralism, diversity, and the principle of African Ubuntu. We shall, furthermore, argue that the Namibian educational system and the Namibian Constitution, Articles 1 and 21, the Republic of Namibia is established as a secular state wherein all persons shall have the right to freedom to practise any religion and to manifest such practice. It means religious diversity and pluralism is a value, a cultural or religious or political ideology, which positively welcomes the encounter of religions. It is often characterized as an attitude of openness in a secular state towards different religions and interreligious dialogue and interfaith programs. As an example we shall focus on the subject of Religious and Moral Education where such religious diversity and pluralism are directly linked to political, social, and economic issues, as well as moral values.
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Coldwell, David Alastair, Robert Venter, and Emmanuel Nkomo. "Developing ethical managers for future business roles: a qualitative study of the efficacy of “Stand-Alone” and “Embedded” University “Ethics” courses." Journal of International Education in Business 13, no. 2 (2020): 145–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jieb-08-2019-0040.
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Purpose While the problem of unethical leadership is undoubtedly a global one, the urgency of generating ethical leadership to advance the development of Africa has never been more evident than it is today. The challenge for higher education in developing ethical leaders is of core importance, as it is responsible for providing the main recruiting ground of business leaders. The current paper reports findings of a qualitative study of postgraduate students’ ethical development at the end of courses in business ethics aimed to enhance moral reasoning and ethical decision-making. The paper aims to ascertain whether stand-alone ethics courses are more effective than integrated ones in achieving academic ethical competency. Design/methodology/approach The study adopts an idiographic approach which aims at eliciting individual student subjective perceptions of the effects of the direct and indirect courses of ethical instruction on their moral reasoning and ethical practice. The research design broadly follows Mill’s (2017) method of difference. Findings Findings indicate perceived differences in the relative effectiveness of stand-alone and embedded ethics courses among students but also show that most students hold positive overall evaluations of the effectiveness of the both types of ethics instruction. Research limitations/implications Limitations to the study include that it is cross-sectional, involves a small sample of postgraduate students and is restricted to two management courses at one institution of higher learning. Furthermore, while Mill (2017) provides a useful research design in this context, it is not able to indicate causality, as there are other possible unidentified “third variables” that may be the actual cause of student differences between embedded and stand-alone ethics courses. The study is not able to show the durability and transfer of ethical competencies into students’ later working lives. Practical implications The study provides a useful practical educational contribution to the extant knowledge in the field in that it suggests that ethical courses aimed at giving students a moral reasoning “toolkit” for ethical decision-making are more effective when delivered in the stand-alone format, whereas practical decision-making skills are best honed by embedded business ethics courses. Social implications The problem of corruption in business and politics in South Africa is widely documented and has been regarded as responsible for creating a serious developmental drag on the alleviation of poverty and quality of lives of the majority of people in the country. The moral/ethical competency and behavior of future business leaders is partly the responsibility of institutions of higher learning. The study aims to find the most effective means of imparting moral awareness in postgraduate students who are likely to take up business leadership positions in their future careers. Originality/value The study provides useful contribution to the extant knowledge in the field in the African context in that it suggests that ethical courses aimed at giving students a moral reasoning “toolkit” for ethical decision-making are more effective when delivered in the stand-alone format, whereas practical decision-making skills are best honed by embedded business ethics courses.
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Schulz, Dorothea E., and Souleymane Diallo. "Competing Assertions of Muslim Masculinity in Contemporary Mali." Journal of Religion in Africa 46, no. 2-3 (2016): 219–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15700666-12340085.
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This article counters the ‘female bias’ of scholarship on Islam and gender in Africa by exploring competing understandings of ideal masculinity and what it means to be a respectable Muslim in urban Mali. Special attention is paid to competing constructions of Muslim masculinity that inform the project of Islamic moral and political reform that has gained currency in southern and northern Mali in recent decades. The article scrutinizes the double idiom of reform and conservation articulated by leading spokesmen of Islamic renewal in different parts of Mali and their varying ways of incorporating transnational Islamic intellectual influences. While living conditions in the urban south and north of the country grant young men unequal chances for economic success and political influence, they all face a situation in which education generates and reproduces structural inequality, granting uneven chances for employment, social maturity, and respectability. It is because of their shared dilemmas that many young men support moral and political reform that allows them to gain respectability as a man and ‘proper’ Muslim. By considering the political aspirations, social grievances, and constructions of masculinity articulated by different categories of young men, the article demonstrates the heterogeneity and entanglements of the visions and measures promoted under the heading of political and moral Islamic renewal in Mali.
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Solum, Eva Merethe, Veronica Mary Maluwa, Bodil Tveit, and Elisabeth Severinsson. "Enhancing students’ moral competence in practice." Nursing Ethics 23, no. 6 (2016): 685–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0969733015580811.
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Background: Nurses and student nurses in Malawi often encounter challenges in taking a moral course of action. Several studies have demonstrated a need for increased awareness of ethical issues in the nursing education. Objective: To explore the challenges experienced by nurse teachers in Malawi in their efforts to enhance students’ moral competence in clinical practice. Research design: A qualitative hermeneutic approach was employed to interpret the teachers’ experiences. Participants and research context: Individual interviews (N = 8) and a focus group interview with teachers (N = 9) from different nursing colleges were conducted. Ethical considerations: Ethical approval was granted and all participants signed their informed consent. Findings: Two overall themes emerged: (1) authoritarian learning climate, with three subthemes: (a) fear of making critical comments about clinical practice, (b) fear of disclosing mistakes and lack of knowledge and (c) lack of a culture of critical discussion and reflection that promotes moral competence; and (2) discrepancy between expectations on learning outcome from nursing college and the learning opportunities in practice comprising three subthemes: (a) gap between the theory taught in class and learning opportunities in clinical practice, (b) lack of good role models and (c) lack of resources. Discussion: Our findings indicated that showing respect was a central objective when the students were assessed in practice. A number of previous studies have enlightened the need for critical reflection in nursing education. Few studies have linked this to challenges experienced by teachers for development of moral competence in practice. This is one of the first such studies done in an African setting. Conclusion: There is a clear relationship between the two themes. A less authoritarian learning climate may enhance critical reflection and discussion between students, teachers and nurses. This can narrow the gap between the theory taught in college and what is demonstrated in clinical practice. Moral competence must be enhanced in order to ensure patients’ rights and safety.
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Bhana, Deevia. "Parental views of morality and sexuality and the implications for South African moral education." Journal of Moral Education 42, no. 1 (2013): 114–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2012.737314.
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Janks, Hilary. "Critical literacy and the social justice project of education." English Teaching: Practice & Critique 16, no. 2 (2017): 132–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/etpc-09-2016-0111.
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Purpose This paper aims to problematise the notion of social justice and the moral project that underpins critical literacy education. In plural societies, do we all have a shared understanding of what social justice is or how education, currently a dividing practice, might contribute to a better social order? Do we know what “better” looks like and for whom? Design/methodology/approach This is a conceptual paper which examines some of the complexities involved in the constitution of a shared moral order for the creation of social justice in a plural society. Findings There are no findings as such. The paper constructs an argument which makes clear that moral decisions depend on reason. Research limitations/implications South African examples together with examples from Europe, Burma, the USA and the UK are included to support the argument. This paper makes suggestions as to how readers can connect examples elsewhere with their own contexts and why distance is sometimes helpful. Practical implications The paper underlines the importance of ethics and morality for deciding whether interests at work in texts, discourses and practices should be supported or resisted. It also suggests that critical literacy has to recognize that the ground is shifting away from texts and discourse to include a focus on material practices that affects the planet and all the living and non-living entities entangled there. Social implications The paper argues that the ability to critically interrogate texts, broadly defined, is fundamentally important for democratic citizenship. Originality/value Social justice is widely used in the literature on education as if there were a shared understanding of what it is. This paper invites readers to consider the complications caused by different constructions of norms and morality in different communities and the implications of this for classrooms.
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Tetlák, Örs. "Választások és politikai szereplők a Dél-afrikai Köztársaságban." Afrika Tanulmányok / Hungarian Journal of African Studies 13, no. 3-4. (2020): 5–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.15170/at.2019.13.3-4.1.
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After the wasted decade of the Zuma presidency, Cyril Ramaphosa promised a renewal in South Africa in 2018. The post-state capture condition of the former economic and moral champion of the continent did not favor to regain either the confidence of the voters or of the investors. While the country had been prepairing for the sixth free general elections (25 years after the fall of the apartheid-regime), most of the domestic socio-economic problems remained unsolved. Inequality, unemployment, education, corruption, land reform and provision of public services are still the most important topics of the public talk and determined the focus of the campaign. The publication introduces the party structure of the country, the leaders of the biggest South African parties, what is more the causes and the consequences of the sixth consecutive success of the African National Congress (ANC). The article includes an analysis of the results of the national and provincial elections and beside the electoral analysis the author tries to introduce the dynamics of power within the factions of the ruling African National Congress party, adding an outlook on the members of the new Ramaphosa Cabinet. Last but not least the publication describes the most important authorities and bodies who tackle the thriving corruption in the ANC and in the subsystems of the state.
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Burchardt, Marian. "‘We are saving the township’: Pentecostalism, faith-based organisations, and development in South Africa." Journal of Modern African Studies 51, no. 4 (2013): 627–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022278x13000608.
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ABSTRACTIn this article, I trace the emergence of Pentecostal FBOs in the South African city of Cape Town. By focusing on their involvements in HIV/AIDS programmes, including practices such as health education, counselling and material support, I analyse the organisational dynamics and consequences ensuing from their activities. Pentecostal involvements in development work engender complex connections between two distinct processes: On the one hand, they offer Pentecostal communities new social spaces for promoting their faith and moral agendas. On the other hand, development work urges Pentecostal communities to recast their activities in the logic of formal organisation and accountability (proposals–grants–projects). On the ground, these logics are constantly subverted as beneficiaries construe FBOs aspatronsand deploy Pentecostal identities for mediating access to FBOs and the resources they command. My argument is that Pentecostal faith works to mediate the entire set of social relationships, expectations, imageries and practices that structure FBO work on the ground. More than belief and ritual, it isPentecostal belongingthat links organisations, people, opportunities and resources.
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Vandeyar, Saloshna, and Thirusellvan Vandeyar. "Opposing Gazes: Racism and Xenophobia in South African Schools." Journal of Asian and African Studies 52, no. 1 (2016): 68–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0021909614560245.
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Utilising a qualitative case study approach, this research study set out to understand discrimination experienced by immigrant students in their interactions with South African students and the prejudice immigrant students expressed against Black South African students. Findings reveal that the discrimination experienced by immigrant students could be clustered into four broad themes, namely categorisations and prototypes; practised stereotypes; academic and social exclusion; and work ethic. Furthermore, statements immigrant students make about South African students seem to fall into two broad categories, namely lack of value for moral integrity and lack of value for education. Educating students to value human dignity and to view each other as cosmopolitan citizens of the world could be a way to ensure social cohesion and harmony of future generations to come.
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Madeira, Ana Isabel. "Adaptar a educação a uma sociedade em mudança: Redes de circulação do escolanovismo e a difusão do pragmatismo em África nos anos 20 e 30." Espacio, Tiempo y Educación 5, no. 2 (2018): 143. http://dx.doi.org/10.14516/ete.132.
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Educational Adaptations in a Changing Society is the final report arising from two conferences that took place, in July 1934, in Johannesburg and Cape Town, under the auspices the New Education Fellowship. These conferences addressed three fundamental questions related to the role of education in leading social change: the aim of the educational effort, the methods involved, and the content of what should be taught and when. These general concerns sought to respond to the rapid social and economic changes taking place in South Africa (and in other European colonies) at that period: urbanization, school massification, racial conflict, etc. By urging educationalists, philosophers, teachers, administrators and churchmen alike to co-operatively discuss educational reforms and pedagogical technologies adapted to the African context (vocational training, adapted curricula, rural education, moral instruction, etc.) the conference sought to create a reformist environment were the ideals of progressive educational thought intertwined neatly with the social gospel of the protestant movement. It is in this context that I propose to address Dewey’s participation in the conference, not as an individual outstanding pragmatist voice, but as a conceptual persona, who makes it possible to understand theories, ideas and visions of educational modernization as discursive constructs envisaged for the colonial terrain. I will try to tackle the question of policy transfer not as an active borrowing strategy from one context to another, but as an indigenization of concepts and ideas that are passed on by threads of broader colonial discourses and modes of colonial governance.
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Shalem, Yael, and Ursula Hoadley. "The dual economy of schooling and teacher morale in South Africa." International Studies in Sociology of Education 19, no. 2 (2009): 119–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09620210903257224.
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Tukurah, Haruna Audu. "Curriculum Implementation Challenges and Private Education in Nigeria." International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology 9, no. 9 (2021): 1325–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.22214/ijraset.2021.38103.
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Abstract: Nigeria’s population is over 180 million by estimation. It is not out of place to assume that she is one of the fastest growing populations in the world. In as much as she celebrates her status as the giant of Africa, her place as ‘a giant’ calls for a reflective thought at the rate with which her educational curriculum operates mainly in paper forms. On the issue of the private education, many challenges such as; shortage of qualified teachers without in-service training, structures and infrastructures, interaction with the government for gaining approval, extortion of illegal school tax from proprietors, lack of formal school management procedures like business plans, records and accountability etcetera. The culmination of the above issues is enormous. However, this paper seeks to argue on the negative effects of the 3Rs (rote learning approach) on the Nigerian learners that is promoting poverty and operation. The paper does that using a historical study to suggest for a curriculum that will liberate the Nigerian child, encourage problem solving (critical thinking skills), looks at the implication of the goodwill of a centralized educational curriculum that Nigerian early educational elites partly proposed with the oil boom in mind, the alternative way forward now that the oil has gone low. The paper goes forward to touch on the need to decentralize the educational system and give autonomy for each state to define her community context and design a curriculum that will address her context using the child’s mother tongue for contextualized knowledge that will not sever the child from his/her moral/cultural norms considering how fast they are disappearing. Keywords: Curriculum, Implementation, Context, Mother Tongue, Private Education.