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Journal articles on the topic 'Muybridge, Eadweard'

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1

Herbert, Stephen. "Eadweard Muybridge." Early Popular Visual Culture 11, no. 1 (February 2013): 83–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17460654.2012.756646.

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2

Depauw, Liesbet. "Eadweard Muybridge." Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television 32, no. 3 (September 2012): 457–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01439685.2012.699613.

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3

Herbert, Stephen. "Eadweard Muybridge issue." Early Popular Visual Culture 11, no. 1 (February 2013): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17460654.2012.756649.

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4

OLSON, ALEXANDER I. "Muybridge in the Parlor." Journal of American Studies 50, no. 1 (February 10, 2015): 81–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021875815000018.

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Commonly regarded as one of the pioneers of motion-picture technology, Eadweard Muybridge carried out several photographic studies of animal and human movement in the late nineteenth century. One of Muybridge's lesser-known commissions was an album of interior photographs that he created in 1880 for his friends Kate and Robert Johnson. This article offers a close reading of this album and argues that it has more in common with Muybridge's motion studies than historians have previously recognized. Far from being a commercial outlier, the album offered Muybridge an opportunity to experiment with the technological and cultural possibilities of photography in a new way. Through ghosts, mirrors, and other forms of representational excess, these images make visible Muybridge's handiwork as a photographer and the intellectual complexity of his collaboration with Kate and Robert Johnson.
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5

Pain, Stephanie. "The Eadweard Muybridge cartoon show." New Scientist 197, no. 2642 (February 2008): 52–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0262-4079(08)60363-2.

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6

Braun, Marta. "Muybridge / Technology." Zeitschrift für Medien- und Kulturforschung 1, no. 1 (2010): 51–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.28937/1000106299.

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Eadweard Muybridge's 1887 photographic atlas Animal Locomotion is a curious mixture of art and science, a polysemic text that has been subject to a number of readings. This paper focuses on Muybridge's technology. It seeks to understand his commitment to making photographs with a battery of cameras rather than a single camera. It suggests reasons for his choice of apparatus and shows how his final work, The Human Figure in Motion (1901), justifies the choices he made.
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7

Morgan, Jayne. "Eadweard Muybridge and W. S. Playfair." History of Photography 23, no. 3 (September 1999): 225–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03087298.1999.10443325.

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8

Edelman, Rob. "Eadweard Muybridge and Baseball-in-Motion." Base Ball: A Journal of the Early Game 7, no. 1 (April 1, 2013): 62–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.3172/bb.7.62.

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9

Colorado Nates, Óscar. "Youngblood, Aristóteles y Muybridge: la Imagen Expandida como un fenómeno poliédrico." deSignis, no. 28 (January 1, 2018): 135–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.35659/designis.i28p135-153.

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El objetivo de este texto es explorar y analizar la noción de la imagen expandidad, su origen enraizado en el cine expandido de Youngblood y explora las diferentes posibilidades de tratamiento a la clásica secuencia fotográfica del galope de un caballo realizada por Eadweard Muybridge.
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10

Lawrence, Amy. "Counterfeit Motion: The Animated Films of Eadweard Muybridge." Film Quarterly 57, no. 2 (December 2003): 15–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/fq.2004.57.2.15.

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11

Herbert, Stephen. "Helios: Eadweard Muybridge in a time of change." Early Popular Visual Culture 11, no. 1 (February 2013): 86–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17460654.2012.756648.

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12

Pytel, Marek. "Eadweard Muybridge: Inverted modernism and the stereoscopic vision." Early Popular Visual Culture 11, no. 1 (February 2013): 71–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17460654.2012.756650.

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13

Levine, Robert M., and E. Bradford Burns. "Eadweard Muybridge in Guatemala, 1875: The Photographer as Social Recorder." History Teacher 21, no. 2 (February 1988): 240. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/493589.

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14

Fuller, Peter. "Notable Names in Medical Illustration: Eadweard James Muybridge 1830-1904." Journal of Audiovisual Media in Medicine 21, no. 4 (January 1998): 140–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/17453059809063127.

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15

Gudmundson, Lowell, and E. Bradford Burns. "Eadweard Muybridge in Guatemala, 1875: The Photographer as Social Recorder." American Historical Review 93, no. 3 (June 1988): 810. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1868306.

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16

Ott, John. "Iron Horses: Leland Stanford, Eadweard Muybridge, and the Industrialised Eye." Oxford Art Journal 28, no. 3 (October 1, 2005): 407–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxartj/kci035.

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17

Ziebell Mann, Sarah. "River of Shadows: Eadweard Muybridge and the Technological Wild West (review)." Moving Image 4, no. 2 (2004): 135–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mov.2004.0031.

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18

Brown, Julie K. "River of Shadows: Eadweard Muybridge and the Technological Wild West (review)." Technology and Culture 46, no. 2 (2005): 426–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/tech.2005.0064.

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19

Aguirre, Robert D. "Wide Angle: Eadweard Muybridge, the Pacific Coast, and Trans-Indigenous Representation." Victorian Literature and Culture 49, no. 1 (2021): 55–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1060150319000597.

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Eadweard Muybridge's Pacific Coast photographs provide an important site for investigating Victorian visual practices of the “wide.” They do not simply expand a referential frame to encompass novel subjects; they also, and more critically, register powerful narratives of temporality and modernity. This essay's analysis of the “wide” as an incipient concept of critical spatiality is not set against the more familiar temporal dimension of the long nineteenth century (a false and ultimately unproductive opposition). Rather, it places these two concerns in some tension with each other, though the argument is less about periodicity than about the representation of timescales in nineteenth-century media. In Muybridge's photographs, thinking about the representational possibilities of width is impossible without also confronting temporality. The Pacific Coast photographs are important both as explorations of timescales and artifacts in an influential nineteenth-century medium and prompts to reconsider the politico-economic networks that were central to the progress of expeditionary photography itself.
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20

Hutchinson, Elizabeth. "HELIOS: Eadweard Muybridge in a Time of Change. Edited by Philip Brookman." Photography and Culture 4, no. 1 (March 2011): 107–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.2752/175145211x12899905861672.

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21

Nisbet, James. "Atmospheric Cameras and Ecological Light in the Landscape Photographs of Eadweard Muybridge." Photography and Culture 6, no. 2 (July 2013): 131–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.2752/175145213x13606838923192.

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22

Bullough, William A. "Eadweard Muybridge and the Old San Francisco Mint: Archival Photographs as Historical Documents." California History 68, no. 1-2 (1989): 2–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/25158510.

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23

Molina Mateo, Kenny Deyanira. "La recepción del artista. Muybridge en la Plaza de la Catedral, Panamá (1875)." Revista de Arte Ibero Nierika 10, no. 19 (December 3, 2020): 48–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.48102/nierika.v10i19.3.

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Este artículo es una propuesta de análisis documental sobre una imagen del fotógrafo inglés Eadweard Muybridge (1830-1904); un estudio de la fotografía como documento. Este trabajo de perfil histórico se enfoca en el uso de este medio como fuente documental, con el objetivo específico de aportar un caso de estudio sobre una escena fotográfica construida por Muybridge en la Plaza de la Catedral, en Panamá, en 1875. A través del análisis se recuperaron elementos visuales que articulan la narrativa de los viajes de este fotógrafo, a la vez que se logró identificar su proceso de producción. Las tecnologías de la información facilitaron el acceso a la página web de la Universidad de Stanford, que se utilizó como fuente; en este ejercicio documental se enfatizó el uso de recursos digitales puestos en disponibilidad por diversas instituciones públicas y privadas, museos, universidades y archivos, guardianes de la memoria de distintas partes del mundo. Durante la escritura de este texto se mantuvo la idea de que la historia de la fotografía hecha desde América Latina se encuentra en permanente construcción, pues el universo de las fuentes fotográficas continúa siendo un territorio fértil por explorar.
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24

Braun, Marta. "Stephen Barber, The Projectionists: Eadweard Muybridge and the Future Projections of the Moving Image." Nineteenth Century Theatre and Film 48, no. 1 (January 11, 2021): 105–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1748372720986132.

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25

Ogden, Kate Nearpass. "Musing on Medium: Photography, Painting, and the Plein Air Sketch." Prospects 18 (October 1993): 237–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0361233300004920.

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The relationship of photography and painting has greatly intrigued art historians in recent years, as has the uneasy status of photography as “art” and/or “documentation.” An in-depth study of 19th-century landscape images suggests two new premises on the subject: first, that opinions differed on photography's status as an art in the 19th Century, just as they differ today; and, second, that the landscape photograph is more closely related to the plein air oil sketch than to the finished studio easel painting. For ease of comparison, the visual material used here will consist primarily of landscapes made in and around Yosemite Valley, California, in the 1860s and 1870s; comparisons will be made among paintings by Albert Bierstadt, photographs by Carleton Watkins and Eadweard Muybridge, and works in both media by less famous artists.
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26

Herbert, Stephen. "The man who stopped time: The illuminating story of Eadweard Muybridge – Pioneer photographer, father of the motion picture, murderer." Early Popular Visual Culture 7, no. 1 (April 2009): 106–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17460650902775450.

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27

Sumner-Smith, G. "‘All students of animal motion–sooner or later find their way back to the monumental photographic work of Eadweard Muybridge’." Veterinary and Comparative Orthopaedics and Traumatology 20, no. 01 (2007): 01. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0037-1616593.

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28

Balsom, Erika. "Moving bodies: captured life in the late works of Harun Farocki." Journal of Visual Culture 18, no. 3 (December 2019): 358–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1470412919879475.

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At the time of his sudden death in 2014, Harun Farocki was at work on a project called Moving Bodies. The project would explore the history of motion capture, from the chronophotographic experiments of Étienne-Jules Marey and Eadweard Muybridge to engagements with robotics and computer animation in the present. Based on an examination of the corpus of footage Farocki assembled for Moving Bodies and his correspondence about it with collaborator Matthias Rajmann, this article charts the inchoate propositions of a final installation we will never see. While it remains impossible to reconstruct what the completed form of the installation might have been, this article explores why Farocki was drawn to the subject of motion capture by contextualizing his research for this final project in relation to the problem of captured life in his late works Serious Games (2009–2010), Parallel I–IV (2012–2014), and Labour in a Single Shot (made in collaboration with Antje Ehmann, 2011–2014). The article argues that Farocki’s interest in motion capture is exemplary of a broader concern that runs throughout his late work – namely, an interrogation of the mediation and management of life by technical apparatuses. Thinking alongside Farocki’s final projects, the article proposes that lens-based capture possesses a double valence: it is at once a medium through which operations of control and mastery are articulated and a site at which an encounter with worldly complexity may occur.
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29

Johnson, Martin L. "Helios: Eadweard Muybridge in a Time of Change (Corcoran Gallery of Art, 10 April to 18 July 2010; Tate Britain, 8 September 2010 to 16 January 2011; San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, 26 February to 7 June 2011)." Early Popular Visual Culture 9, no. 2 (May 2011): 159–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17460654.2011.571043.

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30

Bear, Jordan. "Indecent Exposures: Eadweard Muybridge's “Animal Locomotion” Nudes, by Sarah Gordon." Art Bulletin 98, no. 4 (October 2016): 526–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00043079.2016.1215187.

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31

Brown, Elspeth H. "Racialising the Virile Body: Eadweard Muybridge's Locomotion Studies 1883-1887." Gender History 17, no. 3 (November 2005): 627–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0953-5233.2005.00399.x.

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32

Mileaf, Janine A. "Poses for the Camera: Eadweard Muybridge's Studies of the Human Figure." American Art 16, no. 3 (October 2002): 31–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/444671.

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33

Hall, Amy Cox. "Phantom Skies and Shifting Ground: Landscape, Culture and Rephotography in Eadweard Muybridge's Illustrations of Central America by Byron Wolfe and Scott Brady." Journal of Latin American Geography 18, no. 2 (2019): 182–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/lag.2019.0024.

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34

Fryer, Judith. "Women's Camera Work: Seven Propositions in Search of a Theory." Prospects 16 (October 1991): 57–117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s036123330000449x.

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Anaked woman stands before an artist seated in front of his easel, the elegance of his hat and frock coat, his little Vandyke beard somewhat anachronistic for 1914 (Figure 1). Light molds the back of the woman's body, outlining her outstretched right arm and her bent right leg, accenting her discarded dress draped over the seat of the chair. The shadows, the dark places of her body, echo the partial covering of the representation of nature that hangs like a sign on the screen on the wall behind her. All of the conventions of the artist's studio are here, from the black-and-white tiles to the linking of woman both with nature and pet; but this is a photograph, and it documents without irony certain institutions and practices - a form of representation — that dominated “art” photography at the turn of the century. The tradition upon which this photograph, The Artist and His Model (1914) by Richard Polack, draws, and the ideology to which it subscribes, has to do with notions of power. The light that idealizes, the gaze that possesses, are not always gentle, as Foucault suggests, but sometimes as penetrating as the surgeon's knife. The context for photographs like this one would include Eadweard Muybridge's studies of “the geometry of bodies” of 1887, a series of figures in motion called Animal Locomotion (Figure 2), as well as a whole range of representations of naked human bodies, from what Martha Banta calls the “soft porn” of Clarence White's and Alfred Stieglitz's “genteel ‘art photography’” to E. J. Bellocq's photographs of Storyville prostitutes to anatomical documentary studies for ethnographic, military, and medical purposes.
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35

Braun, Marta. "Sarah Gordon. Indecent Exposures: Eadweard Muybridge’s “Animal Locomotion” Nudes. ix + 173 pp., bibl., index. New Haven, Conn./London: Yale University Press, 2015. $65 (cloth)." Isis 108, no. 2 (June 2017): 454–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/692348.

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36

Buccini, Marcos. "O INSTANTE E O MOVIMENTO: a influência da fotografia de Muybridge e Marey." Cartema 6, no. 6 (January 6, 2018). http://dx.doi.org/10.52583/cartema.v6i6.234555.

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No século XIX, a maneira como artistas e cientistas enxergavam o movimento foi abalada pelo surgimento da cronofotografia, realizada pelo francês Etienne Jules Marey e, posteriormente, o trabalho de Eadweard Muybridge. Nestas fotografias podiam-se enxergar as frações temporais do movimento e visualizar imagens que o olho humano não conseguia captar.
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37

Smith, Michael T. "Notes on Buster Keaton’s Motion." Kinema: A Journal for Film and Audiovisual Media, November 15, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.15353/kinema.vi.1250.

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NOTES ON BUSTER KEATON'S MOTION The origin of cinema was in motion. In 1879, Eadweard Muybridge completed his "zoopraxiscope," named from "zoo" (a combining form meaning 'living being' or 'animal'),"praxis" (the Greek práxis, meaning 'action'), and "scope" (from the Greek skopion, meaning 'to look at carefully'). Muybridge built his contraption at the behest of railroad baron Leland Stanford (founder of Stanford University), who took an active interest in the then-emerging scientific field of Motion Studies. In essence, Stanford challenged Muybridge with a bet as to whether or not he could answer the mystery of whether a horse removes all four legs off the ground at some point while galloping. Using a battery of twelve cameras, Muybridge captured a running horse and projected said images from a rotating glass disk in rapid succession to give the impression of motion: he found a horse does, in fact, lift all four feet...
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38

"River of shadows: Eadweard Muybridge and the technological wild west." Choice Reviews Online 40, no. 10 (June 1, 2003): 40–5623. http://dx.doi.org/10.5860/choice.40-5623.

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39

"Eadweard Muybridge and the photographic panorama of San Francisco, 1850-1880." Choice Reviews Online 31, no. 05 (January 1, 1994): 31–2478. http://dx.doi.org/10.5860/choice.31-2478.

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40

Brunet, François. "Rebecca Solnit. River of Shadows : Eadweard Muybridge and the Technological Wild West." Transatlantica, no. 1 (October 1, 2005). http://dx.doi.org/10.4000/transatlantica.848.

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41

"E. Bradford Burns. Eadweard Muybridge in Guatemala, 1875: The Photographer as Social Recorder. Photographs by Eadweard J. Muybridge. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 1986. Pp. viii, 136. $35.00." American Historical Review, June 1988. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/ahr/93.3.810.

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42

Filho, Wilson Oliveira, Gabriel Linhares Falcão, and Francisco Malta. "O movimento das coisas: Jodie Mack e as animações experimentais em looping." AVANCA | CINEMA, February 26, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.37390/avancacinema.2020.a189.

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Since 2003, the english experimental director Jodie Mack has used primordial resources of cinema to produce cinematically powerful and entertaining works. With looping as the main artifice, her films explore different speeds, textures, colors, cuts, reflections, compositions and points of view. In movies like “Dusty Stacks of Mom: The Poster Project” (2013) and “The Grand Bizarre” (2018), the musical background is a constant. In the first, the director makes a rock opera adapting The Dark Side of The Moon to record the fall of the poster market, transforming the cultural products accumulated in her mother’s store into discard and consequently into raw material for her abstractions. The second is a roadmovie that moves around the raw material, mainly fabrics, tapestry pieces and maps that move around accompanied by music. Her movies stand out in contemporary experimental cinema for the uniqueness of having fun; experimentation is a great joke. Our aim is to analyze how Mack’s works dialogue with the looping of Eadweard Muybridge and Étienne-Jules Marey’s pre-cinema, with Stan Brakhage’s experimental provocations that encourage the exploration of movement, colors, textures and with animated GIFs. Despite the cinema’s proximity to GIF, it is not an easy task to point out names in contemporary cinema that relate to GIFs. Mack’s films are one of the few that can be seen as a series of GIFs and possibly the only one that, through a range of visual stimuli, manages to create movies as GIFs.
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43

Bennett, Gregory. "Impossible Choreographies." Journal of Creative Technologies, no. 7 (April 13, 2018). http://dx.doi.org/10.24135/jct.v0i7.42.

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This exposition discusses the emergence of the database as a creative methodology, and key organising principle in the generation of a series of 3D digital animated artworks. Through detailed explication and demonstration of a complex creative process utilising a range of media formats including video, 3D model views, and interactive 3D, I aim to elucidate an intricate relationship between technology, process and artistic intent, framing this within relevant emergent critical frameworks around digital creative practice. This design strategy will enable the effective communication of some of the inherent qualities of 3D digital production, and the mapping of the operations of the ‘database’ as a pliable creative tool. Working directly into high-end 3D modelling and animation software, and taking the actions of a generic male figure as a point of departure, my animations are created in a modular fashion, building up units of performed movements, loops and cycles (both animated and motion-captured), creating a sometimes complex movement vocabulary. This recalls Lev Manovich’s notions of the database and the loop as engines of (non-linear) narrative in digital media work, in particular his principles of modularity, automation and variability as intrinsic to new media objects. In working with complex software tools I also acknowledge in the fabrication process what Rachael Kearney has termed the ‘synthetic imagination’, and Malcolm Le Grice’s conception of submerged authorship in the interaction with the ‘intelligent machine’ – the creative act as a collaboration with the embodied intellect of the software itself. Drawing on and remediating a range of sources including the photographic studies of Eadweard J. Muybridge, the choreography of Busby Berkeley, nineteenth century optical toys, and the contemporary digital video game, these works present figures which occupy a space between the animate and the inanimate, between automata (devices that move by themselves) and simulacra (devices that simulate other things).
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44

Wolfe, Byron. "Eadweard Muybridge’s Secret Cloud Collection." Places Journal, no. 2017 (September 12, 2017). http://dx.doi.org/10.22269/170912.

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45

Svelto, Orazio. "LAMPI DI LUCE: DAI MILLISECONDI AGLI ATTO SECONDI." Istituto Lombardo - Accademia di Scienze e Lettere - Incontri di Studio, November 25, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.4081/incontri.2016.248.

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Mankind has always been interested in studying the movement of ever faster objects upon using ever shorter light pulses. As a first example of a study of macroscopic samples, mention will be made about the study of a horse, while galloping, as obtained by the photographer Eadweard Muybridge around the end of years ‘800. He was in fact able to obtain a complete recording of the horse movement upon using an ingenious system of several cameras, placed along the horse racing, equipped with shutters with a record opening time of about 2 millisecond (1 ms=10–3 s). About 50 years later (1930) the introduction of flashlamps allowed the achievement of light pulses with duration of about one microsecond (1 μs=10–6 s). Upon using flashlamps in a repetitive mode, it was then possible to record the movement of much smaller and hence much faster objects (e.g. a bullet while crossing an apple or the fast movement of a golf player while hitting the golf ball). It was, however, only after the invention of the laser (T.H. Maiman, 1960) that people became able to generate much shorter light pulses. From initial pulse durations (middle of years ‘60) of about 10 picosecond (1 ps= 10–12 s), one could then generate (during years ’90) laser light pulses of a few femtoseconds (1 fs=10–15 s) down the present values of about 70 attoseconds (1 as=10–18 s). During all these years after laser invention, the research group at the Physics Department of Politecnico di Milano, leaded by the author of the present paper, has always been at the forefront of the international research to generate and utilize laser pulses of ever shorter duration. After the introduction of the first laser at the Politecnico di Milano at the beginning of 1963 (more than 50 years ago!), the research group was able to obtain light pulses of about 5 picoseconnds in 1969, a record value for that time. The same group then obtained record values of light pulses of about 4,5 femtoseconds, at the end of years ’90, and of only 130 attoseconds around the middle of years 2000. Ultrashort laser pulses have been used, throughout all these years, by a large number of international groups to investigate the ultrafast dynamic behavior of molecules, molecular complexes, and solid state nanoscopic materials (such as quantum wells and quantum dots). As a representative example, some discussion will be presented about a recent work made by the research group of Politecnico about the retinal contained in the rodospin protein, a basic element for human vision.
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46

Handy, Ellen. "Ellen Handy. Review of "Indecent Exposures: Eadweard Muybridge's "Animal Locomotion" Nudes" by Sarah Gordon." caa.reviews, February 9, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.3202/caa.reviews.2018.38.

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47

Macken, Marian. "And Then We Moved In." M/C Journal 10, no. 4 (August 1, 2007). http://dx.doi.org/10.5204/mcj.2687.

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Abstract:
Working drawings are produced, when a house is designed, to envisage an imagined building. They are a tangible representation of an object that has no tangible existence. These working drawings act as a manual for constructing the house; they represent that which is to be built. The house comes into being, therefore, via this set of drawings. This is known as documentation. However, these drawings record the house at an ideal moment in time; they capture the house in stasis. They do not represent the future life of the house, the changes and traces the inhabitants make upon a space, nor do they document the path of the person, the arc of their actions, within the space of the house. Other types of documentation of the house allow these elements to be included. Documentation that is produced after-the-event, that interprets ‘the existing’, is absent from discourses on documentation; the realm of post factum documentation is a less examined form of documentation. This paper investigates post factum documentation of the house, and the alternative ways of making, producing and, therefore, thinking about, the house that it offers. This acknowledges the body in the space of architecture, and the inhabitation of space, and as a dynamic process. This then leads to the potential of the‘model of an action’ representing the motion and temporality inherent within the house. Architecture may then be seen as that which encloses the inhabitant. The word ‘document’ refers to a record or evidence of events. It implies a chronological sequence: the document comes after-the-event, that is, it is post factum. Within architecture, however, the use of the word documentation, predominantly, refers to working drawings that are made to ‘get to’ a building, drawings being the dominant representation within architecture. Robin Evans calls this notion, of architecture being brought into existence through drawing, the principle of reversed directionality (Evans 1997, 1989). Although it may be said that these types of drawings document the idea, or document the imagined reality of the building, their main emphasis, and reading, is in getting to something. In this case, the term documentation is used, not due to the documents’ placement within a process, of coming after the subject-object, but in referring to the drawings’ role. Other architectural drawings do exist that are a record of what is seen, but these are not the dominant drawing practice within architecture. Documentation within architecture regards the act of drawing as that process upon which the object is wholly dependent for its coming into existence. Drawing is defined as the pre-eminent methodology for generation of the building; drawings are considered the necessary initial step towards the creation of the 1:1 scale object. During the designing phase, the drawings are primary, setting out an intention. Drawings, therefore, are regarded as having a prescriptive endpoint rather than being part of an open-ended improvisation. Drawings, in getting to a building, draw out something, the act of drawing searches for and uncovers the latent design, drawing it into existence. They are seen as getting to the core of the design. Drawings display a technique of making and are influenced by their medium. Models, in getting to a building, may be described in the same way. The act of modelling, of making manifest two-dimensional sketches into a three-dimensional object, operates similarly in possessing a certain power in assisting the design process to unfurl. Drawing, as recording, alters the object. This act of drawing is used to resolve, and to edit, by excluding and omitting, as much as by including, within its page. Models similarly made after-the-fact are interpretive and consciously aware of their intentions. In encapsulating the subject-object, the model as documentation is equally drawing out meaning. This type of documentation is not neutral, but rather involves interpretation and reflection through representational editing. Working drawings record the house at an ideal moment in time: at the moment the builders leave the site and the owners unlock the front door. These drawings capture the house in stasis. There is often the notion that until the owners of a new house move in, the house has been empty, unlived in. But the life of the house cannot be fixed to any one starting point; rather it has different phases of life from conception to ruin. With working drawings being the dominant representation of the house, they exclude much; both the life of the house before this act of inhabitation, and the life that occurs after it. The transformations that occur at each phase of construction are never shown in a set of working drawings. When a house is built, it separates itself from the space it resides within: the domain of the house is marked off from the rest of the site. The house has a skin of a periphery, that inherently creates an outside and an inside (Kreiser 88). As construction continues, there is a freedom in the structure which closes down; potential becomes prescriptive as choices are made and embodied in material. The undesignedness of the site, that exists before the house is planned, becomes lost once the surveyors’ pegs are in place (Wakely 92). Next, the skeletal frame of open volumes becomes roofed, and then becomes walled, and walking through the frame becomes walking through doorways. One day an interior is created. The interior and exterior of the house are now two different things, and the house has definite edges (Casey 290). At some point, the house becomes lockable, its security assured through this act of sealing. It is this moment that working drawings capture. Photographs comprise the usual documentation of houses once they are built, and yet they show no lived-in-ness, no palimpsest of occupancy. They do not observe the changes and traces the inhabitants make upon a space, nor do they document the path of the person, the arc of their actions, within the space of the house. American architects and artists Elizabeth Diller and Ricardo Scofidio have written of these traces of the everyday that punctuate floor and wall surfaces: the intersecting rings left by coffee glasses on a tabletop, the dust under a bed that becomes its plan analog when the bed is moved, the swing etched into the floor by a sagging door. (Diller & Scofidio 99) It is these marks, these traces, that are omitted from the conventional documentation of a built house. To examine an alternative way of documenting, and to redress these omissions, a redefinition of the house is needed. A space can be delineated by its form, its edges, or it can be defined by the actions that are performed, and the connections between people that occur, within it. To define the house by what it encapsulates, rather than being seen as an object in space, allows a different type of documentation to be employed. By defining a space as that which accommodates actions, rooms may be delineated by the reach of a person, carved out by the actions of a person, as though they are leaving a trace as they move, a windscreen wiper of living, through the repetition of an act. Reverse directional documentation does not directly show the actions that take place within a house; we must infer these from the rooms’ fittings and fixtures, and the names on the plan. In a similar way, Italo Calvino, in Invisible Cities, defines a city by the relationships between its inhabitants, rather than by its buildings: in Ersilia, to establish the relationships that sustain the city’s life, the inhabitants stretch strings from the corners of the houses, white or black or grey or black-and-white according to whether they mark a relationship of blood, of trade, authority, agency. When the strings become so numerous that you can no longer pass among them, the inhabitants leave: the houses are dismantled; only the strings and their supports remain … Thus, when travelling in the territory of Ersilia, you come upon the ruins of the abandoned cities without the walls which do not last, without the bones of the dead which the wind rolls away: spiderwebs of intricate relationships seeking a form. (Calvino 62) By defining architecture by that which it encapsulates, form or materiality may be given to the ‘spiderwebs of intricate relationships’. Modelling the actions that are performed in the space of architecture, therefore, models the architecture. This is referred to as a model of an action. In examining the model of an action, the possibilities of post factum documentation of the house may be seen. The Shinkenchiku competition The Plan-Less House (2006), explored these ideas of representing a house without using the conventional plan to do so. A suggested alternative was to map the use of the house by its inhabitants, similar to the idea of the model of an action. The house could be described by a technique of scanning: those areas that came into contact with the body would be mapped. Therefore, the representation of the house is not connected with spatial division, that is, by marking the location of walls, but rather with its use by its inhabitants. The work of Diller and Scofidio and Allan Wexler and others explores this realm. One inquiry they share is the modelling of the body in the space of architecture: to them, the body is inseparable from the conception of space. By looking at their work, and that of others, three different ways of representing this inhabitation of space are seen. These are: to represent the objects involved in a particular action, or patterns of movement, that occurs in the space, in a way that highlights the action; to document the action itself; or to document the result of the action. These can all be defined as the model of an action. The first way, the examination of the body in a space via an action’s objects, is explored by American artist Allan Wexler, who defines architecture as ‘choreography without a choreographer, structuring its inhabitant’s movements’ (Galfetti 22). In his project ‘Crate House’ (1981), Wexler examines the notion of the body in a space via an action’s objects. He divided the house into its basic activities: bedroom, bathroom, kitchen and living room. Each of these is then defined by their artefacts, contained in their own crate on wheels, which is rolled out when needed. At any point in time, the entire house becomes the activity due to its crate: when a room such as the kitchen is needed, that crate is rolled in through one of the door openings. When the occupant is tired, the entire house becomes a bedroom, and when the occupant is hungry, it becomes a kitchen … I view each crate as if it is a diorama in a natural history museum — the pillow, the spoon, the flashlight, the pot, the nail, the salt. We lose sight of everyday things. These things I isolate, making them sculpture: their use being theatre. (Galfetti 42–6) The work of Andrea Zittel explores similar ideas. ‘A–Z Comfort Unit’ (1994), is made up of five segments, the centrepiece being a couch/bed, which is surrounded by four ancillary units on castors. These offer a library, kitchen, home office and vanity unit. The structure allows the lodger never to need to leave the cocoon-like bed, as all desires are an arm’s reach away. The ritual of eating a meal is examined in Wexler’s ‘Scaffold Furniture’ (1988). This project isolates the components of the dining table without the structure of the table. Instead, the chair, plate, cup, glass, napkin, knife, fork, spoon and lamp are suspended by scaffolding. Their connection, rather than being that of objects sharing a tabletop, is seen to be the (absent) hand that uses them during a meal; the act of eating is highlighted. In these examples, the actions performed within a space are represented by the objects involved in the action. A second way of representing the patterns of movement within a space is to represent the action itself. The Japanese tea ceremony breaks the act of drinking into many parts, separating and dissecting the whole as a way of then reassembling it as though it is one continuous action. Wexler likens this to an Eadweard Muybridge film of a human in motion (Galfetti 31). This one action is then housed in a particular building, so that when devoid of people, the action itself still has a presence. Another way of documenting the inhabitation of architecture, by drawing the actions within the space, is time and motion studies, such as those of Rene W.P. Leanhardt (Diller & Scofidio 40–1). In one series of photographs, lights were attached to a housewife’s wrists, to demonstrate the difference in time and effort required in the preparation of a dinner prepared entirely from scratch in ninety minutes, and a pre-cooked, pre-packaged dinner of the same dish, which took only twelve minutes. These studies are lines of light, recorded as line drawings on a photograph of the kitchen. They record the movement of the person in the room of the action they perform, but they also draw the kitchen in a way conventional documentation does not. A recent example of the documentation of an action was undertaken by Asymptote and the students at Columbia University Graduate School of Architecture in their exhibition at the Venice Biennale of Architecture in 2000. A gymnast moving through the interior space of the pavilion was recorded using a process of digitisation and augmentation. Using modelling procedures, the spatial information was then reconstructed to become a full-scale architectural re-enactment of the gymnast’s trajectory through the room (Feireiss 40). This is similar to a recent performance by Australian contemporary dance company Chunky Move, called ‘Glow’. Infra-red video tracking took a picture of the dancer twenty-five times a second. This was used to generate shapes and images based on the movements of a solo dancer, which were projected onto the floor and the dancer herself. In the past, when the company has used DVDs or videos, the dancer has had to match what they were doing to the projection. This shifts the technology to following the dancer (Bibby 3). A third way of representing the inhabitation of architecture is to document the result of an action. Raoul Bunschoten writes of the marks of a knife being the manifestation of the act of cutting, as an analogy: incisions imply the use of a cutting tool. Together, cuts and cutting tool embrace a special condition. The actual movement of the incision is fleeting, the cut or mark stays behind, the knife moves on, creating an apparent discontinuity … The space of the cut is a reminder of the knife, its shape and its movements: the preparation, the swoop through the air, the cutting, withdrawal, the moving away. These movements remain implicitly connected with the cut as its imaginary cause, as a mnemonic programme about a hand holding a knife, incising a surface, severing skin. (Bunschoten 40) As a method of documenting actions, the paintings of Jackson Pollack can be seen as a manifestation of an act. In the late 1940s, Pollack began to drip paint onto a canvas laid flat on the floor; his tools were sticks and old caked brushes. This process clarified his work, allowing him to walk around it and work from all four sides. Robert Hughes describes it as ‘painting “from the hip” … swinging paintstick in flourishes and frisks that required an almost dancelike movement of the body’ (Hughes 154). These paintings made manifest Pollack’s gestures. As his arm swung in space, the dripping paint followed that arc, to be preserved on a flat plane as pictorial space (Hughes 262). Wexler, in another study, recorded the manifestation of an action. He placed a chair in a one-room building. It was attached to lengths of timber that extended outdoors through slots in the walls of the building. As the chair moved inside the building, its projections carved grooves in the ground outside. As the chair moved in a particular pattern, deeper grooves were created: ‘Eventually, the occupant of the chair has no choice in his movement; the architecture moves him.’ (Galfetti 14) The pattern of movement creates a result, which in turn influences the movement. By redefining architecture by what it encapsulates rather than by the enclosure itself, allows architecture to be documented by the post factum model of an action that occurs in that space. This leads to the exploration of architecture, formed by the body within it, since the documentation and representation of architecture starts to affect the reading of architecture. Architecture may then be seen as that which encloses the inhabitant. The documentation of the body and the space it makes concerns the work of the Hungarian architect Imre Makovecz. His exploration is of the body and the space it makes. Makovecz, and a circle of like-minded architects and artists, embarked on a series of experiments analysing the patterns of human motion and subsequently set up a competition based around the search for a minimum existential space. This consisted of mapping human motion in certain spatial conditions and situations. Small light bulbs were attached to points on the limbs and joints and photographed, creating a series of curves and forms. This led to a competition called ‘Minimal Space’ (1971–2), in which architects, artists and designers were invited to consider a minimal space for containing the human body, a new notion of personal containment. Makovecz’s own response took the form of a bell-like capsule composed of a double shell expressing its presence and location in both time and space (Heathcote 120). Vito Acconci, an artist turned architect by virtue of his installation work, explored this notion of enclosure in his work (Feireiss 38). In 1980 Acconci began his series of ‘self-erecting architectures’, vehicles or instruments involving one or more viewers whose operation erected simple buildings (Acconci & Linker 114). In his project ‘Instant House’ (1980), a set of walls lies flat on the floor, forming an open cruciform shape. By sitting in the swing in the centre of this configuration, the visitor activates an apparatus of cables and pulleys causing walls to rise and form a box-like house. It is a work that explores the idea of enclosing, of a space being something that has to be constructed, in the same way for example one builds up meaning (Reed 247–8). This documentation of architecture directly references the inhabitation of architecture. The post factum model of architecture is closely linked to the body in space and the actions it performs. Examining the actions and movement patterns within a space allows the inhabitation process to be seen as a dynamic process. David Owen describes the biological process of ‘ecopoiesis’: the process of a system making a home for itself. He describes the building and its occupants jointly as the new system, in a system of shaping and reshaping themselves until there is a tolerable fit (Brand 164). The definition of architecture as being that which encloses us, interests Edward S. Casey: in standing in my home, I stand here and yet feel surrounded (sheltered, challenged, drawn out, etc.) by the building’s boundaries over there. A person in this situation is not simply in time or simply in space but experiences an event in all its engaging and unpredictable power. In Derrida’s words, ‘this outside engages us in the very thing we are’, and we find ourselves subjected to architecture rather than being the controlling subject that plans or owns, uses or enjoys it; in short architecture ‘comprehends us’. (Casey 314) This shift in relationship between the inhabitant and architecture shifts the documentation and reading of the exhibition of architecture. Casey’s notion of architecture comprehending the inhabitant opens the possibility for an alternate exhibition of architecture, the documentation of that which is beyond the inhabitant’s direction. Conventional documentation shows a quiescence to the house. Rather than attempting to capture the flurry — the palimpsest of occupancy — within the house, it is presented as stilled, inert and dormant. In representing the house this way, a lull is provided, fostering a steadiness of gaze: a pause is created, within which to examine the house. However, the house is then seen as object, rather than that which encapsulates motion and temporality. Defining, and thus documenting, the space of architecture by its actions, extends the perimeter of architecture. No longer is the house bounded by its doors and walls, but rather by the extent of its patterns of movement. Post factum documentation allows this altering of the definition of architecture, as it includes the notion of the model of an action. By appropriating, clarifying and reshaping situations that are relevant to the investigation of post factum documentation, the notion of the inhabitation of the house as a definition of architecture may be examined. This further examines the relationship between architectural representation, the architectural image, and the image of architecture. References Acconci, V., and K. Linker. Vito Acconci. New York: Rizzoli, 1994. Bibby, P. “Dancer in the Dark Is Light Years Ahead.” Sydney Morning Herald 22 March 2007: 3. Brand, S. How Buildings Learn: What Happens after They’re Built. London: Phoenix Illustrated, 1997. Bunschoten, R. “Cutting the Horizon: Two Theses on Architecture.” Forum (Nov. 1992): 40–9. Calvino, I. Invisible Cities. London: Picador, 1979. Casey, E.S. The Fate of Place. California: U of California P, 1998. Diller, E., and R. Scofidio. Flesh: Architectural Probes. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1994. Evans, R. Translations from Drawing to Building and Other Essays. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1997. ———. “Architectural Projection.” Eds. E. Blau and E. Kaufman. Architecture and Its Image: Four Centuries of Architectural Representation: Works from the Collection of the Canadian Center for Architecture. Exhibition catalogue. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989. 19–35. Feireiss, K., ed. The Art of Architecture Exhibitions. Rotterdam: Netherlands Architecture Institute, 2001. Galfetti, G.G., ed. Allan Wexler. Barcelona: GG Portfolio, 1998. Glanville, R. “An Irregular Dodekahedron and a Lemon Yellow Citroen.” In L. van Schaik, ed., The Practice of Practice: Research in the Medium of Design. Melbourne: RMIT University Press, 2003. 258–265. Heathcote, E. Imre Mackovecz: The Wings of the Soul. West Sussex: Academy Editions, 1997. Hughes, R. The Shock of the New: Art and the Century of Change. London: British Broadcasting Corporation, 1980. Kreiser, C. “On the Loss of (Dark) Inside Space.” Daidalos 36 (June 1990): 88–99. Reed, C. ed. Not at Home: The Suppression of Domesticity in Modern Art and Architecture. London: Thames & Hudson, 1996. “Shinkenchiku Competition 2006: The Plan-Less House.” The Japan Architect 64 (Winter 2007): 7–12. Small, D. Paper John. USA: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1987. Wakely, M. Dream Home. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. 2003. Citation reference for this article MLA Style Macken, Marian. "And Then We Moved In: Post Factum Documentation of the House." M/C Journal 10.4 (2007). echo date('d M. Y'); ?> <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0708/04-macken.php>. APA Style Macken, M. (Aug. 2007) "And Then We Moved In: Post Factum Documentation of the House," M/C Journal, 10(4). Retrieved echo date('d M. Y'); ?> from <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0708/04-macken.php>.
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