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Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Nano-gap'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 25 July 2025

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1

Keathley, Phillip Donald. "DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF NANO-GAP ENHANCED SURFACE PLASMON RESONANCE SENSORS." UKnowledge, 2009. http://uknowledge.uky.edu/gradschool_theses/643.

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Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensors are advantageous to other techniques of sensing chemical binding, offering quantitative, real-time, label-free results. Previous work has demonstrated the effectiveness of using dual-mode SPR sensors to differentiate between surface and background effects, making the sensors more robust to dynamic environments. This work demonstrates a technique that improves upon a previously optimized planar film dual-mode SPR sensor’s LOD by introducing a periodic array of subwavelength nano-gaps throughout the plasmon supporting material. First, general figures of me

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2

Gilzad, Kohan Mojtaba. "Plasmonic Effect of Metal Nanoparticles Deposited on Wide-Band Gap Metal Oxide Nanowire Substrate." Thesis, Luleå tekniska universitet, Institutionen för teknikvetenskap och matematik, 2017. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-64762.

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The application of nanowires (NWs) in solar cells (SCs) is of great interest due to their new promising aspects established in nanoelectronics. Semiconductors associated with plasmonic metal nanoparticles (NPs) such as Silver (Ag), Gold (Au) and Copper (Cu), show enhanced performance in solid state light absorbing SCs owing to plasmonic characteristic of noble metal NPs. Plasmonic NPs presented a significant role in development of visible light harvesting for many applications such as photocatalytic materials, photodynamic in Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) and photovoltaics (PVs).

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3

Mohammadi, Saeed. "Phononic band gap micro/nano-mechanical structures for wireless communications and sensing applications." Diss., Georgia Institute of Technology, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/1853/41069.

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Because of their outstanding characteristics, micro/nano-mechanical (MM) structures have found a plethora of applications in wireless communications and sensing. Many of these MM structures utilize mechanical vibrations (or phonons) at megahertz or gigahertz frequencies for their operation. On the other hand, the periodic atomic structure of crystals is the fundamental phenomenon behind the new era of electronics technology. Such atomic arrangements lead to a periodic electric potential that modifies the propagation of electrons in the crystals. In some crystals, e.g. silicon (Si), this modif

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4

Shakya, Jagat B. "Micro/nano-photonic structures and devices of III-nitride wide band-gap semiconductors /." Search for this dissertation online, 2004. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/ksu/main.

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5

Kral, Zdenek. "Development of optical characterization methods for micro-and nano- scale planar photonic band gap structures." Doctoral thesis, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/10803/8466.

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The characterization of photonic band gap materials (Photonic Crystals) is a fundamental issue in the development of the technologies for their fabrication and future application. This Doctoral Thesis has dealt with the development of optical characterization methods and their implementation to planar photonic structures. According to the objectives established in the present work we have obtained several results that are concluded in the following paragraphs:<br/><br/> We have developed an experimental technique based on the Bragg diffraction in the near and middle infra red (IR) spec

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6

Aschmoneit, Martin, and Dijana Janevska. "Closing the gap between frugal and reverse innovation : Lessons learned from the case of the Tata Nano." Thesis, Linköpings universitet, Företagsekonomi, 2013. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-97509.

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Abstract Title: Closing the gap between frugal and reverse innovation – Lessons learned from the case of the Tata Nano Authors: Martin Aschmoneit (martin.aschmoneit@gmail.com) Dijana Janevska (dijana.janevska@gmail.com) Supervisor: Malin Tillmar Date: May 27, 2013 Background: Emerging markets are growing and have become increasingly important for the global economy, while the growth of developed markets has slowed down. Emerging economies are the home of a new type of innovation that can help multinationals (both Western and local) to achieve further growth. Reverse innovation is a new approac

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7

Azam, Asad Muhammad. "Spectroscopic Optical Band Gap Properties and Morphological Study of Ultra-High Molecular Weight Polyethylene Nano Composites with Mg0.15Ni0.15Zn0.70Fe2O3." Thesis, Umeå universitet, Institutionen för fysik, 2016. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-115809.

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Ultra high molecular weight polyethylene has been commonly used as a biomaterial for hip and knee implants. This thesis concerns optical and three phase morphology of nano composites of ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) with Mg0.15Ni0.15Zn0.70Fe2O3 using analytical techniques such as UV-visible spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy. Muller matrix spectro-polarimeter has been used to study the absorption behavior over the visible spectral range i.e. 400-800 nm. The results show significant changes in the absorption behavior of UHMWPE/Zn nano ferrite samples. To analyze these chang

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8

Kevin, Punarja. "On the synthesis, measurement and applications of solar energy materials and devices." Thesis, University of Manchester, 2016. https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/en/theses/on-the-synthesis-measurement-and-applications-of-solar-energy-materials-and-devices(9273d60d-cc5a-4992-8fae-ac9ddefa506b).html.

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Second generation solar cells based on thin film semiconductors emerged as a result of the past ten years of intense research in the thin film preparation technology. Thin film solar cell technology can be cost effective as it uses comparatively cheap materials suitable for solar building integration. Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) is a well-known method for the deposition of high quality thin films. This thesis describes the synthesis of novel tin(II)dithiocarbamate [Sn(S2CNEt2)2] and bis(diphenylphosphinediselenoato) tin(II) [Sn(Ph2PSe2)2] and these complexes as single source precursor for

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9

Sugunan, Abhilash. "Photochemical and Photoelectric Applications of II-VI Semiconductor Nanomaterials." Licentiate thesis, KTH, Functional Materials, FNM, 2010. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-12808.

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<p>In this work we investigated fabrication of semiconductor nanomaterials and evaluated their potential for photo-chemical and photovoltaic applications. We investigated two different II-VI semiconductor nanomaterial systems; (i) ZnO oriented nanowire arrays non-epitaxially grown from a substrate; and (ii) colloidal CdTe nanotetrapods synthesized by solution-based thermal decomposition of organo-metallic precursors. In both the cases our main focus has been optimizing material synthesis for improving potential applications based on photon-electron interactions.</p><p>We have studied the synth

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10

Xiong, Mingke. "Development of UHF Micromechanical Resonators and Arrays Based on Silicon-OnInsulator (SOI) Technology." Scholar Commons, 2010. https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/1815.

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A novel micromachining technology on SOI substrates is presented that is capable of producing on-chip high-Q resonators and resonator arrays equipped with high aspect-ratio (30:1) microstructures and nano-gap capacitive transducers filled with high-k dielectrics. The newly developed IC-compatible MEMS microfabrication process consists of merely three standard photolithography steps, which is much simpler than the other SOI-based resonator device technologies. In order to achieve the optimum performance and yield of the resonators and resonator arrays, this SOI-based fabrication process has bee

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11

Vernon, Kristy C. "Strongly localised plasmons in metallic nanostructures." Thesis, Queensland University of Technology, 2008. https://eprints.qut.edu.au/19318/2/Kristy_Vernon_Citation.pdf.

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Strongly localised plasmons in metallic nano-structures offer exciting characteristics for guiding and focusing light on the nano-scale, opening the way for the development of new types of sensors, circuitry and improved resolution of optical microscopy. The work presented in this thesis focuses on two major areas of plasmonics research - nano-focusing structures and nano-sized waveguides. Nano-focusing structures focus light to an area smaller than the wavelength and will find applications in sensing, efficiently coupling light to nano-scale devices, as well as improving the resolution of nea

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12

Vernon, Kristy C. "Strongly localised plasmons in metallic nanostructures." Queensland University of Technology, 2008. http://eprints.qut.edu.au/19318/.

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Strongly localised plasmons in metallic nano-structures offer exciting characteristics for guiding and focusing light on the nano-scale, opening the way for the development of new types of sensors, circuitry and improved resolution of optical microscopy. The work presented in this thesis focuses on two major areas of plasmonics research - nano-focusing structures and nano-sized waveguides. Nano-focusing structures focus light to an area smaller than the wavelength and will find applications in sensing, efficiently coupling light to nano-scale devices, as well as improving the resolution of nea

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13

Pegus, Albert. "Development of mass spectrometric systems to analyse the results of laser ablation experiments on nano- and microparticles : a model for bridging the gap between theory and practice." Thesis, University of Sussex, 2004. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.408086.

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14

Artvin, Zafer. "Fabrication Of Nanostructured Samples For The Investigation Of Near Field Radiation Transfer." Master's thesis, METU, 2012. http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12614826/index.pdf.

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Radiative heat transfer in nanostructures with sub-wavelength dimensions can exceed that predicted by Planck&#039<br>s blackbody distribution. This increased effect is due to the tunneling of infrared radiation between nanogaps, and can allow the eventual development of nano-thermo-photo-voltaic (Nano-TPV) cells for energy generation from low temperature heat sources. Although near field radiation effects have been discussed for many years, experimental verification of these effects is very limited so far. In this study, silica coated silicon wafer sample chips have been manufactured by using

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15

Sugunan, Abhilash. "Fabrication and Photoelectrochemical Applications of II-VI Semiconductor Nanomaterials." Doctoral thesis, KTH, Funktionella material, FNM, 2012. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-95410.

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In this work we investigated fabrication of semiconductor nanomaterials and evaluated their potential for photo-chemical and photovoltaic applications. We investigated different II-VI semiconductor nanomaterial systems; (i) ZnO oriented nanowire arrays non-epitaxially grown from a substrate; and (ii) colloidal CdE (E=Te,Se,S) quantum structures synthesized by solution-based thermal decomposition of organo-metallic precursors. We have studied the synthesis of vertically aligned ZnO nanowire arrays (NWA), by a wet chemical process on various substrates. We have extended this method wherein nanof

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16

Tan, Shiaw Juen. "Linear and nonlinear propagation of localised plasmon in metallic nanostructures." Thesis, Queensland University of Technology, 2011. https://eprints.qut.edu.au/52635/1/Shiaw_Tan_Thesis.pdf.

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A major challenge in modern photonics and nano-optics is the diffraction limit of light which does not allow field localisation into regions with dimensions smaller than half the wavelength. Localisation of light into nanoscale regions (beyond its diffraction limit) has applications ranging from the design of optical sensors and measurement techniques with resolutions as high as a few nanometres, to the effective delivery of optical energy into targeted nanoscale regions such as quantum dots, nano-electronic and nano-optical devices. This field has become a major research direction over the la

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17

Vogel, Michael Werner. "Theoretical and numerical investigation of plasmon nanofocusing in metallic tapered rods and grooves." Thesis, Queensland University of Technology, 2009. https://eprints.qut.edu.au/29241/1/Michael_Vogel_Citation.pdf.

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Effective focusing of electromagnetic (EM) energy to nanoscale regions is one of the major challenges in nano-photonics and plasmonics. The strong localization of the optical energy into regions much smaller than allowed by the diffraction limit, also called nanofocusing, offers promising applications in nano-sensor technology, nanofabrication, near-field optics or spectroscopy. One of the most promising solutions to the problem of efficient nanofocusing is related to surface plasmon propagation in metallic structures. Metallic tapered rods, commonly used as probes in near field microscopy and

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18

Vogel, Michael Werner. "Theoretical and numerical investigation of plasmon nanofocusing in metallic tapered rods and grooves." Queensland University of Technology, 2009. http://eprints.qut.edu.au/29241/.

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Effective focusing of electromagnetic (EM) energy to nanoscale regions is one of the major challenges in nano-photonics and plasmonics. The strong localization of the optical energy into regions much smaller than allowed by the diffraction limit, also called nanofocusing, offers promising applications in nano-sensor technology, nanofabrication, near-field optics or spectroscopy. One of the most promising solutions to the problem of efficient nanofocusing is related to surface plasmon propagation in metallic structures. Metallic tapered rods, commonly used as probes in near field microscopy and

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19

Li, Jianyou. "Oligonucleotide guanosine conjugated to gallium nitride nano-structures for photonics." Thesis, University of North Texas, 2008. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc9065/.

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In this work, I studied the hybrid system based on self-assembled guanosine crystal (SAGC) conjugated to wide-bandgap semiconductor gallium nitride (GaN). Guanosine is one of the four bases of DNA and has the lowest oxidation energy, which favors carrier transport. It also has large dipole moment. Guanosine molecules self-assemble to ribbon-like structure in confined space. GaN surface can have positive or negative polarity depending on whether the surface is Ga- or N-terminated. I studied SAGC in confined space between two electrodes. The current-voltage characteristics can be explained

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20

Mohsen, Oftadeh, and Barati Bahman. "Theoretical study of 1 and 4 benzoquinone and difluoro derivatives of benzoquinone on zinc oxide nano particles by dft method." Thesis, Видавництво СумДУ, 2011. http://essuir.sumdu.edu.ua/handle/123456789/20545.

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This study investigates some aspects of interaction between 1 and 4 benzoquinone (BQ) and fluoro derivatives of 1, 4-BQ on surface of zinc oxide nanopatricles theoretically with using density functional method (B3LYP) and 6-31G as basis set. The significant quantities include HOMO, LUMO, chemistry potential, hardness and dipole moment have been computed and compared. The highest gap energy and the most hardness can be referred to the 1, 4- difluoro benzoquinone compared with two another derivatives, 2,5- and 2,6- difluoro benzoquinone. This interaction showed that these groups stabilize the r

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21

Fedorov, Nikita. "Luminescence résolue en temps de solides cristallins et de nano particules excités par des impulsions IR, UV et VUV femtosecondes d'intensité variable." Thesis, Bordeaux 1, 2008. http://www.theses.fr/2008BOR13629/document.

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Mon travail pendant cette thèse a d’abord été le développement d’une source de génération d’harmoniques d’ordre élevé basée sur une chaîne laser femtoseconde amplifiée (Saphir-Titane) fonctionnant à une cadence de 1 kHz (AURORE). Une ligne de lumière construite au CELIA permet de fournir un faisceau focalisé VUV-XUV femtoseconde, monochromatique dans une région spectrale comprise entre 10 nm et 73 nm environ (17 eV à 120 eV). Cette installation expérimentale est en fonctionnement et est parmi les toutes premières lignes à être mise en service pour la communauté scientifique française et étrang

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22

Pepenene, Refuoe Donald. "Macroscopic and Microscopic surface features of Hydrogenated silicon thin films." University of the Western Cape, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/11394/6414.

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Magister Scientiae - MSc (Physics)<br>An increasing energy demand and growing environmental concerns regarding the use of fossil fuels in South Africa has led to the challenge to explore cheap, alternative sources of energy. The generation of electricity from Photovoltaic (PV) devices such as solar cells is currently seen as a viable alternative source of clean energy. As such, crystalline, amorphous and nanocrystalline silicon thin films are expected to play increasingly important roles as economically viable materials for PV development. Despite the growing interest shown in these materials,

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23

Pirouzfar, Pedram. "Methods for verification of ultra-pure water with air gap membrane distillation : Focusing on applications in the semiconductor industry." Thesis, Karlstads universitet, Fakulteten för hälsa, natur- och teknikvetenskap (from 2013), 2020. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kau:diva-80018.

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In the semiconductor industry, the purification process of the silicon wafers is of a great importance. If water of sufficient quality is not used, the silicon wafer surface runs a risk of being destroyed by particles and bacteria sticking to its surface. Semiconductors cannot be manufactured on the destroyed surfaces and to achieve the highest efficiency of the circuits, water with high purity is required for the purification process. The silicon wafers produced by the manufacturer have an oxide layer on them as a protective layer. This oxide layer needs to be cleaned off before it can be use

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24

Sass, Danielle Thandi. "Nano silver-iron-reduced graphene oxide modified titanium dioxide photocatalyst for the remediation of organic dye in water systems." University of the Western Cape, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/11394/6410.

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Magister Scientiae - MSc (Chemistry)<br>Drinking water with high concentrations of inorganic and organic contaminants can cause adverse health defects. Specifically methyl orange dye is an organic water contaminant that has been known (along with others like methyl blue etc.) to have an increase in our water systems over the past few years due to increasing demand in industrial processes. It is therefore of utmost importance to remediate organic contaminants and ultimately enable prevention. The contaminants can be removed by photocatalysis. Anatase TiO2 is known for its photocatalytic d

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25

Smith, Trevor Jamison. "The Synthesis and Characterization of Ferritin Bio Minerals for Photovoltaic, Nanobattery, and Bio-Nano Propellant Applications." BYU ScholarsArchive, 2015. https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/etd/6045.

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Material science is an interdisciplinary area of research, which in part, designs and characterizes new materials. Research is concerned with synthesis, structure, properties, and performance of materials. Discoveries in materials science have significant impact on future technologies, especially in nano-scale applications where the physical properties of nanomaterials are significantly different than their bulk counterparts. The work presented here discusses the use of ferritin, a hollow sphere-like biomolecule, which forms metal oxo-hydride nanoparticles inside its protein shell for uses as

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26

Martin, Jérôme. "Etude par épitaxie en phase vapeur aux organométalliques de la croissance sélective de nano-hétéro-structures de matériaux à base de GaN." Thesis, Metz, 2009. http://www.theses.fr/2009METZ027S/document.

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La nano-structuration de matériaux semiconducteurs à grand gap à base de GaN fait l'objet d'un très grand intérêt de par son potentiel pour l'élaboration de composants optoélectroniques innovants émettant dans la gamme spectrale de l’ultraviolet. Le contrôle de la croissance à l'échelle nanométrique doit être ainsi démontré. L'épitaxie sélective ou SAG (Selective Area Growth) étendue au domaine nanométrique (NSAG pour NanoSAG) est un excellent choix pour l'élaboration de nanostructures de semiconducteur. Cette technique consiste en la croissance localisée du matériau sur un substrat partiellem

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27

Chiang, Sung-Lin, and 蔣松霖. "Fabrication and applications of nano-gap electrode arrays." Thesis, 2005. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/77657551690894469666.

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碩士<br>國立暨南國際大學<br>電機工程學系<br>93<br>Nowadays, the fabrication of nano electrodes is mainly done by electron beam lithography (E-beam lithography). However, there are some drawbacks of E-beam lithography, such as low throughput and high productive cost. In order to have higher throughput to depoly the device on real applications , new nanofabrication techniques are in urgent need. In this thesis, we proposed a new nanofabrication technique and successfully fabricated the nanoscale electrodes by using only conventional optical lithography and RIE spacer etching technique. Array of electrodes with

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28

Raines, Allen Lee 1973. "Nano-scale large area gap control for high throughput electrically induced micro-patterning." Thesis, 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/2152/3656.

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Chiu, Nan-Fu, and 邱南福. "Design and Fabrication of Active Plasmonic Biosensors with Nano-Grating and Band Gap Structures." Thesis, 2008. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/60363626376533529648.

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博士<br>國立臺灣大學<br>電機工程學研究所<br>96<br>Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) phenomenon was described in 1980 and has been used for sensing almost two decades ago. SPR biosensors are optical sensors using polarized surface electromagnetic waves (SEW) to probe molecular interactions between metal film surface and dielectric medium. SPR sensors have the advantages of high sensitivity, label-free and real-time detection. In this paper, the coupling SPP on the nano-grating, the active plasmonics and the zinc oxide (ZnO) band-gap structure for bio-plasmonics were demonstrated. The presented results show that

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Chiu, Nan-Fu. "Design and Fabrication of Active Plasmonic Biosensors with Nano-Grating and Band Gap Structures." 2008. http://www.cetd.com.tw/ec/thesisdetail.aspx?etdun=U0001-2901200802281100.

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Hsueh, Hsiao-Ting, and 薛孝亭. "An Incremental Double-Layer Capacitance of A Planar Nano Gap and Its Application in Biosensors." Thesis, 2016. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/87828954717239080094.

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博士<br>國立臺灣大學<br>生醫電子與資訊學研究所<br>104<br>Surface potential is one of the most important properties at solid-liquid interfaces. It can be modulated by the voltage applied on the electrode or by the surface properties. Hence, surface potential is a good indicator for surface modifications, such as biomolecular bindings. In this dessertation, we proposed to use a planar nano-gap structure to monitor surface-potential difference and biomedical application. Based on the proposed architecture, the variance of surface-potential difference can be determined by electrical double layer capacitance (EDLC) b

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Shyu, Shang-ding, and 徐尚鼎. "3-D FDTD Studies of Gap-Electric-Field Enhancement in Linear Dipole Nano-Antenna Structures." Thesis, 2018. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/6jufad.

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碩士<br>國立臺灣大學<br>電信工程學研究所<br>106<br>The finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method has been an popular electromagnetics simulation technique. We construct a parallelized three-dimensional (3-D) electromagnetics simulator using the FDTD method in C++ language. We use the message pass interface (MPI) protocol and multiprocessing so that the simulation time can be shortened. The main topic of this thesis research is to analyze the gap-field enhancement of nano dipole antennas under normally incident light. Firstly, single nano-dipoles are simulated by applying a broadband normally incident plane

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Gaßmann, Helmut Albin Oliver. "Integration von Connexonen in Lipidmembranen auf porösen Oberflächen." Doctoral thesis, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/11858/00-1735-0000-0006-B690-0.

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Chakraborty, Arup. "Ab-initio Study of Novel Nano-structures." Thesis, 2019. http://hdl.handle.net/10821/8283.

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In the present thesis, we have employed first principles electronic structure calculations based on density functional theory to understand various properties of novel nanostructures. We have studied trends in band gap and band offsets for a series of small coupled dots made of II-VI semiconductors using hybrid functional method. Our calculations reveal absence of offset for the highest occupied molecular orbitals (HOMO) for coupled dots with common anions while there is substantial HOMO offset for common cation systems. The absorption peaks for these series of coupled dots are in the ultravio

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Ghosh, Ram Krishna. "Exploration of Real and Complex Dispesion Realtionship of Nanomaterials for Next Generation Transistor Applications." Thesis, 2013. http://etd.iisc.ac.in/handle/2005/3288.

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Technology scaling beyond Moore’s law demands cutting-edge solutions of the gate length scaling in sub-10 nm regime for low power high speed operations. Recently SOI technology has received considerable attention, however manufacturable solutions in sub-10 nm technologies are not yet known for future nanoelectronics. Therefore, to continue scalinginsub-10 nm region, new one(1D) and two dimensional(2D) “nano-materials” and engineering are expected to keep its pace. However, significant challenges must be overcome for nano-material properties in carrier transport to be useful in future silicon n

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Ghosh, Ram Krishna. "Exploration of Real and Complex Dispesion Realtionship of Nanomaterials for Next Generation Transistor Applications." Thesis, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/2005/3288.

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Technology scaling beyond Moore’s law demands cutting-edge solutions of the gate length scaling in sub-10 nm regime for low power high speed operations. Recently SOI technology has received considerable attention, however manufacturable solutions in sub-10 nm technologies are not yet known for future nanoelectronics. Therefore, to continue scalinginsub-10 nm region, new one(1D) and two dimensional(2D) “nano-materials” and engineering are expected to keep its pace. However, significant challenges must be overcome for nano-material properties in carrier transport to be useful in future silicon n

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Bhattacharya, Amrita. "FIRST-PRINCIPLES STUDY OF FUNCTIONALIZED GRAPHENE AND ITS DERIVATIVES." Thesis, 2019. http://hdl.handle.net/10821/8322.

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In this thesis work, it has been studied the electronic properties of graphene and graphene like planar nano-sheets. It has been specifically tried to address the problem of band gap engineering in the native as well as functionalized derivatives of graphene and graphene-like planar nanomaterials. In chapter-3, we have solved the tight binding Hamiltonian of graphene. It shows that in a pristine graphene sheet, there is Dirac Cone like merging between the valence band and the conduction band. As a result of which the electrons are highly mobile and shows finite conductivity even at 0 K. Theref

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