Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Natural resources Natural resources Natural resources, Communal Ghana'

Internationally there is an increasing focus on involving local communities in natural resource management and monitoring. Monitoring methods which are professionally driven appear to be inadequate to deal with the monitoring of natural resource use and biodiversity conservation, globally. This is especially evident in areas such as South African rural communal land. Two community based natural resource management (CBNRM) programmes in areas which are communally governed in the Eastern Cape, South Africa, namely Nqabara and Machubeni, were used as part of this research study. This thesis identified and tested potentially simple and cost effective monitoring methods related to the utilization of the local rangelands and indigenous forests. The criteria that were tested include 1) appropriateness and effectiveness in measuring change, and 2) contribution to building adaptive capacity among local land managers through learning. The criteria were assessed using a scoring system for each monitoring method in order to evaluate their strengths and weaknesses . This was done by using both quantitative and qualitative data. Contribution to building adaptive capacity was assessed by evaluating technical capacity gained, local ecological knowledge contributed and learning by participants. This was done using qualitative data. The results show that the monitoring methods had different strengths and weaknesses in relation to the criteria, making them more appropriate for different priorities such as effectively measuring change or building adaptive capacity. It is argued that an adaptive approach is a useful component in the participatory monitoring process. An adaptive framework was developed from lessons learnt in this study for collaborative monitoring. Challenges such as low literacy levels and adequate training still need to be addressed to strengthen efforts towards participatory monitoring. Factors such as incentives, conflict and local values may negatively affect the legitimacy and sustainability of participatory monitoring and therefore also need to be addressed.

Magister Scientiae (Biodiversity and Conservation Biology) - MSc (Biodiv and Cons Biol)
Natural resources play important roles in ecosystem service delivery, more especially in rural households where livelihoods depend heavily on natural resources for the delivery of ecosystem services. The various benefits derived from provisioning, supporting, regulating and cultural services of natural ecosystems such as food, medicines, carbon sequestration, spiritual fulfilment all support human life and sustain its well-being. Research on valuation of natural resources suggest that the values derived mainly from non-marketed natural resources are insignificant and thus, not reflected in national accounts. Economic valuations have traditionally been concerned with the quantification of direct use values of ecosystem services that are marketed to produce tangible benefits. The scope of natural resource valuations have, however been broadened by scientists in recent years to consider passive or non-use values to reflect the total economic values of natural resources and ecosystem services to societies. In this study, I valued the streams of ecosystem services derived from natural resources in Leliefontein communal rangeland; an area of 192 000 hectares in the semi-arid region of Namaqualand in South Africa. Rangeland forage for livestock, medicinal plants, fuelwood, and water resources from the Communal Area were valuated for one production year between January and December 2012. Valuation was done to incorporate both marketed and non-marketed natural resources which were used within the production year. The total economic value for the area was estimated at R20 156 672 per annum. Value of rangeland forage was estimated at R61.92 ha-1 yr-1, fuelwood’s value was estimated at R25.04 ha-1 yr-1, value of medicinal plants was R2.26 ha-1 yr-1 and water resources valued at R9.45 ha-1 yr-1. The non-use value was estimated by eliciting the willingness to pay for the conservation of the natural resources using a contingent valuation method. Economic value of natural resources in Leliefontein increased to R105 per hectare from R99 when non-use value was added to reflect the total economic value of ecosystem services in the area. Household income level positively correlated with individual’s willingness to pay for ecosystem services. I recommend that decision making should take into account the socio-economic conditions of a community when determining the total economic value of ecosystem services. Non-use value of the ecosystems should be considered especially in rural areas where people depend on the natural environment for livelihoods and socio-cultural well-being. Sustainable and equitable utilisation of natural resources for the purpose of maintaining a sustainable flow of critical ecosystem services should form the basis for formulating policies on land use and sustainable development.

Communal Areas Management for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) is an innovative community based natural resource management strategy which transfers management and conservation responsibility from the state to the local communities. This thesis critically examines CAMPFIRE's potential for introducing sustainable natural resource management through the detailed examination of CAMPFIRE's implementation in Nyaminyami District, which is located in the Zambezi Valley of Zimbabwe. Comparisons with other districts are made as appropriate. The theoretical framework of this research is based on an examination of common property theories, theories of bundles of rights, globalisation and the notion of global commons. It is also based on critically examining Zimbabwean, African and international literature dealing with the management of natural resources used in common. There are five specific contributions which the thesis makes. Firstly, common property management is redefined and the difference between resources used in common but which are not common property and common property resources is clarified. Secondly, the study shows that CAMPFIRE is not sustainable whilst it remains dependent on wildlife alone and on a single species - the elephant. Thirdly, the thesis has attempted to extricate the CAMPFIRE concept from the wildlife debate in which it has become entangled and, fourthly, it examines the issues of globalisation and the global commons to show how decisions made at the international level impact on resource utilisation and management at the local level. Finally, the study examines what residual Tonga indigenous knowledge still exists and which aspects can be incorporated into present management systems. Overall, the results of the research suggest that while CAMPFIRE is an innovative strategy for sustainable natural resource management it, has not achieved its major objective of becoming a grassroots rural development strategy. It has become a top down elitist programme which is NGO and donor driven and government constrained. Legislation and policy need formally to address this problem. Finally, the thesis recognises the potential of the CAMPFIRE concept, especially if the weaknesses ofthe programme are addressed.

The Botswana Community Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) programme started in 1989. Its aims were to promote sustainable development through sustainable natural resources management and utilisation to improve rural livelihoods. The country CBNRM programme has recorded mixed outcomes and this has raised questions on the programme performance throughout the country. Since the programme has been recognised as one of the eight main livelihood strategies for rural communities in Botswana, there was a need to evaluate the programme performance and determine the factors that influence it. This thesis therefore evaluated the performance of CBNRM projects along an aridity gradient in Botswana and by so doing answered the two research questions of: (1) What factors influence the performance of CBNRM? And (2) how does aridity influence the performance of CBNRM programmes? Performance was determined in terms of financial benefits generated by CBNRM projects and the projects adherence to the CBNRM principles. Data were collected from seven selected CBNRM projects covering three aridity zones (wet, medium rainfall and dry areas) in the country. Data were also collected from key informants and community based organisations (CBO) project managers. Research findings have indicated differences in the performance of CBNRM projects across the identified three aridity zones. Factors that influenced the performance of CBNRM projects varied among the three aridity zones. These factors included: existence of complimentary rules and regulations for managing CBNRM projects; literacy levels of communities involved in CBNRM; ethnic composition of the project communities; historic and current socio-economic trends within communities; collaboration between CBNRM institutions and other local level institutes; amount of benefits generated through the projects; ability of institutions to resolve outstanding issues in time and type of CBNRM project. Research results also indicated that there was variation in the performance of CBNRM projects across the three aridity zones. Aridity was found to directly influence the performance of CBNRM projects through its influence on the amount of revenues that projects generated.

The Volta Basin covers most of the major food producingdistricts of Ghana. Thus said, it is considered as the foodbasket of Ghana. This perception underscores the need toprotect the basins bio-physical environment and resource base.This concern has been mirrored by several initiatives both interms of policy and planning that aim at improving themanagement of the basin’s resource base to enable itspeople depend on it in meeting their livelihoods. Like mostcommunities that lie in the lower reaches of the Volta, thepeople of the South Tongu District have been brought under theimpact of the dam. Even though no extensive study has yet beenconducted to establish the extent of the dam’s impact inthe district, it is widely believed by the locals thatlivelihoods have been impacted by environmental changes. Keycomplaints include, amongst others, tree cover depletion,decline in soil fertility, poor agricultural productivity, lowrainfall and bush fires. At the district level some steps havebeen taken in the form of projects and programmes to addresspoverty and resource management issues, while others areunderway. This study seeks to contribute to the on-goinggeneral discussion concerning poverty and environmentalmanagement in the basin by presenting some perspectives fromfour villages, namely, Torsukpo, Agbogbla, Akato and Alesikpein the South Tongu District. From two perspectives, thesecommunities are considered as homogenous: (i) they are allpredominantlyeweswith respect to ethnic composition, and (ii)subsistence farming features as a key occupation in all thecommunities. Among the range of issues identified in thedistrict, the study discusses mainly conservation (with respectto tree planting), bush fires and co-operative management. Ittreats these issues with focuses on key socio-cultural factors.In the examination of these issues institutional matters suchas tenure are seen as central players in resource managementand are thus given attention. While information gathered hereincontributes generally to deepening knowledge on the prevailingproblems, some recommendations are also offered as possiblesteps to improving resource management and livelihoods in theDistrict.

Key words:environment; natural resources; lower volta;local people; livelihood

The disappointing economic performance of Nigerian, Ghanaian, and the Togolese economies, coupled with the globalization of activities in the world economy, have forced them to look outward for development strategies. Many studies have been attempted to estimate the impact of natural resources on foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows around the world, but very few have been focused on Ghana, Nigeria and Togo. This study departed from previous studies and employed a gravity-type framework to explicitly explore the question of whether natural resource endowments was a more relevant factor that explained the FDI’s attraction to the countries under study. The study also included other FDI determinants. Accordingly, this study served to investigate whether natural resources attracted FDI inflows in Ghana, Nigeria, and Togo. Using time series data from 1980–2015, the study was conducted to answer two research questions. Two models were established utilizing the pooled ordinary least square method to estimate the coefficients of the models. Preliminary results were obtained using both the random effect and fixed effect models. The results of the study yielded by both techniques registered natural resources to be significant as a driven factor for FDI inflows to the countries under review. Other factors such as GDP per capita, trade openness, political stability, and economic liberalization were also found to be significant in FDI determination.

Community Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) in southern Africa has gained an important role in alleviating poverty and conserving natural resources. The attention and funding CBNRM is receiving from governments, non-governmental organisations and donors is seen as one way to strengthen civil society‟s involvement in decision-making and participating in activities that contribute to a sustainable livelihood, whilst at the same time learning in their social contexts to adapt and care for the ever changing environment characterised by constraints, challenges, contradictions, new opportunities for learning and change. This study focuses on social learning in commercialisation of natural resource products in two case studies of commercial beekeeping in rural southern African contexts. In this study social learning entails a process of qualitative change taking place in a social context for the purpose of personal and social adaptation. This perspective is useful in this study as learning in the two cases, Hluleka in South Africa and Buhera in Zimbabwe involved the transition beekeeping.from traditional honey harvesting practices and subsistence beekeeping to commercial beekeeping. This study is informed by two related theoretical perspectives namely Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) and Social Learning Theory. CHAT was used as conceptual and methodological framework to inform the first phase of data gathering and analysis processes; as well as second phase data gathering. In the first phase, I gathered data through semistructured interviews, document reviews and observations to identify problems, challenges and critical incidents in learning commercial beekeeping, technically known as tensions and contradictions within the CHAT framework. These tensions and contradictions, surfaced through analysis of first phase data were used as "mirror data‟ in Intervention Workshops within CHAT's process of Developmental Work Research, which supports social learning in response to tensions and contradictions in workplace activity. Use of mirror data provided a basis for dialogue and the modelling of new solutions to identified contradictions. To interpret the social learning processes resulting from these interactions, I drew on Wals' (2007) analytical lenses, through which I was able to monitor social learning processes that emerged from the Intervention Workshop dialogues while beekeepers modelled new solutions to contradictions in learning commercial beekeeping. The findings of the study revealed that social learning in commercial beekeeping is internally and externally influenced by socio-cultural, political and economic complexities. Social learning in Intervention Workshops was supported by different knowledge bases of participants, in this study these are beekeepers, extension officers, trainers and development facilitators. Such knowledge bases were the source of information for learning and constructing model solutions. The study also revealed that learning in CBNRM workplaces can be observed across the development processes, and CHAT as a methodological tool and Wals‟ (2007) analytical tool are complementary and can be used in researching social learning in other CBNRM workplaces. The study contributes in-depth insight into participatory research and learning processes, especially within the context of CBRM in southern Africa. It gives some empirical and explanatory insight into how change-oriented social learning can emerge and be expanded in Education for Sustainable Development. It also provides learning and extension tools to work with contradictions that arise from socio-cultural and historical dimensions of learning commercialisation of natural resources in southern African context. Its other key contribution is that it provides further insight into the mobilisation of human agency and reflexivity in change oriented social learning processes of commercialisation of sustainable natural resources products and poverty alleviation processes that are critical for responding to socioecological issues and risks and development challenges in southern Africa.

The typical face of poverty in South Africa is African, rural, and female. As the primary users of rural land, women engage in farming and subsistence activities. Despite this pivotal role played by rural women, they experience grave problems under communal tenure, most notably in relation to access to and use of land and productive resources. Research has shown that the majority of rural households in South Africa derive significant proportions of their livelihoods from land-based activities, and that the value of common property resources associated with land, for example livestock production, crop production, and natural resource harvesting is often overlooked as an important asset of poor rural communities. The importance of these landbased livelihoods sources is even greater for female-headed households, female members of rural households, and the very poor or &lsquo
marginalised&rsquo
members of rural communities, since they tend to be more reliant on landbased livelihoods than those with secure income from pensions, wageearning activity or remittances from migrant labourers. The importance of security of land tenure to the sustainability of rural livelihoods, particularly insofar as rural women are concerned, is the central focus of this study.

In his seminal essay, "The Tragedy of the Commons" (1968), Garrett Hardin argued that unless human population growth is controlled, the tragedy of common resource destruction is inevitable. This research consists of the development of an evolutionary computer model to simulate the Tragedy of the Commons, and social and economic solutions that have been proposed. In the simulations, multiattribute decision models are used to represent the tradeoffs a variety of types of individuals make among economic and social values in an uncertain environment. Individuals in each iteration of the simulation decide whether or not to exploit a common resource that has a stochastic regeneration rate. A genetic algorithm is used to simulate the way the decision makers respond to economic and social payoffs that result from their choices, as the commons responds to their actions over time. Game theory analyses of the commons dilemma are also included that, in contrast to previous analyses of the Tragedy of the Commons, incorporate not only economic attributes, but social and aesthetic attributes as well. These analyses indicate that the games underlying the Tragedy of the Commons may be similar to not only the N-person Prisoner's Dilemma, as is sometimes argued, but also N-person games of Chicken, Benevolent Chicken, and Hero. Population diversity is found to be particularly important to solutions in both the evolutionary simulations and the game theory analyses. The simulations and analyses support the hypothesis that, even if potential solutions that Hardin dismissed as unrealistic in the real world are given an opportunity to work in a simulated computer world, Hardin is right: for any given commons regeneration rate, the ultimate destruction of the commons can be prevented only by draconian economic or political measures, unrealistic rates of technological innovation or changes in social values, or coercive control of population growth.

A great deal of research has demonstrated that Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) play a crucial role in the livelihoods of the rural poor, and are particularly important to the most marginalised people throughout the developing world. However, these livelihood benefits are not without cost to the natural resource base that rural communities depend so heavily upon. The continued dependence on NTFPs as a major livelihood source must be contingent upon the minimisation of the level of disturbance created through this dependency. This study assesses the level of disturbance created through natural resource harvesting in eight study sites around South Africa, and applies a predictive conceptual model created by Shankaar et al. (2004b) to try and ascertain under what conditions the level of disturbance created through natural resource harvesting will be high. It assesses the three key factors that Shankaar et al. (2004b) identified (level of Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK), level of dependency and access to markets) in relation to the level of disturbance found at each of the study sites. It was found that there was a statistically significant relationship between the level of dependency and the level of disturbance, but there was no statistically significant relationship between either access to markets or the level of LEK and disturbance. Regulation of land use is a key issue, with weak local institutions in communal areas making effective resource management difficult. The significance of these findings is discussed, and priorities for future research are identified. This study adds to the body of knowledge related to NTFP harvesting and critically analyses the conflicts between the livelihood gains and the level of disturbance created through NTFP harvesting in an attempt to ascertain how livelihoods can be safeguarded. And in the longer-term, so that management strategies can be identified where resource extraction is not at the cost of undermining the very livelihoods that depend upon the natural resource base.

For several decades following its independence from Great Britain, Ghana’s policies continued to promote over-extraction of natural resources to the detriment of its economy and rural communities. Agricultural and forestry policy has gradually evolved to foster more sustainable and equitable practices, as in building partnerships with the private sector to fund infrastructure improvements. Policy has recently recognized the dire need to adopt agricultural practices and means of forest resource extraction that are compatible with ecological stewardship. However, many shortcomings are still apparent. Large logging operations completely disregard forestry regulations with impunity, whereas rural sustenance extractors are severely punished in the rare event that policy is actually enforced. Although the severe disadvantages that agricultural policies had imposed in the 1960s have been partially alleviated, much improvement is still needed. Recent agricultural policy has recognized the lack of funding available to invest in more efficient and higher-yielding agricultural practices, but partnerships with the actual lending institutions do not exist. The scarcity of crucial inputs, such as fertilizer and technical assistance remains a major problem in the agricultural sector, as the soils are becoming rapidly depleted, leading to declining crop yields and further encroachment on the 20 percent of forests remaining. Overly ambitious targets and unrealistic policies require more careful and detailed formulation so that Ghana’s resources can be managed effectively before famine sweeps the food-insecure country once more.

The broad objective of the study was to determine the economic value of local pigs in marketand subsistence-oriented production systems in communal areas of Southern Africa. Data were collected from 288 households to investigate farmer perceptions, effects on pig production and handling of disease outbreaks such as classical swine fever (CSF) in market- and subsistenceoriented production systems. The utilisation of local pigs in these market- and subsistenceoriented production systems in improving people‟s welfare was evaluated. Climate change was identified by farmers in these production systems as a major constraint to pig production hence an experiment was carried out in the hottest season to determine diurnal heat-related physiological and behavioural responses in Large White (LW) and South African local pigs. The same genotypes were used to determine effects of diurnal heat-related stress on their growth performance. Choice experiment was done to determine farmer preferences for local pig traits and implicit prices for these traits in CSF-affected and unaffected areas that were under subsistence- and market-oriented production systems. In this experiment, the importance of heat tolerance was assessed relative to other productive and climate change adaptation traits. Significantly more pigs were culled in the CSF-affected areas that were market-oriented (8.0 ± 1.76) than subsistence-oriented (4.1 ± 1.00) production system. The risk of parasites and disease challenges was high in subsistence-oriented production system and coastal areas. In both production systems, CSF was perceived as destructive since the culling of pigs affected pork availability and income generation. The high risk of disease outbreaks and threat of climate change caused farmers in subsistence-oriented production system to select local pigs for their adaptive traits while those in the market-oriented production system focused on productive imported pigs. Farmers (83 %) indicated that they wanted pig genotypes that were adapted to climate change effects such as hot conditions. Local pigs were found to have superior heat tolerance over LW pigs (P < 0.05) in terms of lower heart rate and skin surface temperature. Frequency per day and duration for behavioural heat loss activities such as wallowing, sleeping in a prostrate posture and sprawling in slurry were also lower (P < 0.05) for local than LW pigs. The superiority of heat tolerance of local over LW pigs was further confirmed by their uncompromised growth performance under high diurnal temperatures. The Pearson‟s product moment correlation coefficient between temperature and feed conversion ratio for LW pigs was strongly positive (r = 0.50; P < 0.001) unlike the weak and positive correlation for local pigs (r = 0.20; P < 0.05). There was a quadratic relationship between temperature and average daily gain (ADG) for both pig genotypes. The regression coefficients for ADG were higher (P < 0.001) for LW than local pigs. It was concluded that at high ambient temperatures, performance of local pigs was less compromised than for LW pigs. Although local pigs were found to be heat tolerant, results of choice experiment showed that this trait was not selected for relative to other traits. Keeping pigs that required bought-in feeds, fell sick often and produced low pork quality (eating quality based on farmer perceptions) negatively affected farmers‟ livelihoods more in subsistence- than market-oriented production system. Farmers in market-oriented production system derived more benefit from productive traits such as heavier slaughter weights and large litter size than subsistence-oriented farmers. Under the subsistence-oriented production system, farmers in CSF-affected areas placed high prices on adaptive traits than the unaffected areas. Subsistence-oriented farmers who were affected by CSF wanted a total compensation price of R10 944.00 (USD1563.43) for keeping a pig genotype with unfavourable traits when compared to R4235.00 (USD605.00) for their CSF-unaffected counterparts. Implicit prices for traits could not be determined for market-oriented production system. It was concluded that farmers in CSFaffected areas placed high economic values on pig traits than farmers from the CSF-unaffected areas. The findings suggest that adapted local pigs can be promoted in subsistence-oriented production systems while productive imported pigs and their crosses with local pigs can be kept in market-oriented production systems.

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2002.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: When land loses its intrinsic qualities or suffers a decline in its capabilities it is said to be degraded. Land degradation manifests itself in various forms such as deforestation, soil erosion, land, air and water pollution. In the context of sustainable development land degradation has become one of the world's major concerns. Now, more than ever before, it has become urgent to carry out empirical studies on the nature and extent of land degradation and to come up with appropriate responses to the problem. In much of the developing world communal natural resource management practices are common. It is often assumed that communal exploitation of common property resources such as woodlands, pastures, water sources and wildlife inevitably leads to land degradation. This is due to the belief that humankind would seek to derive maximum benefit from common pool resources without incurring any costs towards the conservation of those resources. This study was an environmental assessment of the impacts of communal land-use systems and common property resources management practices in the Mhondoro communal lands of Zimbabwe. The area has been subject to human settlement for over a century and is regarded as a typical representation of a well-established communal land management system. Several methods were used to make the assessment. These included the following: a questionnaire survey; interviews with key informants; soil and vegetation traverses and field measurements; tree density counts in demarcated plots; calculation of the population density and livestock density for the study area; completion of an environmental evaluation matrix and a communal projects sustainability index checklist; and analysis of geo-referenced time-lapse aerial photography covering a fifteen year period (1982-1997). It was established that serious land degradation had occurred in Chief Mashayamombe's ward in Mhondoro. Degradation manifested itself in the form of soil erosion and stream sedimentation, woodland depletion, pasture degradation and wildlife habitat destruction. Communal land-use and natural resource management practices are only partially to blame for this state of affairs. The fragile nature of the sandy soils of the uplands, the sadie soils of the vlei areas, combined with the fairly high rainfall amounts (annual average 750mm) make the area prone to soil erosion. Rainfall intensity tends to be high in the area and when the rain falls on the poorly vegetated, and highly erodible soils erosion occurs. The land has become severely stressed due to over-utilisation; a population density of 93 people per km2 and livestock density of 110 cattle per km2 were recorded. The land available for communal settlement in the area has been limited in extent. Due to the general poverty of the communal farmers the replacement of nutrients into the cultivated soil has not kept pace with the deteriorating condition of the land. Contrary to popular misconceptions, communal area residents have shown concern for environmental conservation through fallowing their fields, gully reclamation efforts, grazing schemes, woodland preservation and tree growing practices. Remedial and/or mitigatory measures for the environmental recovery of the area could adopt some of these well-established practices and incorporate them in a whole-catchment management strategy. Key words Land degradation, environmental degradation, pollution, environmental assessment, common property resources, communal land uses, sustainable resources management, sustainability indicators, soil erodibility, soil erosivity
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Wanneer grond sy intrinsieke waarde verloor of 'n afname in sy vermoë toon, kan gesê word dat die grond gedegradeer is. Gronddegradasie manifesteer in verskeie vorme, soos ontbossing, gronderosie, grond, lug en water besoedeling. Gronddegradasie het binne die konteks van volhoubare ontwikkeling wêreldwyd van besondere belang geword. Nou, meer as ooit vantevore, is dit noodsaaklik om empiriese studies uit te voer aangaande die aard en omvang van gronddegradasie, en om vorendag te kom met toepaslike reaksies tot die probleem. Gemeenskaps natuurlike hulpbron bestuur praktyke is algemeen in die ontwikkelende wêreld. Daar word dikwels veronderstel dat uitbuiting van gemeenskaplike eiendoms hulpbronne deur die gemeenskap, soos woude, weivelde, waterbronne en wild, onvermeidelik lei na gronddegradasie. Hierdie aanname het ontwikkel as gevolg van die oortuiging dat die mensdom daarna sal streef om maksimum voordeel te trek uit gemeenskaplike hulpbronne, sonder om enige koste aan te gaan ten opsigte van die bewaring daarvan. Hierdie studie behels 'n omgewings evaluering van die impakte van gemeenskaps grondgebruik sisteme en gemeenskaplike eiendoms hulpbron bestuur praktyke in die Mhondoro gemeenskaplike grond van Zimbabwe. Die area word al vir meer as 'n eeu deur mense bewoon, en word beskou as 'n tipiese voorbeeld van 'n gevestigde gemeenskaps grondbestuur sisteem. Verskeie metodes is toegepas met die evaluering, en sluit in: 'n vraelys opname; onderhoude met sleutel segspersone; grond en plantegroei opnames en veldopnames; boom digtheidstelling in afgebakende persele; berekening van bevolkingsen veedigtheid vir die studiegebied; opstelling van 'n omgewing evaluerings matriks en 'n gemeenskap projek volhoubaarheids indeks kontroleerlys; en 'n analise van geo-referenced time-lapse lugfoto's wat strek oor 'n tydperk van 15 jaar (1982-1997). Daar is vasgestel dat ernstige gronddegradasie voorkom in Hoofman Mashayamombe se wyk in Mhondoro. Degradasie word gemanifesteer in die vorm van gronderosie en stroom sedimentasie, uitputting van woude, weiveld degradasie en die verwoesting van wild habitatte. Gemeenskaps grondgebruik en natuurlike hulpbron bestuurspraktyke is net gedeeltelik verantwoordelik vir die stand van sake. Gronderosie vind plaas ook as gevolg van die sensitiewe aard van die sanderige grond van die hoogland, die sodic grond van die vlei areas, in kombinasie met redelike hoë reënval (gemiddeld 750mm per jaar). Reënval intensiteit in die area is geneig om hoog te wees, en erosie vind plaas wanneer reën val op die hoogs erodeerbare grond wat met yl plantegroei bedek is. Die grond verkeer onder geweldige druk as gevolg van oorbenutting; 'n bevolkingsdigtheid van 93 mense per km2 en veedigtheid van 110beeste per km2 is aangeteken. Die grond beskikbaar vir vestiging van gemeenskappe word in omvang beperk. Die vervanging van grondvoedingstowwe in bewerkte grond hou nie tred met die agteruitgang in die kondisie van die grond nie, as gevolg van die algemene armoede van die gemeenskapsboere. Inwoners van die gemeenskapsarea , teenstrydig met algemene wanopvattings, toon besorgdheid ten opsigte van omgewingsbewaring deur die grond braak te lê, donga herwinnings pogings, wei velds planne, bewaring van woude en praktyke ten opsigte van die groei van bome. Remediërende en/of versagtende maatstawwe vir die herstel van die omgewing kan van hierdie gevestigde praktyke inkorporeer in 'n bestuursstrategie wat die hele opvangsgebied insluit. Sleutelwoorde Gronddegradasi e, omgewingsde gradasi e, besoedeling, omgewingsassessering, gemeenskaplike eiendoms hulpbronne, gemeenskaplike grondgebruik, volhoubare hulpbron bestuur, volhoubaarheids aanwysers, grond erodeerbaarheid, grond verwering.

This study describes the resource management practices of a rural community located in Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea. Lababia, a community of 500 people, is located in a coastal rainforest environment and is dependant for its livelihood on swidden agriculture and fishing. Lababia is also the site of an integrated conservation and development project facilitated by a non-governmental organisation based in a nearby urban centre.
The key resources on which Lababia depends are managed as the common property of either the village-as-a-whole or the various kin groups resident in the village, and for that reason common property theory has been used to inform the design of the research project and the analysis and interpretation of research results. However, the social foundations of resource management systems and the influence of external factors, commodity markets in particular, are not adequately represented in some of the more widely used analytical frameworks developed by common property theorists. These factors are of fundamental importance to the Lababia commons because of the many social, political and economic changes that have occurred there over the last century. For that reason the Lababia commons is referred to as a commons-in-transition .
Ethnographic and historical analysis, informed by common property theory, is used to develop a description of the property rights system existing at Lababia and resource management practices in the key sectors of fishing and agriculture. The management of forest resources is described on the basis of a comparison with Kui, a nearby village that, unlike Lababia, has allowed industrial logging activities on their lands. The impact of the conservation and development project on village life is also assessed and the study concludes by developing an analytical framework suitable to the Lababia commons and one that facilitates the development of policy appropriate to the planning of sustainable development projects generally and conservation and development projects in particular.

The movement to protect wilderness resources can conflict with local intentions for land use and development, particularly in economically marginal areas. In rural Italy, on the island of Sardinia, the plan to create a Gennargentu National Park has incited active opposition on the part of the communities affected. In the town of Baunei, responses to environmental legislation are motivated by the desire to maintain communal control over common lands. Political action, both formal and informal, is organised by local understandings about the impact of certain laws and institutions on the town economy, principally by the restriction of residents' usi civici (traditional rights of usufruct). This thesis considers the role and meaning of the usi civici in Baunei, and the implications of this for environmental politics in Sardinia.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2015.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Rangelands in the semi-arid and arid regions of the world support livelihoods through their provision of multiple goods and services. Livestock production, for example, occurs in rangelands both as extensive ranching under freehold tenure and as collective ranching under communal tenure systems. However, the sustainability of rangelands is threatened and has been a major concern this century, leading to a variety of interventions. Holistic management (HM) is one such example, designed by its proponents as a panacea to halt degradation and, recently, climate change effects in the rangelands of Africa and beyond. HM has been implemented in the Hwange Communal Lands (HCLs) of Zimbabwe since 2010. In principle, the programme is aimed at restoring degraded watersheds and croplands through utilising properly managed livestock. To achieve this, two principles are promoted under HM, namely (i) holistic planned grazing (HPG) and (ii) animal impaction of crop fields. However, the effects of HM on the livelihoods of its beneficiaries currently are poorly understood. In order to address this lacuna, this study aimed to determine both the intended and unintended effects of a community-based land restoration programme called Holistic Land and Livestock Management (HLLM) in the HCLs of Zimbabwe on the livelihoods of its beneficiaries through a conceptual framework that combined an actor-oriented livelihoods approach with concepts of everyday politics and resistance. This was done by exploring the impact of HLLM on the six types of farmers’ assets, adoption patterns, farmers’ reactions to the introduction of HLLM, and challenges preventing farmers from adopting HLLM. Case studies employing a qualitative and exploratory research design were undertaken in three communities that were selected purposively from a total of 18 communities in which the HLLM programme had been promoted by the Africa Centre for Holistic Management (ACHM) in order to discover different perspectives on the effects of the programme on the livelihoods of its beneficiaries. The study employed qualitative Participatory Rural Appraisal tools, focus group discussions, participant observation, document analysis, and key informant and semi-structured interviews. These lines of enquiry enabled triangulation and cross-checking of information to enhance the reliability and validity of the research findings. The study showed that adoption levels were disappointingly low across all the study sites. Several challenges, including livestock diseases, predation, cultural stigma, labour constraints and witchcraft fears, were among the barriers explaining the low rate of adoption in the HCLs. The findings reveal that the farmers were concerned more with immediate problems, especially lack of water, than with land degradation, which is the primary focus of HLLM. Thus the farmers responded by complying, accommodating and covertly resisting the ACHM’s efforts to implement HLLM in order to suit their needs, using creative everyday politics and resistance. The study concludes that, although HLLM is required in such semi-arid environments, it is not sufficient to sustain rural livelihoods in its current state. While the main focus of HLLM is to improve the natural capital (i.e. restoring degraded watersheds), it should be complemented by and aligned with the farmers’ other development priorities, especially those relating to water
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING:Weiveld in die halfdor- en dor gebiede van die wêreld ondersteun menslike lewensbestaan deur die verskaffing van ’n verskeidenheid goedere en dienste. Veeproduksie, byvoorbeeld, kom in weivelde voor as beide ekstensiewe veldbeesboerdery onder grondbesit en kollektiewe veldbeesboerdery onder gemeenskaplike eiendomsreg. Die volhoubaarheid van weiveld word egter bedreig en het in hierdie eeu ’n groot bron van kommer geword, wat gelei het tot ’n verskeidenheid ingrypings. Holistiese bestuur (Holistic management (HM)) is een van hierdie en is deur sy voorstanders ontwerp as ’n wondermiddel om degradasie, en meer onlangs die effekte van klimaatsverandering op die weivelde van Afrika en verder, stop te sit. HM is reeds sedert 2010 in die Hwange gemeenskaplike gronde (HGG’e) in Zimbabwe geïmplementeer. In beginsel is die doel van die program om gedegradeerde waterskeidings en landerye te herstel deur gebruik te maak van behoorlik bestuurde vee. Om dit te bereik word twee beginsels onder HM bevorder, naamlik (i) holisties beplande weiding (holistic planned grazing (HPG)) en (ii) dier-impaksie van landerye (animal impaction of crop fields). Die effekte van HM op die lewensbestaan van sy begunstigdes word tans egter swak begryp. Om hierdie leemte aan te spreek, was die doel van hierdie studie om die bedoelde en onbedoelde gevolge van ’n gemeenskapsgebaseerde grondherstelprogram (Holistic Land and Livestock Management (HLLM)) in die HGG’e van Zimbabwe op die lewensbestaan van die begunstigdes te bepaal deur middel van ’n konseptuele raamwerk wat ’n akteur-georiënteerde lewensbestaansbenadering met konsepte van alledaagse politiek en weerstand gekombineer het. Dít is gedoen deur die impak van HLLM op ses soorte van bates wat boere het, hulle aannemingspatrone, boere se reaksies op die invoering van HLLM, en uitdagings wat verhoed het dat boere HLLM aanneem, te ondersoek. Gevallestudies met gebruik van ’n kwalitatiewe en verkennende navorsingsontwerp is in drie gemeenskappe onderneem wat doelbewus uit ’n totaal van 18 gemeenskappe waarin die HLLM-program deur die Africa Centre for Holistic Management (ACHM) bevorder word, geselekteer is om verskillende perspektiewe van die effekte van die program op die lewensbestaan van die begunstigdes te ontdek. Die studie het kwalitatiewe Deelnemende Landelike Takseringsgereedskap (Participatory Rural Appraisal), fokusgroepbesprekings, deelnemerwaarneming, dokument analise en sleutel-informant en semi-gestruktureerde onderhoude gebruik. Hierdie ondersoeklyne het triangulasie en kruiskontrole van die inligting moontlik gemaak, wat die betroubaarheid en geldigheid van die navorsingsbevindings verhoog het. Die studie toon dat aannemingsvlakke teleurstellend laag was in al die studieliggings. Verskeie uitdagings, insluitend veesiektes, predasie, kulturele stigma, arbeidsbeperkings en vrese vir heksery was onder die hindernisse wat die lae aannemingstempo in die HGG’e verklaar. Die bevindinge wys dat die boere meer besorgd was oor onmiddellike probleme, veral die tekort aan water, as oor grondagteruitgang, wat die vernaamste fokus van HLLM is. Die boere het dus gereageer deur instemming, aanpassing en onderlangse weerstandbieding tot die ACHM se pogings om HLLM te implementeer om sodoende hulle eie behoeftes te pas deur kreatiewe alledaagse politiek en weerstand te gebruik. Die studie kom tot die gevolgtrekking dat hoewel HLLM in sulke halfdor omgewings nodig is, dit nie in sy huidige staat voldoende is om landelike lewensbestaan te onderhou nie. Hoewel die vernaamste fokus van HLLM is om die natuurlike kapitaal te verbeter (m.a.w. deur gedegradeerde waterskeidings te herstel), moet hierdie rol gekomplementeer word deur en belyn word met die boere se ander ontwikkelingsprioriteite, veral dié wat verband hou met water.

Conventionally environmental assessments (EAs) have been carried out to enhance the understanding of the environment and for the purpose of developing appropriate environmental management and protection strategies. There are, however, limitations to the application of traditional EA approaches, particularly in rural communities in the developing world, where livelihood is dependent on common pool resources (CPRs), and baseline data are inadequate or unavailable. Eco-livelihood assessment (EcLA) is an adaptive approach that integrates a people focused sustainable livelihood approach with ecological assessment, as well as exploring traditional eco-livelihood knowledge (TELK). EcLA is identified as a promising EA tool that could help environmental professionals in planning for equitable development. This approach has been used in the Kolo and Otuoke Creeks, Niger Delta, Nigeria to investigate the ecological impact of dredging that may impact on livelihoods in such a rural setting. Ecological and social surveys have been carried out in four communities in the Study Area; two Test communities and two Reference communities (two communities from each study creek). The information collected from the social survey includes TELK, and has been used to build up a baseline scenario of the Study Area. Abundance and diversity of fish are good indicators of the eco-livelihood impacts of inland river dredging. The research shows that livelihood characteristics, river use profile, fish species diversity and abundance are very similar among all four sample communities. In addition, all sample communities have been associated with similar natural and human induced environmental consequences except that the Test communities have had river sections dredged for the purpose of land reclamation representing the baseline scenario. The analysis of the results of the ecological survey shows a difference in fish catch per unit effort, catch per unit hour, and species diversity between the Test and Reference communities, this have been attributed to the impacts of inland river dredging. The study shows that TELK has a place in environmental assessment, and that eco-livelihood assessment is one promising environmental assessment approach that could be used in areas where livelihood is strongly dependent on common pool resources.

Municipal commonage in South Africa offers previously disadvantaged, landless residents access to both direct ecosystem goods and services (EGS) that provide additional income options and indirect social and cultural services. Given that EGS production is a function of ecosystem health, it is imperative that commonage land be managed to maximize current local benefit streams while ensuring future options through the maintenance of natural ecosystem functions. The payments for ecosystem services (PES) model potentially offers an opportunity for contributing to local economic development while providing fiscal incentives for environmentally sustainable natural resource management. PES depends on the demonstration of quantifiable changes in EGS delivery due to improvement in or maintenance of high ecosystem health that are a verifiable result of modifications in management behavior. This thesis therefore compared spatial variations in (i) ecosystem health and (ii) nine direct and indirect EGS values derived from natural resources on the Bathurst municipal commonage and neighboring Waters Meeting Nature Reserve (NR) to explore how different land use intensities affect ecosystem health and the resulting provision of EGS. The results indicate that the total economic value of annually produced EGS on the study site is nearly R 9.8 million (US$ 1.2 million), with a standing stock of natural capital worth some R 28 million (US$ 3.4 million). Nearly 45% of the total annual production is attributed to Waters Meeting NR, with roughly 34% from the low use zone of the commonage and the remaining 22% from the high use zone. Of the total annual production value on the study site, roughly 59% is derived from indirect (non-consumptive) uses of wildlife for the study site as a whole, though this proportion varies from 25% in the high use zone of the commonage to 94% on Waters Meeting NR. The two largest annual production values on the study site derive from ecotourism (R 3.5 million, US$ 0.4 million) and livestock production (R 2.6 million, US$ 0.3 million), suggesting that while increased production of indirect EGS could generate significant additional revenues, especially on Waters Meeting NR and in the low use zone of the commonage, direct (consumptive) EGS will likely remain an important component of land use on the commonage. A PES project to support the adoption of silvo-pastoral practices could provide positive incentives for improved land use practices on the commonage and potentially be financed by conservation-friendly residents of the Kowie River catchment and/or increased ecotourism revenues from Waters Meeting NR. Allowing carefully designed and monitored local access to natural resources within Waters Meeting NR could also reduce pressure on commonage resources. Together, these approaches could lead to a more sustainable subtropical thicket landscape and ensure that critical natural resources remain available to support local livelihoods in the long-term.

Through a combination of theoretical discussion and case study analysis from two villages in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, this thesis explores the relationship between institutional change and ecosystem dynamics through a multi-scale approach that combines local and scientific knowledge. Several conceptual approaches were combined in this study. These included; the Resilience perspective, the Sustainable Rural Livelihoods approach, the Millennium Assessment framework and principles, and the Environmental Entitlements approach. Various participatory research techniques were employed which combined with GIS technologies, existing data sets, and historical records. Common pool resource areas are social spaces, where local values attached to resources are institutionally mediated, politically nuanced, economically interpreted and historically situated. Political driving forces at various scales have played a disproportionate role in local level institutional functioning in the case study area. In particular, inappropriate state-lead interventions into land use planning have weakened local level institutions, and have reduced the ability of the linked social-ecological system to cope with change and uncertainty. People and ecosystems become more vulnerable when driving forces such as political upheaval, economic depression and drought over-lap. However, rural people are not mere spectators in the face of these driving forces; they respond both reactively and proactively to ensure resilience to change and uncertainty. Ecosystems at Mt Coke play a key role during times of crisis in rural livelihoods. These ecosystems have undergone various short-term cyclical changes largely in response to rainfall fluctuations, and some longer-term changes linked to political events and trends that have affected management practices and local institutions over time. Orthodox ecological interpretations of ecosystem change appear to ignore four key factors identified in this study: 1) the role of institutions in shaping access to resources, 2) the demand for resources in rural livelihoods, 3) the dynamic interaction between social and natural systems, and 4) the interaction between social and natural systems across scales of analysis. The future of common pool resource management lies in the combination of local and scientific knowledge through an adaptive management approach that encourages learning and adaptation in local level institutional structures.

To redress past discrepancies in land tenure, the ANC government acknowledged that land needs to be made accessible to the previously disadvantaged, announcing that commonage would be a pillar of their land reform programme. Municipal commonage is land granted by the state to municipalities for urban households to use. Presently many urbanites in South Africa seek a livelihood from commonage. However, there has been no livelihood valuation of the contribution commonage makes to previously disadvantaged households. Thus there is a need to calculate the benefits of the commonage programme. Through a two phase approach, this thesis investigated firstly, the proportion of township households which use commonage; and the main characteristics of those households. Secondly, the thesis looks at the extent to which commonage contributes to users' livelihoods and the dominant livelihood strategies pursued by user households. Data was collected for three towns in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa; Bathurst, Fort Beaufort, and Grahamstown. Firstly it was found that between 27-70% of households used commonage, with the largest town having the lowest proportion of users, and vice versa for the smallest town. In terms of household characteristics, each study town was unique. Both Bathurst and Grahamstown user households were poorer than non-using households, however all Fort Beaufort households were considered poor. To assess the benefits of the commonage programme, the marketed and non-marketed consumptive direct-use values of land-based livelihoods on commonage were calculated via the 'own reported values' method. Commonage contributions to total livelihoods ranged between 14-20%. If the contributors from commonage were excluded, over 10% of households in each study town would drop to living below the poverty line. Additionally, commonage was being used productively, with the productivity at each study town being worth over R1 000 per hectare and over R4.7 million per commonage. Finally, a typology of subsistence/survivalist commonage users is presented, with four types being identified. Overall, results suggest that commonage use has increased over the last decade. Moreover, due to food inflation and urbanisation the use of commonage is expected to increase further, highlighting the need for holistic commonage management plans to be created, which should include strategies such as sustainable grazing regimes and natural resource management.

Ghana's mining sector is a significant contributor to the national economy; however, environmental degradation continues to stigmatize the sector. The purpose of this phenomenological study was to explore experiences and perspectives of middle managers on how to drive compliance with EPA regulations and standards in Ghana's mining sector. Ajzen's theory of planned behavior was the conceptual framework for this phenomenological study. A purposive sample of 20 middle managers from Ghana's mining sector participated in interviews, which were transcribed and then coded to generate common themes. The primary research question involved exploring factors that promote employee compliance in Ghana's mining sector. Three critical themes that emerged from the study were (a) business benefits of compliance, (b) factors that promote employee compliance, and (c) obstacles to compliance. The implications for positive social change include the potential for community members to experience reduced environmentally related health challenges with concomitant increases in their quality of life

Conservancies are viewed as playing an important role in enabling the landscape-scale management of biodiversity and ecosystem services by extending conservation areas beyond the boundaries of formally protected areas (PAs). In the South African context of the Biodiversity Stewardship Programme (BSP), conservancies are viewed as a viable landscape-scale approach to stewardship that can contribute to meeting government conservation mandates of conserving biodiversity and expanding its protected area network outside state PAs, through partnerships with private landowners. Using the landscape approach theory, I determined that the landscapescale context of biodiversity and ecosystem services creates common pool resources (CPRs) that require collective action in the form of integrated management planning across private property boundaries. In this context, conservancies create multi-tenure conservation areas with landscape meanings and associated benefits that require landscape-scale collective action. However, using property and collective action theories, I deduced that when landowners in a conservancy seek to engage collective action for landscape-scale conservation objectives under the BSP, they are challenged by the tension between individual meanings defined at the scale of their own property and landscape-scale meanings that straddle property boundaries. This tension is reinforced by property rights in which each actor holds resources under a private property rights regime while the landscape-scale meanings of CPRs need to be addressed in a common property rights regime context. Based on this complexity, my research set out to determine peoples’ meanings attached to the concept of conservancy and to illustrate how these meanings influence the ability to attain collective action necessitated by the CPR management regimes superimposed on private property rights regimes. This was with the view to refine the concept of conservancy to enable those who establish and engage with conservancies to better appreciate the implications and the nature of the governance regime that is required for success. My results show that the success of a conservancy as a landscape approach is dependent on landowner commitment to collective action. Landowner commitment is also influenced by a shared understanding of the conservancy as a multi-tenure conservation area managed collectively for the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services across private properties. Thus Conservancy members need to develop an understanding of the conservancy as an area of contiguous multiple private properties that require collective management through integrated management planning, guided by a Dargle Conservancy management plan. Conservancy members also need to develop an understanding of the contiguous properties as encompassing biodiversity and ecosystem services that require common property rights regimes for their sustainable use and management. This explicit landscape approach will encourage landowner commitment to the conservation objectives set out in the multi-tenure conservation areas. I use my research findings to identify three issues for further research in community-based conservation areas as a landscape approach to conservation: firstly, research that focuses on developing integrated management plans for landscape-scale bio- and eco-regions by designating contiguous private properties into different categories of PAs according to collectively agreed conservation objectives; secondly, research that focuses on developing appropriate management regimes based on a model of multi-tenure conservation areas managed collectively for the conservation of biodiversity across private properties; and thirdly, research that focuses on establishing social structures for the development of adequate capacity and decision-making at the conservancy level to implement a landscape approach that supports ecological functions beyond individual boundaries. Building on this research will provide an important continuous learning process between conservancies and conservation agencies. Such learning is necessitated by the complexity of continually changing social and ecological systems that influence perceptions and behaviours.
Thesis (Ph.D)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2013.

Conservation is increasingly understood to require collective action, particularly in the context of community based conservation. This thesis is premised on the proposition that understanding the dynamic nature of the relationship between collective identity and collective action is fundamental to management of common pool resources such as are created through establishment of community conservancies in Namibia. I used collective identity and resilience theories to develop a framework for exploring change in collective action in the Doro !Nawas conservancy in Namibia. The framework is based on the assumption that change in collective action is dependent upon the temporal changes in two attributes of collective identity; identification and affective commitment. It is suggested that the framework also yields insight into how these may be applied in adaptive management. The research is informed by an interpretive paradigm accepting that collective identity and collective action are social constructs and that personal meanings could be revealed through in-depth interviews and documentary analysis. Computer aided software (Nvivo), manual analysis and a mix of inductive and deductive analysis yielded excerpts, codes and themes that were used to interpret change in the two attributes. The framework I proposed to understand how identification and affective commitment influence collective action was helpful as a general model but it tends to convey a degree of cohesion and homogeneity that does not reflect the real situation, particularly during the ‘collapse’ phase when members of the collective respond to disturbances. My results show that collectives, including organisations, should be understood as collectives of individuals and groups of individuals who express differing levels of identification and affective commitment. Narratives can be used to track change in identification and affective commitment in collectives. Thus, the identification and affective commitment of members is reflected in the language they use to express feelings, thoughts and experiences toward the collective and behaviours that are supportive or destructive to collective identity. A need for incorporating collective identity into adaptive management is identified. I suggest that incorporating collective identity in strategic adaptive management would make those who engage with the process mindful of the collective identity, and therefore more inclined to manage collective identity in order to achieve the collective action required for successful common pool resources management. I use the findings of my research to identify four issues for further research in community based collectives: firstly, research that focuses on the how to design institutional arrangements for conservancies and similar organisations that are more accessible and responsive to the collective; secondly, research on understanding the role and influence benefit sharing can have in sustaining a collective identity that is supportive of conservancies and how it would contribute to making these systems more resilient; thirdly, research to determine how strategic adaptive management can be restructured and implemented in conservancies and protected areas so that it helps to sustain a collective identity and the collective actions that are required to secure them for future generations; finally, whether the long term intentions of community based conservation might be better served if the instruments of governance and the procedures for their application were engineered to make these social ecological systems more robust and if so, how this might be achieved.
Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2012.

Since 1998, the communities of Combomune in Southern Mozambique have participated in a project intended to improve the quality of their lives, while ensuring the natural resources they depend on are well managed and sustainably used. The approach employed is Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM). CBNRM is the resource conservation and management approach which has emerged as one of the models to involve local communities, previously excluded from conservation and management of natural resources and rural development programs. This model promotes community participation, responsibilities and benefit sharing among stakeholders involved in natural resource management programs. A case study was conducted to assess the impacts of the Combomune CBNRM project on household livelihoods and on the environment. The Combomune CBNRM project is meant to improve the household livelihoods of the Madliwa, Hochane and Chaves communities involved in the management of indigenous forest resources. The involved communities derive direct and indirect benefits from the CBNRM project. These benefits have impacts on household livelihoods and on the environment. The most noted benefits are social and economic changes. These changes have positively affected the living conditions of the involved communities. Further, the study revealed the Combomune CBNRM project charcoal production was the only activity generating monetary income to individual and to community development funds. Monetary income was invested in the improvement of homesteads, the purchase of domestic animals and the development of infrastructure with a high social impact. Water supply, education, health care and household homestead improvements were the major project achievements. The project encouraged environmental friendly practices such as sustainably agricultural activities and a fire management program. Local residents were also encouraged to plant trees on bare soil to protect it from being eroded. The study has not deeply explored the CBNRM project impacts, therefore more case studies are recommended to further explain effective CBNRM project contributions to household livelihoods, so it may be reasonably promulgated as a strategy not only devoted to involve local communities or merely for resource conservation, but as the approach which improves livelihoods of the rural poor.
Thesis (M.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

Since the establishment of the first protected area in 1872, the Yellowstone National Park, the concept of protected areas and their management have witnessed several controversies and conflicts. Generally, ownership and management of most of these protected areas has in the past been restricted to state -governments. Other stakeholders and particularly local communities neighbouring these areas were excluded from their management and ownership. Since the last three decades, however, conservation bodies have been trying to encourage various other protected area governance (management) approaches to address failures in the existing management approach (in which state governments almost solely managed and owned these protected areas ) to achieve the conservation goals. Some of these include co-management and private protected area management approaches. In Component A of this study, "Co-management as an option for private protected areas: A case study of the Shongweni Resource Reserve", attempts were made to explore a selection of literature in order to gain an in-depth understanding of the concepts of private protected areas and co-management. Through this documentary review of literature from various sources (internet, libraries, personal communication, etc) the study identified, examined and documented various issues associated with the concepts. It also explored and documented the historical and current perspectives as well as the legal and policy context of these concepts in South Africa. In addition, the study examined the study area and the methods explored in the study. The study concludes in this Component that: 1. Protected area co-management is a pluralistic approach to the management of protected areas. It recognises a variety of stakeholders that are conducive to the achievement of sustainable conservation goals. 2. Private protected areas have tremendously increased in South Africa, with a total of 13% of the land surface under private protected area management. This is more than double the land surface under public protected area management. 3. South Africa has adequate legal and policy framework provisions that encourage comanagement as well as private protected area management.
Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

This paper presents a case study from Ngamiland, northern Botswana where community~ based natural resource management (CBNRM), through a joint venture agreement (NA) between a Community~based Organisation (CBO) and the private sector for nonconsumptive tourism has been implemented with the objective of contributing to localised poverty alleviation and livelihood diversification through employment and CBO fee revenue. The economic contribution of these benefits is considered with respect to commonly accepted norms and standards within the development ideology of sustainable development and its global measurements; therefore, a brief background of the concepts of poverty, livelihood and ecotourism is presented to provide context for the evaluation of CBNRM as a preferred land~use in Botswana. An evaluation of the significance of wage employment revenue and consequent remittances in the specific case study is intended to contribute to existing studies which have primarily emphasised the contribution of CBO fee revenue only to households. It is concluded that wage employment revenue makes a significant contribution at a household level to localised poverty alleviation and livelihood diversification compared to the insignificant contribution ofCBO fee revenue.
Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

Using key informant interviews and a detailed household survey, this study compares Bela-Bela and Bjatladi Communal Property Associations (CPAs) across six categories of indicators known to facilitate sustainable collective action in natural resources management: 1. Resource system characteristics, 2. Resource users characteristics, 3. Relationship between characteristics of the resource system and resource users, 4. Institutional arrangements, 5. Relationship between resource system and institutional arrangements, and 6. External environment. The study was implemented in response to conflicting outcomes observed in South Africa s on-going national land reform programme. Bjatladi and Bela-Bela CPAs were purposely selected to reflect outcomes of relative failure and success observed in collective action in land reform projects. In response to indicator 1, the study established that Bela-Bela CPA performed relatively better than Bjatladi in terms of resource size and predictability of benefits. Bela-Bela CPA has a smaller resource (seven farms measuring between 40 and 4 500ha), while Bjatladi CPA has a large single farm measuring 5 973 ha. Bela-Bela CPA guarantees monthly food packages for its beneficiaries and permanent employment for its employees, while Bjatladi CPA offers beneficiaries income amounting to less than R1 000 every other year and temporary employment for its employees. In response to indicator 2, Bela-Bela CPA performed relatively better than Bjatladi in terms of size and clarity of resource user group boundaries, appropriate leadership, homogeneity of member interests in sustainable resource management, exit options and levels of poverty. Bela-Bela CPA resource user group is smaller (242 members) relative to Bjatladi (1 200 members). The per cent change in group size due to undefined rules of entry and exit was lower in Bela-Bela CPA (0%) compared to Bjatladi (263%). The percentages of CPA leaders with tertiary level education (Bela-Bela CPA= 45%, Bjatladi CPA= 10%, U=56.500, p=0.011), professional work experience (Bela-Bela=64%, Bjatladi CPA= 10%, U=53.000, p=0.001) and presence of a traditional figure in leadership (Bela-Bela CPA=chief present, Bjatladi CPA= none) were higher in Bela-Bela compared to Bjatladi. The percentage of members preferring projects with long-term rather than short-term benefits was higher in Bela-Bela compared to Bjatladi CPA (Bela-Bela CPA=71%, Bjatladi CPA=13%, ?2 =20.708, p=0.000). Bela-Bela CPA members had fewer exit options (percentage of CPA members living with another employed household member Bela-Bela =33%, Bjatladi =52%, ?2=2.190, p=0.139) and lower levels of poverty compared to Bjatladi CPA members (per cent poor Bela-Bela CPA= 64% and Bjatladi CPA=84%, ?2 =3.355, p=0.067). In response to indicator 3, Bela-Bela CPA performed relatively better than Bjatladi CPA in terms of resource users levels of dependence on the resources and perception of fairness in benefit-sharing. There was a higher per cent of members from Bela-Bela CPA (82%) compared to Bjatladi CPA (52%) who depended on CPA benefits to cover more than half of monthly household expenses (?2 =5.909, p=0.015) and a higher per cent of members from Bela-Bela CPA (79%) compared to Bjatladi CPA (35%) who thought benefit sharing was very fair (U=283.000, p=0.001). In response to indicators 4 and 5, there was no difference in the simplicity of rules, accountability of monitors or in matching harvest restrictions to regeneration capacity of the resource across the two CPAs but there was higher level of autonomy in decision making in Bela-Bela compared to Bjatladi CPA. Finally, in response to indicator 6, Bela-Bela performed relatively better than Bjatladi CPA in terms of giving appropriate levels of external aid to compensate local users for conservation activities, and presence of nested levels of organisation. The financial grant given per member in 2003 was higher in Bela-Bela CPA (R90 000) compared to Bjatladi (R5 000). In Bela-Bela there was a clear organisational structure that was divided by enterprise, while in Bjatladi CPA there was no clear organisational structure or division of organisational structure by enterprise. Following these findings, the study concluded that success of collective action in resources management was favoured by small size of resource, high predictability of benefit flows, small size of resource user groups, well-defined group boundaries, appropriate leadership, homogeneity of interests in sustainable management of resources, fewer exit options, low levels of poverty and high levels of dependence on the resource, high perceptions of fairness in benefit allocation, high levels of autonomy in decision making, appropriate levels of external aid to compensate conservation activities and nested levels of organisation. In order to clearly see the linkages and interrelationships between the different variables and the magnitude of their influence on collective action outcomes, the study recommended that further comparative research be conducted on a larger sample of CPAs.
Dissertation (MSc Agric)--University of Pretoria, 2016.
tm2016
Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development
MSc Agric
Unrestricted

The study was aimed at assessing perceptions of local communities on the use of coastal natural resources in Coffee Bay and the “Hole in-the Wall” area. The environmental impact caused by non–compliance with environmental legislation was also assessed. Data was obtained through interviews conducted with members of 50 households chosen randomly and questionnaires that were distributed to government departments in charge of the resources. The study found that due to high illiteracy and unemployment in the area, people were compelled to use the available coastal natural resources to satisfy their basic needs. About 70% of them were aware of the legislation but felt they could not comply with it since they had not been consulted. The study’s recommendations are that the community should be consulted on legislation, more environmental awareness campaigns should be conducted and government plans should be aligned in terms of service delivery
Environmental Sciences
M.Sc. (Environmental Management)

Despite decades of development efforts to combat desertification processes in southern Zimbabwe, a development deadlock occurs. Using the local knowledge systems as a basis, and making an effort to strategically facilitate the revival of their capacity for checks and balances as a development approach, endogenous development could become more realistic. The actor-oriented RAAKS.methodology offers relevant tools for a case study'in which an insight into the processes of innovation is obtained in order to confirm this. The Charurnbira case study shows that many local interfaces hinder development. Although the facilitation of platform processes could enhance endogenous development, the external environment provides a serious constraint. The method employed did ndt permit broad conclusions, but a deeper examination of recent experiences suggested that by giving local people a greater say in natural resource use, local knowledge could be utilized more effectively and better use could be made of traditional management structures.
Development Administration
M.A. (Development Administration)

This study investigates the level of the implications of a community based project in Madjadjane area, Matutuine District in Mozambique and constitutes a Mini-dissertation for a Masters Degree in Environment and Development. It is composed of two parts. Component A comprises a literature review and was written following CEAD guidelines and Component B, which constitutes the research paper written in the stylesheet for publication in the South African Geographical Journal (Appendix 2 of the Component A). The literature review charts the evolution of tourism from the ancient forms to the mass tourism after the Second World War and then to the more recent forms of tourism. The review also discusses approaches related to development, sustainable development, rural development, community based natural resources management and livelihoods, which are critical to understanding the context in which tourism takes place. Alternative tourism approaches such as sustainable tourism, nature based tourism, eco-tourism, rural tourism, pro-poor tourism and community based tourism are evaluated in terms of their impacts on host communities. From this discussion, community based tourism with its focus on poverty alleviation and livelihood improvement emerges as one of the more appropriate options for tourism development in poor countries. The study concluded that from the Madjadjane community perspective, although the project emerged along with small commercial activities, it has not yet brought significant economic benefits, nor improvement of their livelihoods. The positive impact is the increased awareness of the value of the conservation of natural resources amongst the local residents.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.

Biodiversity secures long term flows of benefits from nature by providing resilience to disturbance and environmental change. Nevertheless, climate change, fragmentation and habitat destruction among other anthropogenic drivers, are inadvertently, causing continued decline of global biodiversity, at a rate that is 100-1000 times more than what can be considered as natural, sending it virtually to the brink. Protected Areas (PAs) remain the core strategy for biodiversity conservation, but they have been challenged for “denying” local communities, the flow of their bona fide benefits and contributing to rural poverty, and compromising conservation as a result. Community Based Natural Resources Governance (CBNRG) responds to the challenge, but the challenge is exacerbated by the fact that a broad array of desired outcomes as well as a large range of unlinked and uncoordinated nodes of governance (actors) across multiple scales are involved in governance within the same social-ecological system. These result in failure to achieve desired conservation and development related outcomes. Furthermore, many assessments of conservation and development outcomes have often concentrated on perceived outcomes, without much attention to the desired outcomes of actors. Additionally, many studies do not investigate variability between the desired and perceived outcomes of different actors in different CBNRG systems, and within the same CBNRG system. This masks differences among actors across and within CBNRG systems and makes it difficult to gauge governance effectiveness, and probably leads to incomplete assessments CBNRG systems, and simplistic conclusions that can affect the long term credibility of CBNRG. This dissertation contributes to the discussions by focusing on five Community Resource Management Areas (CREMAs) in Ghana to address challenges of governance and social-ecological performance through analysis of the governance structure related to CREMAs at the local, district and regional levels. It assesses how the governance system encounters the issue of fragmentation, the problems associated with conservation and development, and weaknesses associated with measuring the viability of CBNRG systems. Data was collected through multiple methods. Document analysis and interviews were conducted to facilitate design of a survey, administered to 929 respondents across the five CREMAs. Three workshops that engaged a total of 50 participants were also conducted. Findings of the study are organized in three chapters (papers). Chapter One suggests that the form and content of multi actor linkages as presently constructed in Ghana have gaps and weaknesses such as inter alia, inadequate funding and attention to conservation and development as a distinct project. Therefore in its current configuration, CREMAs cannot achieve a balance between conservation and development. Chapter Two shows that based on a mix of factors that mediate CBNRG, significant variability in desired and perceived outcomes of actors can exist between and within different CBNRG systems. Chapter Three points to variability in the ratings of outcomes among actors in different communities within the same CBNRG system. Consequently, it is important that CBNRG considers the specific conservation and development perspectives of actors in different contexts, in order to customize Community Based Natural Resources Management strategies.
Graduate
0366

Nature-based tourism is centered on the idea that local communities living within and around protected areas should derive benefits from nature resources. Likewise nature resources will simultaneously benefit from their interaction because the community will develop an understanding and appreciate the importance of conserving nature through various benefits derived. The research focus was on assessing the perception of residents of Chiawa, Zambia, regarding the benefits derived from nature-based tourism. This is the first study of this nature to be conducted in Chiawa. The overall aim of the research study was to examine the perceptions of the Chiawa community of the impacts of nature based tourism and its implications on the livelihood of the Chiawa residents and on the conservation of nature, upon which tourism is anchored. The three specific objectives were:- 1. To examine the perceptions of the community on economic impacts of nature based tourism on the livelihood of Chiawa Community. 2. To examine the perceptions of the community of the effects of nature based tourism benefits on support towards conservation of nature in Chiawa and Lower Zambezi National Park. 3. To examine perceptions on nature and extent of constraints limiting household participation in nature-based tourism. Various research methods were used to address the objectives of this study. These methods included quantitative and qualitative research techniques. Structured questionnaires with multiple choice type answers were administered to households and safari operators to collect data. These techniques were complemented with five focus group meetings conducted in village action groups (VAGs) of Chiawa GMA, and both participant and direct observation techniques were used during household surveys. The elements of analysis of the study looked at various factors that influence the perception of households on tourism benefits and conservation efforts by the community. Elements such as tribe, gender, education, length of stay, age and spatial distribution were analyzed. Elements of analysis from tour operators looked at business types, types of benefits filtering to the community through employment and community projects. It was established during the course of the research that both positive and negative perceptions on the impacts of nature-based tourism on residents of Chiawa GMA exist. However, the few residents who derived benefits from nature based tourism operations were positive and the rest were negative. The perceptions of the respondents on support towards conservation are above average. The study found that the most significant silent factor that may influence negative attitudes or perceptions is high levels of human – wildlife conflicts. This is not surprising considering that farming is the major livelihood strategy for most households. Demographic variables were not found to be useful predictors of perception responses. Several factors were established as limiting to household participation in nature based tourism, these established factors included, lack of working and start up capital, lack of understanding of nature based tourism business, lack of interest and lack of support from tourism agencies.
Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

The pressure on the public agricultural extension organisation in Ghana to improve its responsiveness to meet the needs of farmers has increased since the globalisation of trade in the early 1990s. To improve agricultural productivity and the livelihood security of farm households, the Ministry of Food and Agriculture in Ghana decentralised its extension service in 1997. Although this was a critical change in agricultural policy, the extension service has struggled to implement this policy effectively. Further improvement in the situation is hampered because there has been little research published in this area. To provide this understanding, a single-case study of a successful decentralised district level extension organisation in Ghana was used to identify the factors, processes and outcomes that contribute to its performance. The case organisation is an example of a district agricultural extension organisation that operates under a decentralisation system at the level of deconcentration, with a high farmer-to-extension agent ratio and limited and uncertain levels of Government funding. The results of the study emphasised the importance of the effects of both external and internal (or organisational) factors on the performance of the case organisation. The external factors included: (1) the political will to decentralise, (2) the level of decentralisation of other government departments, (3) the provision of a clear legal framework for decentralisation and (4) the existence of established institutions that are willing to support the decentralisation process. New external factors that were identified in this study were (1) the type and drivers of decentralisation, (2) stakeholders' willingness and commitment to support the decentralisation process and (3) the community characteristics in terms of land tenure arrangements and gender roles. The results confirmed the importance of the organisational factors prescribed in the literature: (1) stakeholder participation, (2) managerial and technical capacity, (3) operational funding and (4) accountability. However, the study also identified five other interrelated organisational factors that influenced the success of the case organisation that had not been previously reported in the literature. These included the needs to: (1) develop a needs-based extension programme, (2) expand the extension service focus and roles, (3) foster a cross-sector pluralistic extension approach (4) use needs-based groups for service delivery, and (5) extension staff attitudinal change. Multistakeholder (farmer and other organisations) participation was critical for the development of a needs-based extension programme. The case organisation had modified the traditional extension programme planning process to involve stakeholders at different levels of participation. Similarly, the case organisation involved stakeholders in its multilevel monitoring and evaluation processes. Stakeholder participation in planning and evaluation, although aimed ultimately at efficient and effective programme implementation and improvement, did enhance accountability. Because the case organisation had taken on a broader livelihood security focus to extension, the definition of farmer needs was extended to encompass on-farm and off-farm needs that have impact on the contribution agriculture makes to the livelihood security of farm households in the district. This broader livelihood security focus to extension required the case organisation to take on additional roles from those it traditionally held. In the study, a typology of such roles was developed and a role selection process used by the case organisation during its programme planning process was described. Similarly, because of this broader focus, the case organisation had to work both across sectors and with other extension providers from within the sector to meet the needs of farmers. Again, the multistakeholder programme planning process was central to fostering coordination and collaboration amongst the various extension providers in the district. Decentralisation has placed greater managerial responsibility on management staff of the case organisation. In addition, the livelihood security focus has required technical staff and attitudinal changes to develop and seek for a much broader range of skills and knowledge - meaning that the development of both managerial and technical capacity was important for the case organisation. Needs-based training, the development of a learning environment and the enhancement of staff motivation were critical for the development of staff capacity. As with other extension organisations in developing countries, the funding for the case organisation was limited and uncertain. To overcome these constraints, the case organisation had in place mechanisms to ensure its resources were used efficiently and that it could mobilise additional resources from outside the organisation. Resource efficiency was improved through an intensive monitoring system and the use of stable needs-based groups. Additional resources were mobilised by lobbying government and international donors for funds for projects that would meet the needs of farmers. Further resources were obtained through collaboration with other stakeholder organisations. Again, the multistakeholder planning process provided a platform for collaboration. Networking and special issue forums also provided mechanisms for enhancing collaboration within the district. Decentralisation was introduced into Ghana in 1997 with the aim of eventually developing a demand-driven extension system. Although viewed as successful, the case organisation has yet to achieve the level of farmer participation (i.e. self-mobilisation) that is required for a demand-driven extension system. Currently, after six years of decentralisation, the level of farmer participation can be classified as somewhere between consultation and collaboration. Therefore, the results of this study suggest that the transition from a top-down to a demand-driven extension system will take considerable time and resources.

The grazing management project in the Okhombe ward of the Amazizi Tribal Authority formed part of the National Department of Agriculture's LandCare program to address communal natural resource management issues. Okhombe land is communal whereby every member of the community is the legal owner of the rangeland with individual ownership of stock with the chieftaincy playing a major role in land allocation. In order to avoid critics of the past and address the top-down approach of the past interventions, a participatory approach was conducted in the planning and implementation of the grazing system. The service providers held a series of visioning workshops with the community in an effort to better understand community resource use patterns, needs, constraints and opportunities as part of the participatory approach. Issues identified by the community were the need for fencing grazing camps, animal health improvement, subdivision of rangeland and crop fields and the development of a rotational grazing system. The main aims of this study were to develop a participatory grazing plan with the community, develop and support institutional structures governing range management, and build capacity of the community in range management. The effect of the current grazing system on species composition was determined. In addition to these, the project investigated the potential different fodder trees has on alleviating feed and nutritional deficit, particularly during the dry winter months of the Upper Thukela. Among the main achievements of this study was the development and strengthening of local institutional structures and effective liaison by all structures with the Inkosi and the tribal council. The community developed a rotational grazing plan, marked the camp boundaries, produced digital maps and successfully built fence boundaries (approximately 20 kms of fencing) to divide their land. The fence boundaries separated the crop fields and rangeland, closed ward boundaries in the upland to prevent access by cattle from neighbouring wards, and divided the land into three camps. Six crush pens were constructed in each subward of the Okhombe ward. A communal herders fund opened and fence construction improved crop yields due to a decrease in crop damage by cattle. Okhombe ward, located in the Highland Sourveld region of KwaZulu-Natal, experiences feed and nutrition deficits to ruminants during winter. The prevailing species composition in Okhombe was investigated as part of the grazing plan. The veld condition of the sites ranged from poor (40.7%) in the bottomland to an averaged of 47.0% in upland sites. The most distinctive feature of the rangeland in this area was the loss of highly palatable Decreaser grass species (P <0.05), such as Themeda triandra in the bottom slopes « 1300 m) when compared to the upland (> 1800 m). The proportional abundance of Decreaser species accounted for an averaged of 1.02% of the bottomland and an averaged of 11.5% of the upland compared to the values of 49% in the benchmark (grassland in optimal condition). The composition of the less palatable Increaser Il species was very high at all elevations (1200 m -80.7%, 1400 m - 75.8% and 1700 m - 55.7%) when compared to the low benchmark composition of 19%. The dominant grasses of the bottom slopes were Increaser Il species, such as Eragrostis curvula, Eragrostis plana and Sporobolus africanus and unpalatable Increaser III species such as Aristida junciformis. A significant difference (P < 0.05) in the composition of Decreaser, Increaser I and Increaser Il species was found between the bottom and slopes compared to the upland region. However, the grass cover formed by these tufted species was generally high, making it more resistant to physical degradation. The bottom slope ranged from reasonable to excellent cover (16.9%), the middle slope ranged from reasonable (15.9%) to a good cover of 18.1%, averaging 16.7% and a range of 16.1% to 17.9% for the upland plateau. In the agroforestry trial the potential of different fodder species for supplementing fodder was examined. Leucaena leucocephala had the potential of being a suitable fodder tree species for use in alley cropping (P < 0.05) compared to Morus alba and Acacia karroo. Results from the partially intercropped treatments showed that L. leucocephala yield (665 kg ha-I) varied significantly (P < 0.05) from the A. karroo (378 kg ha-I) and M alba yield (345 kg ha-I). Treatments that were fully intercropped varied, but no significant difference (P > 0.05) were recorded. Morus alba produced the least yield of 345 kg ha-I, A. karroo yielded 378 kg ha-1 and 1. leucocephala recorded the high of 664 kg ha-I. Results from the second season showed similar trend in that 1. leucocephala yielded a significant (P < 0.05) fodder production of 1715 kg ha-I in comparison to M. alba (1101 kg ha-I) and A karroo (1140 kg ha-I). M alba yielded the least dry matter production (P < 0.05) but had high potential (P < 0.05) for addressing lack of firewood in rural areas. Morus alba yielded high fuel wood production from both two seasons. There were no significant differences in fuel wood yield (P > 0.05) from the partially intercropped M alba (507.9 kg ha-I) and 1. leucocephala (455.0 kg ha-I) but the yield from both species varied significantly from the A. karroo yield (103.kg ha-I). With regard to fully intercropped plots, fuel wood yield from all tree species varied significantly, A karroo resulting in low yield (63 kg ha-I), 1. leucocephala recorded 243 kg ha-l and M alba the highest yield of 444 kg ha-I. In the second season, M. alba yielded an averaged fuel wood production of 728 kg ha-l and a low of 439 kg ha-I from 1. leucocephala. Acacia karroo, a slow growing indigenous tree, might be preferred by farmers due to its less branches resulting in minimal light competition with crops. Leucaena leucocephala tend to grow slowly in its initial establishment stage, but once roots become well established, it grows fast and produces high quantity of fodder. The effect all fodder trees had on crop yield was not negative during the trial period and further research on long term effects of alley cropping is recommended. The conclusions drawn here were based on tree growth and their likely impact in alley cropping. Leucaena leucocephala was also recommended as a preferred species for rural ruminants based on the forage quality study. The results showed high content of crude protein (19.27%), low NDF content (50.38%) and very low tannin content (1.19%) from 1. leucocephala compared to A. karroo with a high tannin content of 5.69%. Acacia karroo had a crude protein content of 13.60%, NDF percentages of 44.16 and 34.64% of ADF content. Morus alba also had a recommended chemical composition of 11.71% of CP, 42.86% of NDF, 36.96% of ADF and a low tannin content of 0.65%. L. leucocephala foliage proven is readily degradable under different diet ranging within 24 hrs of intake (P < 0.001) compared to other feeds. L. leucocephala had high dry matter loss degraded from the rumen under Eragrostis hay diet with poor nutrients to high protein concentrates diet. Under the Eragrostis hay diet for instance, L. leucocephala tend to degrade rapidly with values of dry matter loss ranging from 32.2% to 39% at 4 hrs to 16 hrs, when compared to low dry mater loss of 26% at 4 hrs to 31.33% at 16 hrs. Feeds such as M alba tend to degrade slowly within 24 hrs of intake and rapidly degrades after the stated period. The ep content of maize stover was very low ranging from 1.60% in maize stalks to 2.63% in maize leaves. The fibre content in maize stover was very high when compared to lower values in fodder samples. The NDF content ranged from 77.92% in maize leaves to 81.60% in maize stalks. Maize leaves when compared to a combination of maize leaves and maize stalks sole tend to degrade better within 24 hrs of intake. This was due to low (P < 0.05) degradability rate of maize stalks compared to a combination of maize stalks and leave and leaves sole and least NDF content in maize leaves might have attributed to these results. Due to poor chemical compositions of these roughage samples, the study recommended the establishment of fodder banks and agroforestry systems to curb the nutrients deficit during winter. In conclusion therefore, this study highlight that the sustainability of rural systems to manage communal grazing land should be further explored. Most of the challenging issues in communal range management are social in nature rather than technical concepts. These include ways of improving social contributions from cattle to the community while maintaining cultural values of the use of cattle. The interventions in communal range management by service providers should understand the institutional arrangements within a community and an attempt to strengthen such existing structures is recommended. Further interventions by service providers in Okhombe ward should bring in the planning discussions, experts from social sciences, to deal with understanding of community dynamics. Complexities in communal range management involve dealing with non-stock owners within project boundaries. Communities from neighbouring wards should not be ignored and ways of improving communications and updating project details to them should be formulated. Shortage of land and closing of ward boundaries to prevent access to land by neighbouring wards is among community complexities to be explored. Communities in rural lands do share land and in most cases boundaries are known but invisible by an outsider to identify. It is important to strengthen and maintain every success in communal lands as that may form core of the project. Successes on grazing management by locals is far from being the improvement in veld but there are rather various factors to the successes of grazing projects in rural areas. Examples of successes based on Okhombe project are reduction in stock theft, improved in relationship between community and locals institutions, a reduction in stock mortalities during winter and improved animal health. Veld improvement is among successes but there are accomplishments phases to fulfil before focusing on improvement of species composition.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.