Books on the topic 'MSG rats'

The metabolic syndrome (MS) is a constellation of risk factors including increased waist circumference, high blood pressure, and elevated fasting glucose and triglycerides in conjunction with low levels of high-density lipoprotein. MS is associated with an elevated risk of adverse cardiovascular and other events. The general population rate of MS is increasing, but people with schizophrenia have markedly elevated rates compared to people without a mental illness. Reasons for this excess are complex, but certain antipsychotic agents can exacerbate risk and due care needs to be taken in prescribing such medications, with awareness of longitudinal risk. Treatment needs to be provided following established guidelines, to address aspects of MS should they occur.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) often affects women of childbearing age. There are many issues to consider when counseling women about their disease and treatment during this time. The Pregnancy in Multiple Sclerosis (PRIMS) study, published in 1998, is the best large-scale prospective study published to date. Based on this trial, and those that followed, it is recognized that the rate of relapse in MS decreases during pregnancy, especially during the third trimester, but there is a significant increase in relapse rate in the first three months postpartum. If relapses do occur during pregnancy, women are often treated with methylprednisolone, but this is generally avoided in the first trimester. Disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) are usually discontinued during preconception, pregnancy, and while breast-feeding. DMTs are classified under different FDA pregnancy categories based on human and animal data. Breast-feeding may influence postpartum relapse rate, but the true effect continues to be debated.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has stated that significant health benefits are obtainable for persons with disability who engage in physical activity, recommending 30 to 40 minutes of daily, moderately intense activity. However, persons with MS are frequently physically inactive, with findings of a 6-month activity reduction rate of 6%. This progressive lessoning of physical activity over time is a major contributor to worsening of symptoms and ancillary medical complications such as cardiovascular disease, obesity, and impaired bone health, underpinning the importance of exercise and physical activity by persons with MS. In addition to its effect on endurance and body composition, exercise may also reduce disease activity in MS. A regular exercise program combining exercise and physical activity that is tailored to the patient’s individual condition should be an important part of the plan of care for patients with MS.

Excess protein in the urine almost always comes from the kidney. Proteinuria up to 150 mg/day in an adult (protein:creatinine ratio (PCR) up to 15 mg/mmol) is considered normal. Daily average excretion is 80 mg, of which about 30 mg is albumin that has been filtered and not reabsorbed. Other components comprise low-molecular-weight filtered proteins that have escaped reabsorption, and proteins secreted or lost into urine from cells of the nephron. Increased permeability of the glomerulus to high-molecular-weight proteins is the most common cause of the clinically detected proteinuria, and albumin is the major component of excess glomerular proteinuria. Even small amounts of proteinuria are associated with increased cardiovascular risk and long-term renal risk. In patients with renal disease, regardless of type, proteinuria is a strong predictor of loss of glomerular filtration rate and proteinuria at levels higher than an equivalent of 1 g/24 hours can be considered high renal risk. This limit should be lowered in young patients, and if microscopic haematuria is also present. For both cardiovascular and renal outcomes, risk is graded with severity of proteinuria. In routine clinical practice, ratios of albumin or total protein to creatinine level (ACR or PCR) in spot urine samples are usually more pragmatic and useful than 24-hour collections. ACR is more sensitive as a screening test (normal range up to 2.5 mg/mmol in men, 3.5 mg/mmol in women).

Diseases that affect the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) interfere with normal nerve transmission and cause weakness of voluntary muscles. The two most commonly encountered are acquired myasthenia gravis (MG) and the Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome (LEMS). Acquired MG is an autoimmune disease in which antibodies are directed towards receptors at the NMJ. In 85% of patients, IgG antibodies against the postsynaptic acetylcholine receptor (AChR) are found (seropositive MG). The thymus gland appears to be involved in the production of these which cause an increase rate of degradation of AChR resulting in a decreased receptor density resulting in a reduced postsynaptic end-plate potential following motor nerve stimulation and leading to muscle weakness. Although all voluntary muscles can be affected, ocular, bulbar, respiratory, and proximal limb weakness predominates. In the majority of seronegative patients, an antibody directed towards a NMJ protein called muscle specific tyrosine kinase (MUSK) is found. Anti-MUSK MG is characterized by severe bulbar and respiratory muscle weakness. Diagnosis of MG requires a high degree of clinical suspicion coupled with pharmacological and electrophysiological testing, and detection of the various causative antibodies. Treatment of MG involves enhancing neuromuscular transmission with long-acting anticholinesterase agents and immunosuppression. Acute exacerbations are treated with either plasma exchange or intravenous immunoglobulin. Myasthenic crisis is associated with severe muscle weakness that necessitates tracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation. LEMS is an autoimmune disease in which IgG antibodies are directed towards the pre-synaptic voltage-gated calcium channels at the NMJ. It is often associated with malignant disease (usually small cell carcinoma of the lung). Autonomic dysfunction is prominent and patients show abnormal responses to neuromuscular blocking drugs.

It was previously assumed that all kidney stones crystallized as urine passed through the renal tubules and were retained by means of crystal-tubular cell interactions. Recently uroscopy with papillary biopsies has shown 2 different pathways for stone formation, both mediated by calcium phosphate crystals. Kidney transplant has become the preferred treatment for patients with end-stage renal disease. Those benefiting from transplant included patients who would be deemed "high risk," such as those with diabetes mellitus and those older than 70 years. Anatomical changes associated with pregnancy are renal enlargement and dilatation of the calyces, renal pelvis, and ureters. Physiologic changes include a 30% to 50% increase in glomerular filtration rate and renal blood flow; a mean decrease of 0.5 mg/dL in the creatinine level and a mean decrease of 18 mg/dL in the serum urea nitrogen level; intermittent glycosuria independent of plasma glucose; proteinuria; aminoaciduria; increased uric acid excretion; increased total body water, with osmostat resetting; 50% increase in plasma volume and cardiac output; and increased ureteral peristalsis.

Gout is a systemic metabolic disease. The enzyme urate oxidase (uricase) that catalyses the oxidation of uric acid to the more soluble compound allantoin is inactive in humans. This may lead to hyperuricaemia. Hyperuricaemia is often present for many years prior to clinical signs of gout. Acute attacks occur as a result of an inflammatory response to monosodium urate (MSU) crystal deposition leading to intense pain and inflammation in the affected joints. Uncontrolled hyperuricaemia and resultant gout can evolve into a destructive arthritis. Imaging may be helpful in the diagnosis of gout as well as in monitoring the response to gout treatment. Plain X-rays are widely used for joint imaging in patients with gout. However, plain X-rays of joints affected by gout are frequently normal, especially early in the disease. In these cases, advanced imaging modalities may be useful. Advanced imaging can help evaluate inflammation, structural joint changes, and magnitude of tophaceous deposits. Advanced imaging modalities include computed tomography (CT), dual-energy CT (DECT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and ultrasound (US). CT may be most suitable to evaluate bone changes in gouty joints and DECT to evaluate tophaceous deposits. MRI may best evaluate soft tissues and Inflammation. US is useful during patients’ visits to the rheumatologist and allows evaluation of cartilage, soft tissues, synovium, and tophaceous deposits. This chapter reviews imaging modalities used in gout patients and discusses their application in the diagnosis and management of gout.

Economists have long been preoccupied with trying to understand the nature and causes of poverty. From Adam Smith to David Ricardo, Thomas Malthus, Karl Marx, and John Stuart Mill, a common belief among economists is that the benefits of economic growth are rarely experienced by the poorer sections of society. An important issue is how to measure global poverty accurately. International organizations such as the United Nations and the World Bank have endeavored to measure global poverty since the adoption of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG), stated in the UN’s Millennium Declaration which was adopted in 2000 by 189 nations. However, measuring global poverty is far from simple. Estimates of poverty and particularly of global poverty are very sensitive to the underlying assumptions, such as the notion of poverty itself, the choice of welfare indicator, the unit of measurement used, and purchasing power parity rates. One of the significant advances in global poverty studies was the World Bank’s introduction of a poverty line in the 1990 World Development Report (WDR). Despite these efforts, the precise number of poor in the world remains ambiguous. Nevertheless, emerging frontiers in poverty analysis indicate new interest in measuring poverty more broadly. Some ideas that may dominate the future of poverty research include multidimensional poverty, vulnerability to poverty, and chronic poverty.

Poorer renal function is associated with increasing morbidity and mortality. In the wider population this is mainly as a consequence of cardiovascular disease. Renal patients are more likely to progress to end-stage renal disease, but also have high cardiovascular risk. Aiming to reduce both progression of renal impairment and cardiovascular disease are not contradictory. Focusing on the management of high-risk patients with proteinuria and reduced glomerular filtration rates, it is recommended that blood pressure should be kept below 140/90, or 130/80 if proteinuria is > 1 g/24 h (protein:creatinine ratio (PCR) >100 mg/mmol or 0.9 g/g). These targets may be modified according to age and other factors. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) or angiotensin receptor antagonists should form part of the therapy for patients with proteinuria > 0.5 g/24 h (PCR > 50 mg/mmol or 0.45 g/g). Use of ACEIs or angiotensin receptor blockers in patients with lower levels of proteinuria may be indicated in some patient groups even in the absence of hypertension, notably in diabetic nephropathy. Evidence that other agents that reduce proteinuria bring additional benefits is weak at present. The best studies of ‘dual-blockade’ with various combinations of ACEIs, ARBs, and renin inhibitors have shown additional hazard with little evidence of additional benefit. Hyperlipidaemia—regardless of lipid levels, statin therapy is indicated in secondary cardiovascular prevention, and in primary prevention where cardiovascular risk is high, noting that current risk estimation tools do not adequately account for the increased risk of patients with CKD. There is not substantial evidence that lipid lowering therapy impacts on average rates of loss of GFR in progressive CKD. Non-drug lifestyle interventions to reduce cardiovascular risk, including stopping smoking, are important for all. Acidosis—in more advanced CKD it is justified to treat acidosis with oral sodium bicarbonate. Diet—sodium restriction to < 100 mmol/day (6 g/day) and avoidance of excessive dietary protein are justified in early to moderate CKD. Recommendations to limit levels of protein to 0.8 g/kg body weight are suggested by some, but additional protective effects of this are likely to be slight in patients who are otherwise well managed. Low-protein diets may carry some risk. Lower-protein diets may however be used to prevent symptoms in advanced CKD not treated by dialysis.

This chapter describes the overall short- and long-term, mainly non-renal outcomes of patients who suffer from acute kidney injury (AKI). Despite increasing age and greater burden of co-morbidity at the occurrence of AKI, patient mortality shows an overall decline over time. However, relatively ‘mild’ forms of AKI (i.e. defined as an absolute increase in serum creatinine of at least 0.3 mg/dL (26.4 µmol/L)) are associated with statistically significant decreased patient survival. The absolute mortality rates of AKI vary according to the different patient groups studied (intensive care unit, hospital, and population based), differences in parameters used for the criteria of AKI, differences in acquisition of baseline serum creatinine, differences between need of renal replacement therapy or not, and timing of endpoints (in-hospital mortality, 30 days, 60 days, or longer). In many instances, particularly in critically ill patients, AKI occurs in the setting of other diseases, such as sepsis, which are associated with a significant mortality risk. In such cases, AKI appears to amplify the risk of death associated with the underlying disease.

On January 25, 2017, President Donald Trump signed Executive Order 13768, which marked the first federal action targeting American sanctuary cities and fulfilled one of Trump’s key campaign promises. Sanctuary cities, which do not permit local officials to inquire into immigration status and may decline ICE detainer requests, have been in existence since the early 1980s, but the shooting of Kathryn Steinle in 2015 brought them renewed attention. Ms. Steinle’s accidental shooting by an undocumented immigrant, Jose Ines Garcia Zarate, ignited a firestorm of controversy over these policies. Garcia Zarate had been released by the SFPD based on San Francisco’s sanctuary policy, leading then-candidate Donald Trump to make a promise to “end” sanctuary cities a key part of his campaign for president. Yet many Americans know very little about sanctuary policies despite their growing importance in the debate over undocumented immigration and the incorporation of immigrant communities. In this work, Drs. Collingwood and Gonzalez O’Brien provide the first comprehensive examination of sanctuary cities in the United States. Analyzing the historical evolution of these policies, the tone and tenor of media coverage, public opinion, state-level sanctuary legislation, and the effect these policies have on crime rates and Latino political incorporation, the authors hope to provide researchers, members of the public, and lawmakers with the tools to objectively assess the value of sanctuary legislation.

Gaining insight into the mechanisms by which neural transmission governs behavior remains a central goal of behavioral neuroscience. Multiple applications exist for monitoring neurotransmission during behavior, including fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV). This technique is an electrochemical detection method that can be used to monitor subsecond changes in concentrations of electroactive molecules such as neurotransmitters. In this technique, a triangular waveform voltage is applied to a carbon fiber electrode implanted into a selected brain region. During each waveform application, specific molecules in the vicinity of the electrode will undergo electrolysis and produce a current, which can be detected by the electrode. In order to monitor subsecond changes in neurotransmitter release, waveform application is repeated every 100 ms, yielding a 10 Hz sampling rate. This chapter describes the fundamental principles behind FSCV and the basic instrumentation required, using as an example system the detection of in vivo phasic dopamine changes in freely-moving animals over the course of long-term experiments. We explain step-by-step, how to construct and surgically implant a carbon fiber electrode that can readily detect phasic neurotransmitter fluctuations and that remains sensitive over multiple recordings across months. Also included are the basic steps for recording FSCV during behavioral experiments and how to process voltammetric data in which signaling is time-locked to behavioral events of interest. Together, information in this chapter provides a foundation of FSCV theory and practice that can be applied to the assembly of an FSCV system and execution of in vivo experiments.

Bones are multifunctional passive organs of movement that supports soft tissue and directly attached muscles. They also protect internal organs and are a reserve of calcium, phosphorus and magnesium. Each bone is covered with periosteum, and the adjacent bone surfaces are covered by articular cartilage. Histologically, the bone is an organ composed of many different tissues. The main component is bone tissue (cortical and spongy) composed of a set of bone cells and intercellular substance (mineral and organic), it also contains fat, hematopoietic (bone marrow) and cartilaginous tissue. Bones are a tissue that even in adult life retains the ability to change shape and structure depending on changes in their mechanical and hormonal environment, as well as self-renewal and repair capabilities. This process is called bone turnover. The basic processes of bone turnover are: • bone modeling (incessantly changes in bone shape during individual growth) following resorption and tissue formation at various locations (e.g. bone marrow formation) to increase mass and skeletal morphology. This process occurs in the bones of growing individuals and stops after reaching puberty • bone remodeling (processes involve in maintaining bone tissue by resorbing and replacing old bone tissue with new tissue in the same place, e.g. repairing micro fractures). It is a process involving the removal and internal remodeling of existing bone and is responsible for maintaining tissue mass and architecture of mature bones. Bone turnover is regulated by two types of transformation: • osteoclastogenesis, i.e. formation of cells responsible for bone resorption • osteoblastogenesis, i.e. formation of cells responsible for bone formation (bone matrix synthesis and mineralization) Bone maturity can be defined as the completion of basic structural development and mineralization leading to maximum mass and optimal mechanical strength. The highest rate of increase in pig bone mass is observed in the first twelve weeks after birth. This period of growth is considered crucial for optimizing the growth of the skeleton of pigs, because the degree of bone mineralization in later life stages (adulthood) depends largely on the amount of bone minerals accumulated in the early stages of their growth. The development of the technique allows to determine the condition of the skeletal system (or individual bones) in living animals by methods used in human medicine, or after their slaughter. For in vivo determination of bone properties, Abstract 10 double energy X-ray absorptiometry or computed tomography scanning techniques are used. Both methods allow the quantification of mineral content and bone mineral density. The most important property from a practical point of view is the bone’s bending strength, which is directly determined by the maximum bending force. The most important factors affecting bone strength are: • age (growth period), • gender and the associated hormonal balance, • genotype and modification of genes responsible for bone growth • chemical composition of the body (protein and fat content, and the proportion between these components), • physical activity and related bone load, • nutritional factors: – protein intake influencing synthesis of organic matrix of bone, – content of minerals in the feed (CA, P, Zn, Ca/P, Mg, Mn, Na, Cl, K, Cu ratio) influencing synthesis of the inorganic matrix of bone, – mineral/protein ratio in the diet (Ca/protein, P/protein, Zn/protein) – feed energy concentration, – energy source (content of saturated fatty acids - SFA, content of polyun saturated fatty acids - PUFA, in particular ALA, EPA, DPA, DHA), – feed additives, in particular: enzymes (e.g. phytase releasing of minerals bounded in phytin complexes), probiotics and prebiotics (e.g. inulin improving the function of the digestive tract by increasing absorption of nutrients), – vitamin content that regulate metabolism and biochemical changes occurring in bone tissue (e.g. vitamin D3, B6, C and K). This study was based on the results of research experiments from available literature, and studies on growing pigs carried out at the Kielanowski Institute of Animal Physiology and Nutrition, Polish Academy of Sciences. The tests were performed in total on 300 pigs of Duroc, Pietrain, Puławska breeds, line 990 and hybrids (Great White × Duroc, Great White × Landrace), PIC pigs, slaughtered at different body weight during the growth period from 15 to 130 kg. Bones for biomechanical tests were collected after slaughter from each pig. Their length, mass and volume were determined. Based on these measurements, the specific weight (density, g/cm3) was calculated. Then each bone was cut in the middle of the shaft and the outer and inner diameters were measured both horizontally and vertically. Based on these measurements, the following indicators were calculated: • cortical thickness, • cortical surface, • cortical index. Abstract 11 Bone strength was tested by a three-point bending test. The obtained data enabled the determination of: • bending force (the magnitude of the maximum force at which disintegration and disruption of bone structure occurs), • strength (the amount of maximum force needed to break/crack of bone), • stiffness (quotient of the force acting on the bone and the amount of displacement occurring under the influence of this force). Investigation of changes in physical and biomechanical features of bones during growth was performed on pigs of the synthetic 990 line growing from 15 to 130 kg body weight. The animals were slaughtered successively at a body weight of 15, 30, 40, 50, 70, 90, 110 and 130 kg. After slaughter, the following bones were separated from the right half-carcass: humerus, 3rd and 4th metatarsal bone, femur, tibia and fibula as well as 3rd and 4th metatarsal bone. The features of bones were determined using methods described in the methodology. Describing bone growth with the Gompertz equation, it was found that the earliest slowdown of bone growth curve was observed for metacarpal and metatarsal bones. This means that these bones matured the most quickly. The established data also indicate that the rib is the slowest maturing bone. The femur, humerus, tibia and fibula were between the values of these features for the metatarsal, metacarpal and rib bones. The rate of increase in bone mass and length differed significantly between the examined bones, but in all cases it was lower (coefficient b <1) than the growth rate of the whole body of the animal. The fastest growth rate was estimated for the rib mass (coefficient b = 0.93). Among the long bones, the humerus (coefficient b = 0.81) was characterized by the fastest rate of weight gain, however femur the smallest (coefficient b = 0.71). The lowest rate of bone mass increase was observed in the foot bones, with the metacarpal bones having a slightly higher value of coefficient b than the metatarsal bones (0.67 vs 0.62). The third bone had a lower growth rate than the fourth bone, regardless of whether they were metatarsal or metacarpal. The value of the bending force increased as the animals grew. Regardless of the growth point tested, the highest values were observed for the humerus, tibia and femur, smaller for the metatarsal and metacarpal bone, and the lowest for the fibula and rib. The rate of change in the value of this indicator increased at a similar rate as the body weight changes of the animals in the case of the fibula and the fourth metacarpal bone (b value = 0.98), and more slowly in the case of the metatarsal bone, the third metacarpal bone, and the tibia bone (values of the b ratio 0.81–0.85), and the slowest femur, humerus and rib (value of b = 0.60–0.66). Bone stiffness increased as animals grew. Regardless of the growth point tested, the highest values were observed for the humerus, tibia and femur, smaller for the metatarsal and metacarpal bone, and the lowest for the fibula and rib. Abstract 12 The rate of change in the value of this indicator changed at a faster rate than the increase in weight of pigs in the case of metacarpal and metatarsal bones (coefficient b = 1.01–1.22), slightly slower in the case of fibula (coefficient b = 0.92), definitely slower in the case of the tibia (b = 0.73), ribs (b = 0.66), femur (b = 0.59) and humerus (b = 0.50). Bone strength increased as animals grew. Regardless of the growth point tested, bone strength was as follows femur > tibia > humerus > 4 metacarpal> 3 metacarpal> 3 metatarsal > 4 metatarsal > rib> fibula. The rate of increase in strength of all examined bones was greater than the rate of weight gain of pigs (value of the coefficient b = 2.04–3.26). As the animals grew, the bone density increased. However, the growth rate of this indicator for the majority of bones was slower than the rate of weight gain (the value of the coefficient b ranged from 0.37 – humerus to 0.84 – fibula). The exception was the rib, whose density increased at a similar pace increasing the body weight of animals (value of the coefficient b = 0.97). The study on the influence of the breed and the feeding intensity on bone characteristics (physical and biomechanical) was performed on pigs of the breeds Duroc, Pietrain, and synthetic 990 during a growth period of 15 to 70 kg body weight. Animals were fed ad libitum or dosed system. After slaughter at a body weight of 70 kg, three bones were taken from the right half-carcass: femur, three metatarsal, and three metacarpal and subjected to the determinations described in the methodology. The weight of bones of animals fed aa libitum was significantly lower than in pigs fed restrictively All bones of Duroc breed were significantly heavier and longer than Pietrain and 990 pig bones. The average values of bending force for the examined bones took the following order: III metatarsal bone (63.5 kg) <III metacarpal bone (77.9 kg) <femur (271.5 kg). The feeding system and breed of pigs had no significant effect on the value of this indicator. The average values of the bones strength took the following order: III metatarsal bone (92.6 kg) <III metacarpal (107.2 kg) <femur (353.1 kg). Feeding intensity and breed of animals had no significant effect on the value of this feature of the bones tested. The average bone density took the following order: femur (1.23 g/cm3) <III metatarsal bone (1.26 g/cm3) <III metacarpal bone (1.34 g / cm3). The density of bones of animals fed aa libitum was higher (P<0.01) than in animals fed with a dosing system. The density of examined bones within the breeds took the following order: Pietrain race> line 990> Duroc race. The differences between the “extreme” breeds were: 7.2% (III metatarsal bone), 8.3% (III metacarpal bone), 8.4% (femur). Abstract 13 The average bone stiffness took the following order: III metatarsal bone (35.1 kg/mm) <III metacarpus (41.5 kg/mm) <femur (60.5 kg/mm). This indicator did not differ between the groups of pigs fed at different intensity, except for the metacarpal bone, which was more stiffer in pigs fed aa libitum (P<0.05). The femur of animals fed ad libitum showed a tendency (P<0.09) to be more stiffer and a force of 4.5 kg required for its displacement by 1 mm. Breed differences in stiffness were found for the femur (P <0.05) and III metacarpal bone (P <0.05). For femur, the highest value of this indicator was found in Pietrain pigs (64.5 kg/mm), lower in pigs of 990 line (61.6 kg/mm) and the lowest in Duroc pigs (55.3 kg/mm). In turn, the 3rd metacarpal bone of Duroc and Pietrain pigs had similar stiffness (39.0 and 40.0 kg/mm respectively) and was smaller than that of line 990 pigs (45.4 kg/mm). The thickness of the cortical bone layer took the following order: III metatarsal bone (2.25 mm) <III metacarpal bone (2.41 mm) <femur (5.12 mm). The feeding system did not affect this indicator. Breed differences (P <0.05) for this trait were found only for the femur bone: Duroc (5.42 mm)> line 990 (5.13 mm)> Pietrain (4.81 mm). The cross sectional area of the examined bones was arranged in the following order: III metatarsal bone (84 mm2) <III metacarpal bone (90 mm2) <femur (286 mm2). The feeding system had no effect on the value of this bone trait, with the exception of the femur, which in animals fed the dosing system was 4.7% higher (P<0.05) than in pigs fed ad libitum. Breed differences (P<0.01) in the coross sectional area were found only in femur and III metatarsal bone. The value of this indicator was the highest in Duroc pigs, lower in 990 animals and the lowest in Pietrain pigs. The cortical index of individual bones was in the following order: III metatarsal bone (31.86) <III metacarpal bone (33.86) <femur (44.75). However, its value did not significantly depend on the intensity of feeding or the breed of pigs.