Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Nature and forest school'

There is a growing body of literature that recognizes the importance of outdoor learning spaces in educational practice with children. However, previous studies of the outdoor learning spaces have omitted to address the young children’s perspectives on the outdoor environments that they experience as a part of the Forest School’s educational approach. Research on the subject has been mostly restricted to an adult perspective. Furthermore, the previously published studies are limited to Scandinavian countries and available in Scandinavian languages and, therefore, not easily accessible to an international audience. The aim of the present dissertation project is to explore young children’s (aged 3-6 years) voices on their experience, sense-making, and understanding of the educational space of a forest. A qualitative research paradigm was employed to explore the components that characterize children’s perception of the outdoor educational space. Ethnographic research methods (participants observation, informal conversation and material collection) were used to investigate children’s outdoor activities performed in two Italian preschools: a kindergarten outdoor oriented school and a Forest School. The collected materials (fieldnotes, interviews, and children’s drawings) were processed using a six-steps Thematic Analysis with the aim to gain a complex account of the data. The results indicate that the way children use, interact and, confer a meaning to their experience in the woods are represented by the following themes: Type of Place Attended, Nature Engagement, Relationship with the Woods, Responsibility and Risk, Imagination, Emotional Responses, Affordances, Relationships with Others, Discovery and Experimentation, Nature Education, Concerns for Nature, and Learnings Connected to the Curriculum.These results have provided a deeper insight on the children’s experience of the outdoor learning space of a forest. Moreover, the empirical findings in this study contributed to provide a new understanding of how children bond with the natural world and how they behave and experience it. Taking into account the exploratory nature of the present thesis, future research should further address the children’s perspectives on the outdoor education space, the forest. Furthermore, it would be interesting to investigate if the cognitive, emotional, and social resources and environmental attitudes developed by children in the forest as outdoor educational space are strictly intertwined with this particular environment or if they can be realized in more a conventional school setting.

Syftet med detta examensarbete har varit att undersöka vilken betydelse närområdesstudier ochutomhuspedagogisk undervisning knuten till lokalsamhället har för lärare i samhällskunskap,att skapa variation i undervisningen och om samt hur lärare använder närområdet i sinundervisning i årskurs 4–6. Det finns tidigare forskning kring främst natur- och äventyrsinriktadutomhuspedagogik som fokuserar på yngre elever, men mindre kring närområdesstudier,studiebesök och besök från samhället, för ämnet samhällskunskap.De teoretiska utgångspunkterna var Vygotskijs sociokulturella perspektiv och pragmatismenenligt Dewey, som användes för att analysera empirin. Undersökningen genomfördes med hjälpav kvalitativ metod och semistrukturerade intervjuer. Sex respondenter från fem skolor deltogi undersökningen. I analysen av resultatet framkommer att lärarna ger många exempel påmöjligheter till undervisning utomhus och i närområdet men att det finns hinder att övervinnainnan man kommer ut ur klassrummet.En slutsats som kan dras utifrån undersökningens engagerade lärare och tidigare forskning äratt vi kan drista oss till att konstatera, att utomhuspedagogiken och närområdesstudierna görstor nytta för de flesta elever. Det som återstår att göra är, att ”kavla upp ärmarna”, utmanahindren och ta med eleverna på deras livsresa både i klassrum och utomhus, för att ge demminnen och kunskaper för livet.
The purpose of this master thesis has been to examine which meaning neighborhood studiesand outdoor education attached to local society has to teachers in the subject of civics, to createvariation in teaching and if and how teachers use the local area in their teaching in classes 4–6.There is earlier research mainly around nature and adventure oriented outdoor educationfocusing on younger pupils, but with less focus on neighborhood studies, study visits and visitsfrom society, in the subject of civics.The theoretical starting points was Vygotskijs sociocultural perspective and pragmatismaccording to Dewey, that was used to analyze the empirics. The survey was conducted by usingqualitative method and semi-structured interviews. Six respondents from five schoolsparticipated in the survey. In the analysis of the result, it emerges that the teachers give manyexamples of outdoor and neighborhood teaching, but there are obstacles to overcome beforegetting out of the classroom.A conclusion, that can be drawn based on dedicated teachers of this survey and former researchis, that we dare to note, that outdoor teaching and neighborhood studies do great good to mostpupils. What remains to be done, is to “roll up the sleeves”, challenge the hindrances and bringthe pupils on their journey of a lifetime in both classrooms and outdoors, to give them memoriesand knowledge for life.

This creative project consists of the design of a Master Plan for the Mbaracaju Forest Reserve, a 143,000 acre site in eastern Paraguay which is part of the devastated Atlantic Forest , an area requiring urgent conservation action. This creative project adresses site inventory and analysis, programming, land uses, site specific facility development guidelines, and three Master Plan Alternatives. The Master Plan seeks to support environmental preservation, sustainable development, and environmental education. The hypothesis of this project is that preservation and environmentally sound use of the Reserve are possible through a Master Plan that responds to the sensitivity of the various areas and its management, and to an activities program oriented towards global preservation. The Incorporation of the traditional inhabitants of the land as active participants in the Master Plan will serve as an example for Paraguay and for the world. This Master Plan, which will promote environmental preservation and biological diversity, will benefit the inhabitants of the Reserve, of Paraguay, and from around the world. For this report to the Graduate Office at Ball State University there are included the major aspects of the Master Plan. It is important to clarify that the whole report, which has 200 pages, is available in the lybrary of the College of Architecture and Planning.
Department of Landscape Architecture

The aim of this thesis is to investigate the situated subjectivities of the experiences of Forest School (FS) practitioners, in their journeys from training to initial practice. The research explores the impact of FS training, environmental and socio-cultural influences upon the practitioners and how their practices adapt in context. Eight in-depth case studies of FS trainee practitioners were undertaken over a period of two years (2010-12) using multiple qualitative methods. The analysis is in three parts; on practitioner identities, approaches and contexts. The thesis contributes three new conceptual models to outdoor pedagogical research. The concept of eco-social identity frames the ongoing construction of self. The FS adult role is theorised as a connector, engaged in dynamic role processes. The analysis of practitioner approaches in context uses Shared Space; an ecosystemic frame of practice and agency. Further analysis of practitioners’ experience of team contexts draws on theoretical lenses on role, socialisation and norms from Goffman and Foucault. Team relationships became positioned in either conflict, collaboration or congruence. The study contributes new insights into the impact of FS training and the influence of socialisation and subjectivity in the application of outdoor pedagogy. Early life experience, nature-society relations, and passionate purpose motivated the practitioners. Adult-to-adult interaction affected practice outcomes significantly, with strong disparities in setting teams regarding values and ethos, team interest, controls and standards in setting practices, curriculum pressures, setting aims, and site provision and care. The results imply that collaborative partnership and a whole team approach are effective strategies for ongoing practice, and tokenistic practice is a destructive strategy.

The program of the proposal is a small recreational facility with a restaurant,conference facilities, a reception, hotel rooms and a bath.The size of the program is approximately 1200 m2.Rough approximation:- Staff and information building: 200 m2- Hotel rooms (10 á 25 m2): 250 m2- Bath building: 210 m2- Conference building: 300 m2

A house was designed to express the clearing in which it stands. The site was analyzed in terms of the elements that lend themselves to architecture. The character of light, space and order contribute to the overall design of the house. Thus the house can be said to be an expression of the natural beauty of its site.
Master of Architecture

Thesis (M.A.)--University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2007.
Title from electronic title page (viewed Apr. 25, 2008). "... in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in the Department of Art." Discipline: Art; Department/School: Art.

The play, Madagascar Mayhem, was devised as a means of developing ecological understanding about rain forest preservation and educating and expanding upon the use of drama as it relates to environmental education. By being involved in and learning about issues addressed in the play's content, students learned about how their actions may have a positive impact on rain forest preservation, the biodiversity of Madagascar, its agricultural loss and the movement to protect it.

Reducing deforestation and degradation (REDD+) under the rubric of payment for ecosystem services (PES) is being promoted as the most cost-effective mechanism for reducing global greenhouse gas emissions. This process of commodifying forest services will redefine the rhetoric of decentralised forest governance that has evolved in developing countries over the last two decades. This thesis uses ethnographic case studies in two forest villages in West Bengal state in India, along with 294 household surveys and 76 interviews, to examine the impending changes in socio-economic and political arenas with the adoption of a market mechanism like REDD+. I undertook a pilot study for one month in October 2009, which was followed by my main field work in two phases: February to July 2010 and November 2010 to February 2011. First, the analysis of livelihood dependence of forests dwellers shows unequal extraction of forest products by various wealth classes under the current socio-economic and political structures of village societies. Rich and medium class families with their higher assets were higher net users of forests, while poor households had a critical dependence on forests for their daily survival. Second, I examine the impact of livelihood dependence on forests. A majority of key informants did not see the current extraction of forest products, for example, for meeting local subsistence and commercial needs as major detriments to forest and carbon conservation. However, I argue that a number of legal provisions and official guidelines could potentially impose restrictions on the ongoing forest use pattern as a result of REDD+. Third, by comparing the functioning of the village council (with a special focus on the implementation of India’s National Employment Guarantee Scheme) with forest protection committees, I reflect upon the limitations in the decentralised forest management that emerge from the institutional design of the programme. I show that the decentralised forest governance suffers from lack of accountability and transparency over the control of forests by the Forest Department. Finally, this thesis suggests that the institutional design for REDD+ at the national level needs to be based on the democratic partnership of local institutions and the state.

While the health benefits of physical activity are commonly recognised, increasing evidence indicates that significant percentages of children, particularly girls, are not sufficiently physically active. Children spend a large proportion of their waking day at school; however their opportunities to be physically active during the school day, beyond the traditional PE lesson and break times, are limited. Increasing children’s levels of physical activity during their time at school may be a key approach to increasing children’s overall levels of physical activity. The aim of this study was to evaluate the outdoor education programme ‘Forest School’ as a source of school based physical activity. A review of existing research showed that there had been no rigorous evaluation of physical activity during Forest School sessions. A two phase mixed method design was used. The first phase used a repeated measures controlled design to objectively measure the amount, intensity, duration and frequency of the participants’ (n26 age 9-10) physical activity during Forest School. The second phase used semi-structured paired interviews (n24 age 10-11) to understand the subjective experience of the Forest School physical activity. The study was conducted in the central belt of Scotland. The results showed that during Forest School sessions the participants engaged in a significantly greater total amount of physical activity, at a higher intensity, and with a greater frequency of longer bouts, in comparison to the typical school days. The children were also shown to reach the recommended hour of MVPA during the Forest School sessions. The children reported enjoying and appreciating the opportunity to be physically active in an environment they had little previous experience of using. Existing barriers to physical activity in other contexts, in particular bad weather and low motivation, did not appear to be relevant at Forest School. The inequality in levels of physical activity and motivation to be physically active, between males and females, was shown to typically be lower on the Forest School days. The findings suggest participation in Forest School resulted in greater quantities of inclusive and enjoyable physical activity at higher intensities than otherwise experienced at school.

Climate change may cause significant changes to our relationship with nature, triggering large impacts on ecosystems and the societies dependent on their ecosystem services. Forests are seen as a mitigating solution for their abilities to store carbon, provide forest products, enhance biodiversity along with other forest ecosystem services (FES). Forest’s natural systems have shown resilience against climate-induced disasters and have been acknowledged as an important tool to mitigate climate change. However, to ensure the continued supply of these services requires adaptable management of forest ecosystems through policy. This study aims to analyse how Swedish and Scottish public FES-related policy integrates the adaptive and mitigating methods used in Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) and Nature-based Solutions (NBS). The method of this analysis relied on three theoretical approaches; Policy integration, Environmental policy integration and Frames to see how the concepts and methods of NBS and DRR are implemented within Swedish and Scottish forest policy. The results showed that the main message from both Swedish and Scottish public FES-related policy is that humans are dependent on FES, therefore the protection of forest land and species cannot be under-prioritised. Both countries’ goals focus on becoming climate neutral by 2045 with an increased (Scotland) or sustained (Sweden) bioeconomy to be achieved alongside carbon sequestration, increased biodiversity, and diversified usage of forests. Both countries recognise and use ecosystem services as a NBS to mitigate climate change and reduce disaster risk. The increase of biodiversity through afforestation, green infrastructure, and conservation as a method to create resilience is a common method of NBS within the policy documents, and its ability to prevent risks along several areal and hierarchical scales show methods of DRR. However, vague goals on the strategy to achieve this are seen within both countries’ policy which question their determination and ability to succeed. Their difference in forest ownership structure and history diverges their application of community engagement in FES management. It is now essential that both Sweden and Scotland implement a sustainable balance between their national strategy objectives for the sake of the environment and use the considerable political traction by methods of NBS and DRR to reach resilient forest ecosystems. Future research could further assess the results and consequences of the policy strategies to see if they have achieved inclusive, integrated forest resilience through adaptive policy.

In Norrland, forests make up the biggest area of land, where different activities and actors exist in the same locations. Conflicts arise when different actors and agendas clash, making it hard to have a sustainable co-existence in the forest. Through forest research and other initiatives, new methods and strategies are being explored to make co-existence possible. Currently there is a gap between the research and its end user, as well as a dislocation of research facilities where most are located along the coast instead of the inland and the forest. Can architecture be a tool to raise awareness about nature and forests, making it a common concern? The proposal is to create a forest research center in the forest in the inland, where actors work and activities take place. The building combines the different users, creating a space where researchers and forest owners can share knowledge and experiences, and work towards a sustainable management without conflicts. Through the program of the building, the public get access to knowledge and become involved in the politics and management of the forest. The design explores and exposes the possibilities of wood, where incremental design showcases the impact of nature.
I Norrland utgörs den största andelen land av skog, där olika aktiviteter och aktörer verkar i samma områden. När aktörer med olika agendor ska samsas på samma plats uppstår ofta konflikter som leder till en ohållbar miljö. Genom att ha en överblick över alla aktiviteter utforskar svensk skogsforskning och andra initiativ nya metoder och strategier som kan möjliggöra en hållbar samexistens i skogen. Än finns dock ett glapp mellan forskare, skogsägare och andra aktörer, som inte förbättras av att forskningsanläggningarna är belägna längs kusten istället för inlandet och skogen. Kan arkitektur vara ett verktyg för att öka allmänhetens medvetenheten och intresse för naturen och skogen? Mitt förslag är ett center för skogsforskning i Västerbottens inland, där aktörerna arbetar och bedriver sina verksamheter. Byggnaden kombinerar de olika användarna och skapar en plats där forskare och skogsägare kan utbyta kunskap och erfarenheter, och samarbeta för en hållbar skogshållning som minimerar konflikter. Genom byggnadens program får allmänheten tillgång till kunskap om skogspolitik och skötsel, vilket kan leda till starkare engagemang och medvetenhet. Designen utforskar och visar trä som byggnadsmaterial, där uppbyggnaden över tid förstärker naturens påverkan.

Stockholm is a unique city intertwined by water and green spaces,  which is also surrounded by rich open nature resources. However, from the lately researches, it shows that coronavirus highlights the need for open green spaces in cities. Also our access to important functions in society is reduced. Both of the roles of green areas and the city are challenged. The corona situation highlights our urban problem and people's demands that Stockholm is not accessible and resilient enough.   In my projects, I study the potentials and design the city about how to bring nature to the inner city and how to transit urban activities to the nature nearby in order to have a more adaptable, resilient, flexible city. Streets and the transferring area between city and nature are important intermediates to integrate green areas and urban activities, which are focused on research and design in this project.  The whole green-space system structure is also re-organised to make it better connected and more accessible.

The relationship between the changes in color values of scenic landscapes, and the corresponding shifts in viewers' preferences to those changed environments, was the focus of the presented research. Color modifications, either natural or based on some human intervention, provide visual clues that an environment has undergone some transformation. These color changes can occur at both the micro and macro scale, can having temporal dimensions, and can be a result of combinations of both physical landscape change, and shifts in an observer's perspective with respect to that landscape. The research reviewed two existing models and related them in an integrated program of scenic change analysis. The first, a bio-physical remote sensing model, identified the relationships between the existing bio-physical environmental conditions and measured color signatures of selected landscape features. The second, a psychophysical perception model, established relationships between the landscape's bio-physical attributes and measured perceptual responses to those environments. By merging aspects of each model, the research related the changing scenic color patterns with observers' responses to those changed environments. The research methodology presented a program of scenic change analysis incorporating several technologies including (1) ground-based biological inventories, (2) remote sensing, (3) geographic information systems (GIS), and (4) computer visualization. A series of investigations focused on landscape scenes selected from a high elevation coniferous forest in southern Utah. Three initial scenic investigations compared (1) the impact of changing view angles on scenic color values, (2) color shifts due to changing sun-illumination angles within a day, and (3) color shifts due to changing biological conditions over a 12-month period. A fourth investigation measured the color changes caused by a spruce bark beetle outbreak, and developed a series of color signatures to simulate the color shifts indicative of an outbreak at different stages of development. These signatures were applied to digitized site photographs to produce a series of visualizations displaying different levels of beetle damage. The visualizations were then applied in a series of perceptual experiments to test the precision and reliability of the visual simulations.

I investigate the range of different agents’ explicit and implicit views about the forest and forest practices to see what makes the forest such an important resource in Mayurbhanj District in Orissa, India. There are two main lines of inquiry in this dissertation. I examine the social construction of forest practices and livelihoods in relation to sustainability, and how nature-culture, forest-village, object-subject, other-self and local knowledge-Western scientific knowledge are constructed, accounted for and represented. I analyse the junglewala’s (forest-dwellers’) and foresters’ views of forest practices and each other. I begin with concrete, material forest practices, and gradually move towards analysing their conceptual forms. The main questions of the dissertation investigates are why and how many state forest practices have been so detrimental to the junglewala’s livelihood sustainability despite over a century of declared attempts in Mayurbhanj. To do this I investigate several counterpositions: conflicts and trade-offs between different forest uses, and mismatches of worldviews and cosmovision models. In order to answer these questions and to understand these counterpositions, I investigate villagers’ and state forest practices, forest knowledges, and make a symbolic interpretation of worldviews and cosmovision models, which consist of natural, human and cosmic spheres. I examine what forest practices mean in Mayurbhanj with a three-pronged approach combining actor-oriented, case-study and symbolic approaches.

Unravelling the psychological processes determining landowners\' support towards forest conservation is key, particularly, in developing countries, where most forest remnants are within private lands. As human-nature connections are known to shape pro-environmental behaviors, the intention of preserving forest remnants should be ultimately determined by the ecological context people live in. Here, we investigate the pathways through which the ecological context (forest cover), via experiences with nature (contact, uses and losses associated with forests), influences the psychological determinants of conservation behavior (beliefs, attitude and intention towards preserving forest remnants). We conceptualized a model based on the Reasoned Action Approach, using the ecological context and experiences with nature as background factors, and tested the model using Piecewise SEM. Data was collected through an interview-based protocol applied to 106 landowners across 13 landscapes varying in forest cover in a region in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. Our results indicate that: (i) ecosystem services are more important than disservices for shaping intention of preserving forests, particularly those related to non-provisioning benefits; (ii) contact with forest has an indirect effect on intention, by positively influencing forest uses; (iii) people living in more forested ecological contexts have more experiences with nature, and ultimately stronger intention of preserving forests. Hence, our study suggests a dangerous positive feedback loop between deforestation and the extinction of human-nature connections. Local demands across the full range of ecosystem services, the balance between services and disservices, and the ecological context people live should be considered when developing conservation initiatives in rural areas
Desvendar os processos psicológicos que determinam o apoio dos proprietários de terras à conservação das florestas é fundamental, particularmente, nos países em desenvolvimento, onde a maioria dos remanescentes florestais se encontra em áreas privadas. Como as conexões humano-natureza são conhecidas por moldar comportamentos pró-ambientais, a intenção de preservar remanescentes florestais deve ser, em última instância, determinada pelo contexto ecológico no qual as pessoas vivem. Neste trabalho, investigamos os caminhos pelos quais o contexto ecológico (cobertura florestal), através das experiências com a natureza (contato, usos e perdas associados às florestas), influencia os determinantes psicológicos do comportamento de conservação (crenças, atitude e intenção de preservar remanescentes florestais). Formulamos um modelo baseado na Abordagem da Ação Racional, usando o contexto ecológico e as experiências com a natureza como fatores de base, e o testamos através da Piecewise SEM. Os dados foram coletados através de protocolo aplicado, por meio de entrevista, a 106 proprietários de terra em 13 paisagens que variam em cobertura florestal em uma região da Mata Atlântica. Nossos resultados indicam que: (i) serviços ecossistêmicos são mais importantes que desserviços para moldar a intenção de preservar florestas, particularmente outros serviços que não os de provisão; (ii) o contato com a floresta tem um efeito indireto sobre a intenção, influenciando positivamente os usos da floresta; (iii) as pessoas que vivem em contextos ecológicos mais florestados têm mais experiências com a natureza e, assim, uma intenção mais forte de preservar as florestas. Nosso estudo, portanto, sugere um perigoso ciclo de retroalimentação positiva entre o desmatamento e a extinção das conexões humano-natureza. As demandas locais considerando toda a gama de serviços ecossistêmicos, o balanço entre serviços e desserviços e o contexto ecológico no qual as pessoas vivem devem ser considerados ao se desenvolverem iniciativas de conservação em áreas rurais

The conflict in the Pacific Northwest between competing visions of how federal forests should be managed resulted in a political stalemate in the early 1990s. The Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP) was initiated to resolve the demands for maintaining ecosystem processes and biological diversity with the social and economic needs for timber harvest. The foundation for the plan rested with the development of ecosystem management. The intent of this research is to explore the events which led up to the adoption of the NWFP, how it was implemented by the US Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management and the subsequent reactions to and consequences of the plan.

The primary research consisted of thirty-eight semi-structured interviews with individuals responsible for the development of the initial plan, those tasked with implementing the plan and current federal agency personnel from the land management agencies and regulatory agencies. With the use of thematic analysis, key meanings were captured as expressed by the interviewees. The data was analyzed using institutional theory, capturing the organizational relations within the organizational field of the land management agencies.

Research findings suggest that the NWFP was unsuccessful in meeting the goal of addressing the social and economic issues as well as the goals for ecosystem management. This dissertation explores the organizational practices and cultural meanings that led to the final instantiation of the plan. It seeks to shed light on the reasons why these goals were not met and how future forest plans can move beyond the current stalemate between conservation and preservation.

Environmental decision-making is a tournament of competing conservation agendas in which some values and beliefs are held up and exalted, others are dismissed and ignored, and still others are implicit and unnoticed. Stakeholders compete in the tournament to advance their value systems through the science they advocate or practice, through the constructs of environmental quality they use or study, and through the management goals they champion. It is our contention that participants who hope to compete successfully in this tournament should understand the rules of the game, which includes recognizing the values and ambiguities of the language used to discuss and describe nature - in particular the terms used to describe ecological conditions that become the goals and policies of forest management - and acknowledging the "middle nature".
Master of Science

This thesis discusses the importance of school gardens. First, two current environmental and societal problems are highlighted: the industrialized food system and what Richard Louv has termed, "Nature Deficit Disorder," in children. School gardens are then presented as an effective tool that can address and remedy such issues. Lastly, a how-to manual for implementing such projects in schools is provided as well as a few sample lesson plans to be used in conjunction with the garden in each subject across the curriculum.

Tropical mountain forests contribute greatly to carbon sequestration and reduction of carbon levels in the atmosphere. In order to achieve the “Reducing Emission from forest deforestation and degradation” (REDD +) objectives, reliable information on carbon sequestration of all forest management areas is required. So, this study aims to determine the amount of above ground carbon bound in trees and how carbon sequestration capacity of trees varies with altitudinal change in the Magamba Nature Forest Reserve. A random stratified coordinate by elevation method was used, measuring approximately 2636 tree of 5<diameter at breast height (DBH) distributed across 29 plots with a total area of 2.03ha. The effect of altitude was tested using ANOVA and Pearson correlation test. The results show that there is a significant (p<0.05) positive correlation between aboveground carbon sequestered and elevation, and that there was significant difference (p<0.02) in the amount of aboveground carbon stored between low elevation (147.5 tones ha-1) mid elevation (244.86 tonnes ha-1) and high elevation (245.4 tones ha-1). The lower amount of carbon at low elevation may be due to anthropogenic activities including logging and fuel production, since it is easier to reach lower altitude than higher altitude forest zone. To improve carbon sequestration capacity of tropical Mountain protected forests, participatory protective measure at lower elevation zones are of importance. These should even be included in management plans, detailing the involvement of adjacent community.

Includes bibliographical references.
The south-western Cape of South Africa is dominated by fynbos vegetation with patches of forest restricted to rock screes and stream banks owing to the more favourable moisture status of these microhabitats. A detailed analysis of soil underlying forest and fynbos vegetation in Jonkershoek Nature Reserve was investigated. A total of nine soil pits were dug in forest and on fynbos slopes with high and low gradients. Pits were analysed by depth examining texture while soil was also sent for x-ray fluorescent analysis and carbon and nitrogen analysis. Evidence for dust deposition varied spatially, although this could be a result of the rapid erosion experienced during winter. Soil properties, mainly texture and nutrient concentration differed distinctly between forest and fynbos. I argue that these differences are caused by topographical diversity and maintained by vegetation which influences nutrient enrichment via dust accumulation and plant litter decomposition. Thus I concluded that soil texture favours nutrient retention in forest soil more than in fynbos soil enhancing the disparity between nutrients in the respective environments. By influencing litter decomposition and aeolian inputs of dust, vegetation is responsible for modifying its niche increasing the difference between fynbos and forest patches.

In this dissertation I describe how coupled internal cycling and external forcing from the atmosphere and climate can regulate the dynamics of nitrogen (N) loss from forest watersheds. I address three major gaps in our understanding of the global N cycle: 1) the role of dissolved organic N (DON) in internal N cycling in low-N ecosystems; 2) The influence of atmospheric pollution on DON production and loss from forests; and 3) the inherent climate sensitivity of forest N cycling and loss. In chapter 2, I present the results of a study of DON spiraling that showed enormous capacity for stream microorganisms to immobilize and transform organic nutrients. Although most DON in surface waters is highly refractory products of SOM dissolution, this study revealed very tight internal cycling of DON at the sediment interface and suggested significant production of DON in the hyporheic zone. Most remarkably, this DON was not expressed in stream waters, supporting the idea that watershed DON losses would have been higher in the absence of pronounced benthic demand. The experiments also suggested that coupled dynamics between DOC and DON spiraling may be altered under conditions of elevated N supply. Chapter 3 challenges the idea that soil organic matter (SOM) and its dissolved products are stoichiometrically static as N pools accumulate. Using a broad geographic survey of forest streams, I show that DON losses increase as a consequence of N pollution and that this occurs through a disproportionate enrichment of N on dissolved organic matter rather than alteration of soil and dissolved carbon dynamics. These results have implications for N limitation in forests and aquatic systems. In particular, DOC: DON ratios of DOM draining N-saturated forests were strikingly low suggesting possible increases in DOM bioavailability with increasing N supply. Chapter 4 provides insight into how local forest nutrient cycles may be organized by synchronous global-scale climate-atmosphere dynamics. This study of long term (30 yr) hydro-chemistry from reference forest watersheds provides an integrated example of the overall climate sensitivity of N cycling and underscores the importance of complex synergies between simultaneous vectors of global change. Results from this study argue that the combined influence of N pollution and warming are likely to have pronounced long-term effects on ecosystems globally.
Ph. D.

Forest School promotes a child-led approach to education, through frequent learning in an outdoor woodland area. It was developed in the United Kingdom based on the early years practices employed in Denmark. The existing research has begun to generate some evidence of the positive outcomes of Forest School. There appears to be growing confidence in Forest School that is primarily based on non- experimental qualitative research. Therefore, the current research aimed to evaluate the impact of Forest School for nursery aged children, using experimental, outcome-focussed evaluation methods. The study utilised a pragmatic approach, employing a sequential mixed methods study design; the primary focus being the quasi-experimental element of the design, that included 11 children in both the experimental and control groups. The specific research outcomes were developed in collaboration with nursery staff using focus groups, thus, questionnaires were developed to measure social and emotional well-being and communication, pre- and post-intervention. This data is complemented by three case studies of children that participated in Forest School; analysed and presented using activity theory. The quantitative results indicate that both the control group and experimental group made significant gains in social and emotional well-being and communication, suggesting that Forest School did not have a significant effect. The qualitative data, however, highlighted a range of outcomes and provided interesting information regarding the mediating factors which influence the children's Forest School experiences. The possible reasons for the quantitative outcomes are discussed, including the unique ethos and general outdoor practices used at the nursery setting in which the research took place. The data has also been considered in relation to the methodological weaknesses, such as diffusion of treatment, which may account for the disparity between the data and previous research. Although it cannot be concluded that the Forest School had a significant impact on the children that engaged in the sessions, the current research suggests that the use of general outdoor learning practices and teaching by Forest School trained staff had a positive impact on the social and emotional well-being and communication for all children.

Background Exhaustion disorder (ED) is a common mental and behavioural disorder which often leads to severe negative consequences for the individual and the society. Natural environments have positive effects on mental, physiological and attentional recovery in stressed persons, which encouraged us to test if forest visits could improve recovery from ED. The main objective of the thesis was to study if visits to different kinds of forest environments have positive health effects on patients suffering from ED, and if forest visits can be utilized for rehabilitation. Methods Participants in the MiniRest study (n=20) and the Pilot study (n=6) (Papers I and II) were recruited from the Stress Rehabilitation Clinic (SRC) at the University Hospital in Umeå.  Participants in the randomised controlled study, ForRest (n=99) and the Interview study (n=19) (Papers III and IV) were recruited from both the SRC and the Swedish Social Insurance Agency in Umeå. The MiniRest study involved only female ED patients and focused on immediate mental, physiological and attention capacity effects in one urban and three forest environments. The Pilot study investigated the practical arrangements for the forthcoming ForRest study. Participants in the ForRest study were randomised into either a three-month forest rehabilitation group; A (forest visits twice a week/4 hours per day) or to a control condition; B. Both groups received Cognitive Behavioural Rehabilitation (CBR) at 24 occasions/once a week after the three-month study period. Preferences for forest environments, mental state and attention capacity were studied for group A only. Psychological health measurements and sick leave data were compared between the groups after (i) the forest rehabilitation and (ii) the CBR. The Interview study was conducted according to grounded theory methodology and consisted of 19 participants from group A to explore personal experiences from the forest rehabilitation. Data collection was implemented through questionnaires, medical records, physiological measurements, and interviews. Results Exposure to forest environments was associated with higher preference, more favourable mental state and physiological responses, and increased attention capacity compared to an urban environment (Paper I). Open and accessible forest environments were preferred (Papers I, II and III). Recovery from ED was found in both groups in the ForRest study, but there were no differences between the groups over time. In group A, positive effects on mental state and attention capacity were found during the forest visits. An interaction effect was found with more positive effects on mental state during spring compared to autumn (Paper III). Solitude, feelings of freedom and no demands were important for finding peace of mind during the forest visits. Moreover, easier access to peace of mind, reflective thinking and positive feelings were reported as the forest rehabilitation progressed (Papers II and IV). Conclusions Forest visits have restorative effects for ED patients through enhanced mental well-being, easier access to peace of mind, beneficial physiological reactions and increased attention capacity which support the use of forest environments in rehabilitation. However, forest rehabilitation tested in a randomised controlled trial did not improve recovery from ED. Potentially rehabilitation with CBR and forest visits integrated could be more effective and should be further investigated in nature-assisted rehabilitation for ED patients.

Assignment (MFor)--Stellenbosch University, 2001.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The ongoing environmental destruction that results from the continuous use of the woodland resources for economic purposes has caused extensive changes in the original vegetation of Goba area of southern Mozambique. Developing alternative sources of income for communities can reduce their dependence on the production of charcoal, building materials and wood carvings. The lack of infrastructure and remoteness of these localities from the markets make alternatives economically unfeasible and thus unsustainable for rural development. Ineffective policy planning that does not address the problem in a holistic way causes the dilemma of local people in remote areas. The challenge at Goba is to develop alternative livelihoods that are economically, socially and ecologically sustainable. Nature-based tourism has been identified as such an alternative to realize this goal. However, this development requires incentives for sustainable resource use, which can be created either by expanding the benefits accruing from the efficient use of the resource or by changing the distribution of the benefits and cost in favor of the users. In many cases, local communities have developed tourism initiatives in ecologically fragile, remote areas, without sound planning based on detailed ecological and socio-economic information. Uncontrolled flows of tourists in unplanned tourist destinations degrade these areas. These destinations lose their aesthetic appeal; tourism flow decreases and consequently new attractions are opened. This study is of a land use planning nature and follows a combination of existing framework tools. The primary aim of this study was to develop simple guidelines for nature-based tourism that contribute to the conservation and management of the rural woodland areas as well as to the improved socio-economic welfare of rural communities in the Goba area. The study used baseline information for planning, focusing on the tourism market and on the ecological and socia-economical aspects of the siudy area. Two strategies were used to obtain the information, namely market research and attraction resources analysis. The market research in the southern part of Mozambique shows that: International tourist flows are at present from Southern African countries mostly South Africa (more than 50%), North America, Europe and Australia or Asia. Mozambique is perceived mainly as a sunny beach destination for vacations and weekends though most of the tourists were engaged in multi-destination itineraries that included safari, wildernesses, bird watching, touring and curiosity. There was no evidence from any tourist that nature tourism was the reason to visit Mozambique, but many of them said that they would visit ecotourism and nature tourism destinations if available. The average daily expenditure per tourist was found to be US$47. Tourists from long-haul distances had higher disposable expenditures and stayed longer in both attraction assets and in the country. Sixty nine per cent (69%) of surveyed tourists were over 50 years of age and they were mostly males (57%). The results show clearly that many issues must be taken into consideration where the development of ecotourism and nature-based tourism, especially in rural areas, is concerned. Such considerations should include (i) careful planning of the destinations based on the local developmental policy; (ii) developing saleable tourist products and packages and (iii), promotional strategies to expand the market to capture tourists with high average daily expenditure. The rural communities can then have a chance to develop nature-based tourism that uses outstanding natural resources. The resources analysis study results revealed that: The rugged topographic, climatic conditions of Goba water catchment area and the distance from settlements have naturally preserved local forest resources from human utilization. The area has well conserved and differentiated natural scenic landscape. These scenic landscapes have recreational values as well as environmental contrast, scientific discovery potential and retention of vanishing biological species. To preserve or improve the management of these landscapes, it is essential to consider recreation use in relation to all other potential values. Few existing landscapes showed a relative ability to absorb impacts produced by facility development with a minimum negative effect on the visual and ecological quality of the landscape. The majority of the landscapes have some potential for primitive and sensitive recreational spectrum. All these results are consistent with results from similar studies on watershed and water catchment ecology. Given the constraints on the environmental settings of the Goba landscapes, it is recommended that the basic and logic framework development should attract tourists interested in the more primitive portion of the recreational spectrum and should have fewer facilities of small-scale building. These facilities should be rustic in character with less service and more emphasis on self-reliance. Improved management of the Goba ecosystem is needed to maintain the ecological functions of the catchment and local culture and rurality. In conclusion, this study suggests that, if on these remote fragile ecosystems local communities can protect and market attractive quality-of-life-amenities, maintain a relatively low cost of living, and offer serviceable links to global telecommunication infrastructures in order to attract tourists and retirees, these communities can survive and may even thrive as local economies. An incentive planning method and sustained extension outreach effort in rural development, which focuses on nourishing local action at the grassroots level, will complement such a policy strategy.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Omvattende verandering van die natuurlike plantegroei in die Goba area van suiderlike Mosambiek is teweeg gebring deur die deurlopende bentting van die omgewing deur die misbruik van die natuurlike hulpbronne vir ekonomiese wins. Die ontwikkeling van alternatiewe inkomstebronne vir plaaslike gemeenskap kan hul afhanklikheid van hout vir die produksie van houtskool, boumateriaal en houtsneewerk verminder. Die gebrek aan infrastruktuur en die groot afstande na markte maak die verkoop van die houtprodukte in stedelike gebiede onprakties en dus nie 'n volhoubare oplossing vir landelike ontwikkeling nie. Oneffektiewe beleidsbeplanning wat die probleem nie holisites benader nie veroorsaak 'n dilemma vir inwoners in afgeleë gebiede. Die uitdaging in Goba is om alternatiewe bronne van inkomste te ontwikkel wat ekonomies, sosiaal en ekologies volhoubaar is. Natuurgebaseerde toerisme is geïdentifiseer as 'n moontlike alternatief wat aan die doel kan beantwoord. Die ontwikkeling van eko-toerisme sal egter net slaag indien die plaaslike bevolking genoegsaam aangemoedig word om die natuurlike hulpbronne op 'n volhoubare basis te benut. Dit kan gedoen word óf deur winste terug te ploeg in die omgewing en so die toerisme basis te vergroot óf deur winsdeling op 'n gebruikersgunstige voordele- en kostebasis te behartig. In baie gevalle het plaaslike gemeenskappe toerisme inisiatiewe in sensitiewe, afgeleë gebiede ontwikkel, sonder deeglike beplanning wat op uitgebreide ekologiese en sosio-ekonomiese inligting berus. Die onbeheerde toeriste aanloop na onbeplande areas lei tot die stelselmatige vernietiging daarvan. Hierdie bestemmings verloor hul estetiese waarde en het tot gevolg dat toeriste ander ongerepte areas gaan soek. Hierdie studie handeloor die beplanning van grondgebruik en volg 'n kombinasie van bestaande raamwerk prosedure. Die primêre doel van hierdie ondersoek is om eenvoudige riglyne vir natuurgebaseede eko-toerisme te ontwikkel wat 'n bydra kan lewer tot die bewaring en bestuur van die natuurlike wonde en wat die sosioekonomiese welvaart van die plaaslike bevolking van Goba sal bevorder. Die studie maak gebruik van basiese inligting vir beplanning, en fokus op die toeristemark sowel as op die ekologiese en sosioekonomiese aspekte van die studie-area. Die twee strategieë wat gevolg is om inligting in te win is marknavorsing en die analise van toeriste-attraksie hulpbronne. Marknavorsing in die suide van Mosambiek toon dat die meerderheid internasionale besoekers aan Mosambiek afkomstig is van lande in Suidelike Afrika (Suid-Afrika alleen 50%), en daarna uit Noord- Amerika, Europa and Australië/Asië. Mosambiek word hoofsaaklik as 'n sonnige strandoord-bestemming vir vakansies en naweke beskou, hoewel die meeste toeriste 'n multi-bestemming reisplan volg wat safaris, ornitologie, reis en besoeke aan besienswaardighede insluit. Daar is geen bewys gevind dat enige toeris Mosambiek besoek het met eko-toerisme as doel nie, maar baie sou belangstelom dit te doen indien ekoen natuurgebaseerde toeriste-betemmings beskikbaar was. Die gemiddelde daaglikse uitgawe per toeris was US$47. Toeriste wat groot afstande moes aflê om hul bestemming te bereik het meer beskikbare fondse en bly langer, beide in die land en by verskillende attraksies. Van die toeriste by wie die opname gemaak is 69% ouer as 50 jaar en die meerderheid (57%) was mans. Die resultate toon dat daar talle faktore is om in ag te neem by die ontwikkeling van 'n landelike area vir natuurgebaseede en eko-toerisme. Daar moet aandag gegee word aan (i) deeglike beplanning van die bestemming gebaseer op die plaaslike ontwikkelingsbeleid; (ii) die ontwikkeling van verkoopbare toeriste produkte en pakkette;en (iii), promosie strategieë om die mark uit te brei om toeriste wat meer spandeer te lok. Die landelike gemeenskappe word sodoende die geleentheid gebied om hul besondere natuurlike hulpbronne te ontwikkel vir natuurgebaseerde toerisme. Die hulpbron-analise toon dat die afgeleë en bergagtige topografie en die klimaatsomstandighede van Goba se wateropvangsgebied as natuurlike beskerming vir inheense woude teen die benutting deur die plaaslike bevolking gedien het. Die area is goed bewaar met skouspelagtige natuurtonele. Die skouspelagtige landskap beskik oor rekreasiewaarde sowel as omgewingskontras, potensiaal vir wetenskaplike ontdekkings en vir bewaring van seldsame fauna en flora. Om hierdie landskap te bewaar of die bestuur daarvan te verbeter, moet gebruik vir rekreasie in verhouding tot die ander potensiële waardes beskou word. Daar is beperkte areas wat die vermoë besit om ontwikkeling te absorbeer en waar die verbouing van fasiliteite slegs 'n minimale negatiewe effek op die visuele en ekologiese kwaliteit sal hê. Die potensiaal bestaan egter vir alle areas om op 'n beperkte skaalontwikkel te word vir die primitiewe en sensitiewe sektor van die rekreasie spektrum. Die resultate van die vavorsing stem ooreen met soortgelyke studies van waterskeiding- en wateropvangsgebied-ekologie en ontwikkeling. Vir die gegewe omgewingsbeperkings van Goba word dit aanbeveel dat ontwikkeling op 'n basiese vlak geskied om daadie proporsie van die toeriste te lok wat in die sogenaamde wildernis-ervaring belangstel. Geboue en beperkte fasiliteite moet slegs op klein skaal opgerig word. Die fasiliteite moet by die omgewing inpas en die klem moet op selfvoorsiening eerder as op dienstelewering val. Die bestuur van die Goba ekosisteem moet egter verbeter om die ekologiese funksie en die plaaslike kultuur en landelikeid te behou. Die bevinding van die studie is dat indien ver-afgeleë en sensitiewe ekosisteme deur die plaaslike bevolking bestuur en beskerm word, dit tot ekonomiese welvaart van die landelike gebiede kan lei. Hierdie areas moet bestuur word sodat die landelike karakter as toeriste aantreklikheid behou word, dat die lewenskoste relatief laag bly en dat verbindings met die buitewêreld op telekommunikasie vlak ingestel word. Beplanning moet op 'n aansporingsbasis gegrond wees met uitreikingsprogramme met landelike ontwikkeling as doel. Aanmoediging van plaaslike aksie op grondvlak behoort so 'n beleidstrategie te versterk.

In the past decade, the counseling profession has begun to recognize the impact of vicarious trauma on counselors who provide services to individuals who have experienced trauma. The constructivist self-development theory asserts that interpersonal frameworks can determine healthy versus unhealthy coping styles and impact a counselor's susceptibility to vicarious trauma. Researchers have explored vicarious trauma in a number of professions such as mental health counseling and social work however they have not examined potential risk factors specific to school counseling. The purpose of this correlational study was to investigate variables associated with vicarious trauma in school counselors. The research focused on the relationship between vicarious trauma and the level of exposure to student trauma, history of trauma in the counselor's personal life, self-other differentiation, level of school, and amount of trauma education. An electronic questionnaire was sent to 654 school counselors in four school districts in Virginia and was returned by 217. The survey included the Vicarious Trauma Scale, Self-Other Differentiation Scale, Adverse Childhood Experiences Inventory-Revised, and demographic survey. Data analysis conducted using multiple regression revealed a significant negative relationship between scores on the Self-Other Differentiation Scale and scores on the Vicarious Trauma Scale indicating counselors with less emotional differentiation from clients are more likely to have higher levels of vicarious trauma. Results of the study may be used to reduce the risk of vicarious trauma in school counselors so they can continue to support students who have been exposed to trauma.

This study aimed to develop, validate, and use a fixed-response test to assess in a quick manner the views of the nature of science (NoS) of groups of secondary school students and to explore the issues involved in developing such tests. The Nature of Science Test (NoST) used episodes from the history of science as contexts for questions. For each aspect of the NoS probed, three options were presented, using a cartoon format: a "desired" position and more positivist and relativist alternatives. The NoST was validated by an international expert panel and trialled with students in England (n=168). Only 50-60% of respondents gave a consistent response to the same question presented in different contexts. To explore this further, parallel forms of the test - with different contexts - were administered several weeks apart to English students (n=169), while a test-retest trial using the same form of the NoST twice was conducted with a smaller sample (n=49). A sample of Mexican students (n=185) also completed one form of the test, to explore culture and language effects. Two focus groups in England and twelve in Mexico (n=6 and 36 students, respectively) probed the reasons behind students' views and checked the interpretation of their written responses. Almost all students had mixed profiles, where desired views of some aspects of the NoS coexisted with alternative ones. Again, only 50-60% of respondents gave a consistent response to the same question across contexts, and test-retest variability was similar. In the focus groups, most students engaged adequately with the central issue raised by each question, justifying their responses coherently. English students selected slightly more "desirable" views than Mexican students, but differences in reasons for choices were negligible. Together, these findings suggest that students may posses an incoherent and unstable understanding of the NoS. A single administration of one form of the NoST does not appear reliable enough for the summative assessment of individuals, but can provide more reliable data at the population level. The quality of focus group discussions suggests that this technique could be used effectively for formative assessment within the classroom.