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Journal articles on the topic 'Muscle gearing'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 21 January 2025

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1

Eng, Carolyn M., and Thomas J. Roberts. "Aponeurosis influences the relationship between muscle gearing and force." Journal of Applied Physiology 125, no. 2 (2018): 513–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00151.2018.

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Aponeuroses are connective tissues found on the surface of pennate muscles and are in close association with muscle fascicles. In addition to transmitting muscle forces to the external tendon, aponeurosis has been hypothesized to influence the direction of muscle shape change during a contraction. Muscle shape changes affect muscle contractile force and velocity because they influence the gear ratio with which muscle fascicles transmit force and velocity to the tendon. If aponeurosis modulates muscle shape changes, altering the aponeurosis’ radial integrity with incisions should alter gearing.

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2

Carrier, D. R., C. S. Gregersen, and N. A. Silverton. "Dynamic gearing in running dogs." Journal of Experimental Biology 201, no. 23 (1998): 3185–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.201.23.3185.

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Dynamic gearing is a mechanism that has been suggested to enhance the performance of skeletal muscles by maintaining them at the shortening velocities that maximize their power or efficiency. We investigated this hypothesis in three domestic dogs during trotting and galloping. We used ground force recordings and kinematic analysis to calculate the changes in gear ratio that occur during the production of the external work of locomotion. We also monitored length changes of the vastus lateralis muscle, an extensor muscle of the knee, using sonomicrometry in four additional dogs to determine the

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3

Wakeling, James M., Ollie M. Blake, Iris Wong, Manku Rana, and Sabrina S. M. Lee. "Movement mechanics as a determinate of muscle structure, recruitment and coordination." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 366, no. 1570 (2011): 1554–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0294.

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During muscle contractions, the muscle fascicles may shorten at a rate different from the muscle-tendon unit, and the ratio of these velocities is its gearing. Appropriate gearing allows fascicles to reduce their shortening velocities and allows them to operate at effective shortening velocities across a range of movements. Gearing of the muscle fascicles within the muscle belly is the result of rotations of the fascicles and bulging of the belly. Variable gearing can also occur as a result of tendon length changes that can be caused by changes in the relative timing of muscle activity for dif

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Wakeling, James M., Meghan Jackman, and Ana I. Namburete. "The Effect of External Compression on the Mechanics of Muscle Contraction." Journal of Applied Biomechanics 29, no. 3 (2013): 360–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jab.29.3.360.

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The velocity at which a muscle fascicle will shorten, and hence the force that it can develop, depends on its gearing within the muscle belly. Muscle fascicle length depends on both its pennation and the thickness of the muscle. It was expected that external compression would reduce the muscle thickness and pennation and thus cause a reduction to the gearing of the fascicles relative to the muscle belly. Structural properties of the medial gastrocnemius muscle were visualized using B-mode ultrasound in six subjects. Measurements were taken during cyclical isotonic contractions at three differe

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Wakeling, J. M., and I. A. Johnston. "White muscle strain in the common carp and red to white muscle gearing ratios in fish." Journal of Experimental Biology 202, no. 5 (1999): 521–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.202.5.521.

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White muscle strains were recorded using sonomicrometry techniques for 70 fast-starts in the common carp Cyprinus carpio L. High-speed cine images were recorded simultaneously for 54 of these starts, and muscle strain was calculated independently from the digitized outlines of the fish. Sonomicrometry measurements of superficial muscle strain were not significantly different from the strain as calculated from the theory of simple bending of a homogeneous material: superficial muscle strain thus varied with chordwise distance from the spine. However, white muscle strain across a transverse sect

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6

Dick, Taylor J. M., and James M. Wakeling. "Shifting gears: dynamic muscle shape changes and force-velocity behavior in the medial gastrocnemius." Journal of Applied Physiology 123, no. 6 (2017): 1433–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.01050.2016.

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When muscles contract, they bulge in thickness or in width to maintain a (nearly) constant volume. These dynamic shape changes are tightly linked to the internal constraints placed on individual muscle fibers and play a key functional role in modulating the mechanical performance of skeletal muscle by increasing its range of operating velocities. Yet to date we have a limited understanding of the nature and functional implications of in vivo dynamic muscle shape change under submaximal conditions. This study determined how the in vivo changes in medial gastrocnemius (MG) fascicle velocity, pen

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7

Roberts, Thomas J., Carolyn M. Eng, David A. Sleboda, et al. "The Multi-Scale, Three-Dimensional Nature of Skeletal Muscle Contraction." Physiology 34, no. 6 (2019): 402–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/physiol.00023.2019.

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Muscle contraction is a three-dimensional process, as anyone who has observed a bulging muscle knows. Recent studies suggest that the three-dimensional nature of muscle contraction influences its mechanical output. Shape changes and radial forces appear to be important across scales of organization. Muscle architectural gearing is an emerging example of this process.

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8

Eng, Carolyn M., Emanuel Azizi, and Thomas J. Roberts. "Structural Determinants of Muscle Gearing During Dynamic Contractions." Integrative and Comparative Biology 58, no. 2 (2018): 207–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/icb/icy054.

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9

Wang, Yingjie, Chunbao Liu, Luquan Ren, and Lei Ren. "Load-dependent Variable Gearing Mechanism of Muscle-like Soft Actuator." Journal of Bionic Engineering 19, no. 1 (2021): 29–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s42235-021-00129-1.

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AbstractPennate muscle is characterized by muscle fibers that are oriented at a certain angle (pennation angle) relative to the muscle’s line of action and rotation during contraction. This fiber rotation amplifies the shortening velocity of muscle, to match loading conditions without any control system. This unique variable gearing mechanism, which characterized by Architecture Gear Ratio (AGR), is involves complex interaction among three key elements: muscle fibers, connective tissue, and the pennation angle. However, how three elements determine the AGR of muscle-like actuator is still unkn

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10

Wakeling, J. M., and I. A. Johnston. "Muscle power output limits fast-start performance in fish." Journal of Experimental Biology 201, no. 10 (1998): 1505–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.201.10.1505.

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Fast-starts associated with escape responses were filmed at the median habitat temperatures of six teleost fish: Notothenia coriiceps and Notothenia rossii (Antarctica), Myoxocephalus scorpius (North Sea), Scorpaena notata and Serranus cabrilla (Mediterranean) and Paracirrhites forsteri (Indo-West-Pacific Ocean). Methods are presented for estimating the spine positions for silhouettes of swimming fish. These methods were used to validate techniques for calculating kinematics and muscle dynamics during fast-starts. The starts from all species show common patterns, with waves of body curvature t

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11

Bohm, Sebastian, Falk Mersmann, Alessandro Santuz, and Adamantios Arampatzis. "The force–length–velocity potential of the human soleus muscle is related to the energetic cost of running." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 286, no. 1917 (2019): 20192560. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2019.2560.

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According to the force–length–velocity relationships, the muscle force potential is determined by the operating length and velocity, which affects the energetic cost of contraction. During running, the human soleus muscle produces mechanical work through active shortening and provides the majority of propulsion. The trade-off between work production and alterations of the force–length and force–velocity potentials (i.e. fraction of maximum force according to the force–length–velocity curves) might mediate the energetic cost of running. By mapping the operating length and velocity of the soleus

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12

Randhawa, Avleen, Meghan E. Jackman, and James M. Wakeling. "Muscle gearing during isotonic and isokinetic movements in the ankle plantarflexors." European Journal of Applied Physiology 113, no. 2 (2012): 437–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00421-012-2448-z.

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13

Balint, Claire N., and Michael H. Dickinson. "The correlation between wing kinematics and steering muscle activity in the blowfly Calliphora vicina." Journal of Experimental Biology 204, no. 24 (2001): 4213–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.204.24.4213.

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SUMMARY Determining how the motor patterns of the nervous system are converted into the mechanical and behavioral output of the body is a central goal in the study of locomotion. In the case of dipteran flight, a population of small steering muscles controls many of the subtle changes in wing kinematics that allow flies to maneuver rapidly. We filmed the wing motion of tethered Calliphora vicina at high speed and simultaneously recorded multi-channel electromyographic signals from some of the prominent steering muscles in order to correlate kinematics with muscle activity. Using this analysis,

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14

Holt, Natalie C., Nicole Danos, Thomas J. Roberts, and Emanuel Azizi. "Stuck in gear: age-related loss of variable gearing in skeletal muscle." Journal of Experimental Biology 219, no. 7 (2016): 998–1003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.133009.

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15

Wakeling, James M., and Avleen Randhawa. "Transverse Strains in Muscle Fascicles during Voluntary Contraction: A 2D Frequency Decomposition of B-Mode Ultrasound Images." International Journal of Biomedical Imaging 2014 (2014): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/352910.

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When skeletal muscle fibres shorten, they must increase in their transverse dimensions in order to maintain a constant volume. In pennate muscle, this transverse expansion results in the fibres rotating to greater pennation angle, with a consequent reduction in their contractile velocity in a process known as gearing. Understanding the nature and extent of this transverse expansion is necessary to understand the mechanisms driving the changes in internal geometry of whole muscles during contraction. Current methodologies allow the fascicle lengths, orientations, and curvatures to be quantified

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16

Fahn-Lai, Philip, Andrew A. Biewener, and Stephanie E. Pierce. "Broad similarities in shoulder muscle architecture and organization across two amniotes: implications for reconstructing non-mammalian synapsids." PeerJ 8 (February 18, 2020): e8556. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.8556.

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The evolution of upright limb posture in mammals may have enabled modifications of the forelimb for diverse locomotor ecologies. A rich fossil record of non-mammalian synapsids holds the key to unraveling the transition from “sprawling” to “erect” limb function in the precursors to mammals, but a detailed understanding of muscle functional anatomy is a necessary prerequisite to reconstructing postural evolution in fossils. Here we characterize the gross morphology and internal architecture of muscles crossing the shoulder joint in two morphologically-conservative extant amniotes that form a ph

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17

Richards, Christopher T., and Christofer J. Clemente. "Built for rowing: frog muscle is tuned to limb morphology to power swimming." Journal of The Royal Society Interface 10, no. 84 (2013): 20130236. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2013.0236.

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Rowing is demanding, in part, because drag on the oars increases as the square of their speed. Hence, as muscles shorten faster, their force capacity falls, whereas drag rises. How do frogs resolve this dilemma to swim rapidly? We predicted that shortening velocity cannot exceed a terminal velocity where muscle and fluid torques balance. This terminal velocity, which is below V max , depends on gear ratio (GR = outlever/inlever) and webbed foot area. Perhaps such properties of swimmers are ‘tuned’, enabling shortening speeds of approximately 0.3 V max for maximal power. Predictions were tested

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18

Nandor, Mark J., Maryellen Heebner, Roger Quinn, Ronald J. Triolo, and Nathaniel S. Makowski. "Transmission Comparison for Cooperative Robotic Applications." Actuators 10, no. 9 (2021): 203. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/act10090203.

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The development of powered assistive devices that integrate exoskeletal motors and muscle activation for gait restoration benefits from actuators with low backdrive torque. Such an approach enables motors to assist as needed while maximizing the joint torque muscles, contributing to movement, and facilitating ballistic motions instead of overcoming passive dynamics. Two electromechanical actuators were developed to determine the effect of two candidate transmission implementations for an exoskeletal joint. To differentiate the transmission effects, the devices utilized the same motor and simil

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19

Usherwood, J. R., and N. W. Gladman. "Why are the fastest runners of intermediate size? Contrasting scaling of mechanical demands and muscle supply of work and power." Biology Letters 16, no. 10 (2020): 20200579. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2020.0579.

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The fastest land animals are of intermediate size. Cheetah, antelope, greyhounds and racehorses have been measured running much faster than reported for elephants or elephant shrews. Can this be attributed to scaling of physical demands and explicit physiological constraints to supply? Here, we describe the scaling of mechanical work demand each stride, and the mechanical power demand each stance. Unlike muscle stress, strain and strain rate, these mechanical demands cannot be circumvented by changing the muscle gearing with minor adaptations in bone geometry or trivial adjustments to limb pos

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20

Monte, Andrea, Paolo Tecchio, Francesca Nardello, Beatriz Bachero‐Mena, Luca Paolo Ardigò, and Paola Zamparo. "Influence of muscle‐belly and tendon gearing on the energy cost of human walking." Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports 32, no. 5 (2022): 844–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/sms.14142.

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21

Allen, V. R., R. E. Kambic, S. M. Gatesy, and J. R. Hutchinson. "Gearing effects of the patella (knee extensor muscle sesamoid) of the helmeted guineafowl during terrestrial locomotion." Journal of Zoology 303, no. 3 (2017): 178–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jzo.12485.

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22

Monte, Andrea, and Andrea Zignoli. "Muscle and tendon stiffness and belly gearing positively correlate with rate of torque development during explosive fixed end contractions." Journal of Biomechanics 114 (January 2021): 110110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiomech.2020.110110.

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23

Azizi, E., E. L. Brainerd, and T. J. Roberts. "Variable gearing in pennate muscles." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105, no. 5 (2008): 1745–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0709212105.

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24

Smith, Ross, Glen Lichtwark, Dominic Farris, and Luke A. Kelly. "Examining the intrinsic foot muscles’ capacity to modulate plantar flexor gearing." Footwear Science 13, sup1 (2021): S87—S89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19424280.2021.1917696.

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25

Son, Jongsang, and William Zev Rymer. "Loss of variable fascicle gearing during voluntary isometric contractions of paretic medial gastrocnemius muscles in male chronic stroke survivors." Journal of Physiology 598, no. 22 (2020): 5183–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1113/jp280126.

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26

Kończak, Michał, Mateusz Kukla, and Dominik Rybarczyk. "Design Considerations Concerning an Innovative Drive System for a Manual Wheelchair." Applied Sciences 14, no. 15 (2024): 6604. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app14156604.

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Manual wheelchairs, which are the basic means of transport for people with disabilities, are usually characterized by an inefficient adaptation to the physical capabilities of their users. For this reason, it is advisable to search for solutions that will allow us to change the parameters of the mechanical power generated by human muscles. For this purpose, mechanical gearing known from other solutions, for example, from bicycles, can be used. The paper describes the design methodology and a number of issues related to the construction of an innovative wheelchair prototype using a chain transm

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Kelp, Nicole Y., Christofer J. Clemente, Kylie Tucker, François Hug, Sabrina Pinel, and Taylor J. M. Dick. "Influence of internal muscle properties on muscle shape change and gearing in the human gastrocnemii." Journal of Applied Physiology, May 11, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00080.2023.

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Skeletal muscles bulge when they contract. These three-dimensional shape changes coupled with fibre rotation, influence a muscle's mechanical performance by uncoupling fibre velocity from muscle belly velocity (i.e., gearing). Muscle shape change and gearing is likely mediated by the interaction between internal muscle properties and contractile forces. Muscles with greater stiffness and intermuscular fat, due to aging or disuse, may limit a muscle's ability to bulge in width, subsequently causing higher gearing. The aim of this study was to determine the influence of internal muscle propertie

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Monte, Andrea, and Paola Zamparo. "Impairments in muscle shape changes affect metabolic demands during in-vivo contractions." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 290, no. 2006 (2023). http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2023.1469.

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The uncoupling behaviour between muscle belly and fascicle shortening velocity (i.e. belly gearing), affects mechanical output by allowing the muscle to circumvent the limits imposed by the fascicles' force-velocity relationship. However, little is known about the ‘metabolic effect' of a decrease/increase in belly gearing. In this study, we manipulated the plantar flexor muscles' capacity to change in shape (and hence belly gearing) by using compressive multidirectional loads. Metabolic, kinetic, electromyography activity and ultrasound data (in soleus and gastrocnemius medialis) were recorded

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Coenning, Corinna, Volker Rieg, Tobias Siebert, and Veit Wank. "Impact of contraction intensity and ankle joint angle on calf muscle fascicle length and pennation angle during isometric and dynamic contractions." Scientific Reports 14, no. 1 (2024). http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-75795-2.

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AbstractDuring muscle contraction, not only are the fascicles shortening but also the pennation angle changes, which leads to a faster contraction of the muscle than of its fascicles. This phenomenon is called muscle gearing, and it has a direct influence on the force output of the muscle. There are few studies showing pennation angle changes during isometric and concentric contractions for different contraction intensities and muscle lengths. Therefore, the aim was to determine these influences over a wide range of contraction intensities and ankle joint angles for human triceps surae. Additi

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30

Takahashi, Katsuki, Hiroto Shiotani, Pavlos E. Evangelidis, Natsuki Sado, and Yasuo Kawakami. "Coronal as well as Sagittal Fascicle Dynamics Can Bring About a Gearing Effect in Muscle Elongation by Passive Lengthening." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, June 30, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/mss.0000000000003229.

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ABSTRACT Purpose The amount of muscle belly elongation induced by passive lengthening is often assumed to be equal to that of fascicles. But these are different if fascicles shorter than the muscle belly rotate around their attachment sites. Such discrepancy between fascicles and muscle belly length changes can be considered as gearing. As the muscle fascicle arrangement is three-dimensional, the fascicle rotation by passive lengthening may occur in the coronal as well as the sagittal planes. Here we examined the fascicle 3D dynamics and resultant gearing during passive elongation of human med

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31

Monte, Andrea, Matteo Bertucco, Riccardo Magris, and Paola Zamparo. "Muscle Belly Gearing Positively Affects the Force–Velocity and Power–Velocity Relationships During Explosive Dynamic Contractions." Frontiers in Physiology 12 (August 12, 2021). http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2021.683931.

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Changes in muscle shape could play an important role during contraction allowing to circumvent some limits imposed by the fascicle force–velocity (F–V) and power–velocity (P–V) relationships. Indeed, during low-force high-velocity contractions, muscle belly shortening velocity could exceed muscle fascicles shortening velocity, allowing the muscles to operate at higher F–V and P–V potentials (i.e., at a higher fraction of maximal force/power in accordance to the F–V and P–V relationships). By using an ultrafast ultrasound, we investigated the role of muscle shape changes (vastus lateralis) in d

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32

Polet, Delyle T., and David Labonte. "Optimal Gearing of Musculoskeletal Systems." Integrative And Comparative Biology, June 20, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/icb/icae072.

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Abstract Movement is integral to animal life, and most animal movement is actuated by the same engine: striated muscle. Muscle input is typically mediated by skeletal elements, resulting in musculoskeletal systems that are geared: at any instant, the muscle force and velocity are related to the output force and velocity only via a proportionality constant G, the “mechanical advantage”. The functional analysis of such “simple machines” has traditionally centred around this instantaneous interpretation, such that a small vs large G is thought to reflect a fast vs forceful system, respectively. B

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33

Van Hooren, Bas, Per Aagaard, Andrea Monte, and Anthony J. Blazevich. "The role of pennation angle and architectural gearing to rate of force development in dynamic and isometric muscle contractions." Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports 34, no. 5 (2024). http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/sms.14639.

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AbstractBackgroundAssociations between muscle architecture and rate of force development (RFD) have been largely studied during fixed‐end (isometric) contractions. Fixed‐end contractions may, however, limit muscle shape changes and thus alter the relationship between muscle architecture an RFD.AimWe compared the correlation between muscle architecture and architectural gearing and knee extensor RFD when assessed during dynamic versus fixed‐end contractions.MethodsTwenty‐two recreationally active male runners performed dynamic knee extensions at constant acceleration (2000°s−2) and isometric co

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34

Zeininger, Angel, Daniel Schmitt, Jody L. Jensen, and Liza J. Shapiro. "Variable gearing at the ankle during walking in adults and young children: implications for foot development and evolution." Frontiers in Earth Science 12 (June 12, 2024). http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/feart.2024.1348921.

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Introduction: The human foot has evolved over the past seven million years from a relatively mobile, grasping appendage to a highly derived structure with a heel pad and longitudinal arch that can absorb shock at heel strike and weight-bearing yet also function as a powerful lever at toe-off. It has been proposed that the modern human foot evolved to allow our species to use “variable gearing” during walking and running. In this model, the gears of the human foot are defined relative to the ankle center of rotation as R, the distance from the ground reaction resultant vector, and r, the distan

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35

Tijs, Chris, Nicolai Konow, and Andrew A. Biewener. "Effect of muscle stimulation intensity on the heterogeneous function of regions within an architecturally complex muscle." Journal of Applied Physiology, January 7, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00514.2020.

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Skeletal muscle has fiber architectures ranging from simple to complex, alongside variation in fiber-type and neuro-anatomical compartmentalization. However, the functional implications of muscle subdivision into discrete functional units remain poorly understood. The rat medial gastrocnemius has well-characterized regions with distinct architectures and fiber type composition. Here, force-length and force-velocity contractions were performed for two stimulation intensities (supramaximal and submaximal) and for three structural units (whole muscle belly, proximal region and distal region) to a

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36

Jimenez, Yordano E., Richard L. Marsh, and Elizabeth L. Brainerd. "A biomechanical paradox in fish: swimming and suction feeding produce orthogonal strain gradients in the axial musculature." Scientific Reports 11, no. 1 (2021). http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-88828-x.

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AbstractThe axial musculature of fishes has historically been characterized as the powerhouse for explosive swimming behaviors. However, recent studies show that some fish also use their ‘swimming’ muscles to generate over 90% of the power for suction feeding. Can the axial musculature achieve high power output for these two mechanically distinct behaviors? Muscle power output is enhanced when all of the fibers within a muscle shorten at optimal velocity. Yet, axial locomotion produces a mediolateral gradient of muscle strain that should force some fibers to shorten too slowly and others too f

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Hodson-Tole, Emma F., James M. Wakeling, and Taylor J. M. Dick. "Passive Muscle-Tendon Unit Gearing Is Joint Dependent in Human Medial Gastrocnemius." Frontiers in Physiology 7 (March 15, 2016). http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2016.00095.

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38

Po, Theodora, Andres Carrillo, Amberle McKee, Bruno Pernet, and Matthew J. McHenry. "Gearing in a hydrostatic skeleton: the tube feet of juvenile sea stars (Leptasterias sp.)." Journal of Experimental Biology, August 6, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.247804.

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Hydrostatic skeletons, such as an elephant trunk or a squid tentacle, permit the transmission of mechanical work through a soft body. Despite the ubiquity of these structures among animals, we generally do not understand how differences in their morphology affect their ability to transmit muscular work. Therefore, the present study used mathematical modeling, morphometrics, and kinematics to understand the transmission of force and displacement in the tube feet of the juvenile six-rayed star (Leptasterias sp.). An inverse-dynamic analysis revealed that the forces generated by the feet during c

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39

Monte, Andrea, Francesca Nardello, Riccardo Magris, Paolo Tecchio, and Paola Zamparo. "The influence of in vivo mechanical behaviour of the Achilles tendon on the mechanics, energetics and apparent efficiency of bouncing gaits." Journal of Experimental Biology 224, no. 16 (2021). http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.242453.

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ABSTRACT In this study, we used kinematic, kinetic, metabolic and ultrasound analysis to investigate the role of elastic energy utilization on the mechanical and physiological demands of a movement task (hopping) that primarily involves the plantar-flexor muscles to determine the contribution of tendon work to total mechanical work and its relationship with apparent efficiency (AE) in bouncing gaits. Metabolic power (PMET) and (positive) mechanical power at the whole-body level (PMEC) were measured during hopping at different frequencies (2, 2.5, 3 and 3.5 Hz). The (positive) mechanical power

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40

Smith, Ross, Glen Lichtwark, Dominic Farris, and Luke Kelly. "Examining the intrinsic foot muscles’ capacity to modulate plantar flexor gearing and ankle joint contributions to propulsion in vertical jumping." Journal of Sport and Health Science, July 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2022.07.002.

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