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Academic literature on the topic 'Nazi-occupied countries'
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Journal articles on the topic "Nazi-occupied countries"
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Bubnys, Arūnas. "Ethnic Relationships in Nazi-occupied Lithuania in 1941–1944." Genocidas ir rezistencija 1, no. 29 (2024): 69–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.61903/gr.2011.104.
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This article is based on documentary materials from various countries and Lithuanian and foreign historiography and analyses ethnic relationships in Nazi-occupied Lithuania in 1941–1944. The author discusses the following three main issues: 1) policies of the Nazi occupiers towards people of different ethnic groups living in Lithuania; 2) reaction of the ethnic groups of the occupied country towards Nazi policies; and 3) mutual relations of different ethnic groups living in Lithuania. The article mostly focuses on ethnic relations in the region of Vilnius.
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Salmonowicz, Stanisław. "The Legal Status of Poles under German Occupation (1939–1945). Some Remarks on the Need for Research." Krakowskie Studia z Historii Państwa i Prawa 9, Special Issue (2017): 95–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.4467/20844131ks.16.036.6974.
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The article describes the legal status of Poles residing within the territories occupied by Nazi Germany or areas incorporated into the Third Reich during the Second World War. The author points to the examples of the limitations placed on Poles in access to goods and services, including transport, healthcare, and cultural institutions. Furthermore, he reminds us of the orders and prohibitions derived from civil, administrative, and labour laws which were imposed on Poles. The author emphasises some significant differences between the Nazi occupation in Poland and in other European countries. As a result, he advocates the conduct of new research on the issue of the real situation of Poles in various occupied regions administered by the authorities of the Third Reich.
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Mouchenik, Yoram, and Véronique Fau-Vincenti. "The fate of Jews hospitalized in mental hospitals in France during World War II." History of Psychiatry 31, no. 2 (2020): 178–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0957154x20904317.
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The fate of Jewish psychiatric patients in occupied Europe during World War II is inseparable from the fate of the disabled and mentally ill, as planned by the Nazi regime. But Jews found themselves at the confluence of eugenics, Christian anti-Judaism and Nazi racist and anti-Semitic madness. They faced the twin promise of death – both as Jews and as mentally ill. They did not escape from the euthanasia programme and, if by a miracle they survived, they disappeared into the extermination camps. The modalities of annihilation of Jewish psychiatric patients are inseparable from the forms of German occupation, which differed from country to country. In this research we focus initially on various countries in occupied Europe, and then on France.
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Kondziella, Daniel, Klaus Hansen, and Lawrence A. Zeidman. "Scandinavian Neuroscience during the Nazi Era." Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences / Journal Canadien des Sciences Neurologiques 40, no. 4 (2013): 493–503. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0317167100014578.
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AbstractAlthough Scandinavian neuroscience has a proud history, its status during the Nazi era has been overlooked. In fact, prominent neuroscientists in German-occupied Denmark and Norway, as well as in neutral Sweden, were directly affected. Mogens Fog, Poul Thygesen (Denmark) and Haakon Sæthre (Norway) were resistance fighters, tortured by the Gestapo: Thygesen was imprisoned in concentration camps and Sæthre executed. Jan Jansen (Norway), another neuroscientist resistor, escaped to Sweden, returning under disguise to continue fighting. Fritz Buchthal (Denmark) was one of almost 8000 Jews escaping deportation by fleeing from Copenhagen to Sweden. In contrast, Carl Værnet (Denmark) became a collaborator, conducting inhuman experiments in Buchenwald concentration camp, and Herman Lundborg (Sweden) and Thorleif Østrem (Norway) advanced racial hygiene in order to maintain the “superior genetic pool of the Nordic race.” Compared to other Nazi-occupied countries, there was a high ratio of resistance fighters to collaborators and victims among the neuroscientists in Scandinavia.
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Bogdashkin, Aleksandr. "The Economic Policy of Hitler’s Germany in the Occupied Countries of Northern Europe as Views of Foreign Historians." ISTORIYA 14, no. 8 (130) (2023): 0. http://dx.doi.org/10.18254/s207987840027801-0.
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This article discusses the evolution of the views of foreign historians on economic goals of Nazi Germany in relation to Norway and Denmark and the methods for their implementation. The problem of economic collaboration — cooperation between the owners and management staff of industrial and banking companies in occupied countries with concerns and economic departments of the Third Reich is a theme that has been increasingly studied by historians in the last decade. The main attention author paid to the analysis of the views of national historians, as well as researchers from the UK, the USA, the FRG and the GDR, whose works contributed to the intensification of the study of this topic in Norwegian and Danish historiographies. The author concludes that not all researchers are interested in an impartial examination of the relationship between the Nazi authorities and the business community.
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BRYDAN, DAVID. "Axis Internationalism: Spanish Health Experts and the Nazi ‘New Europe’, 1939–1945." Contemporary European History 25, no. 2 (2016): 291–311. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0960777316000084.
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AbstractMany of the forms and practices of interwar internationalism were recreated under the auspices of the Nazi ‘New Europe’. This article will examine these forms of ‘Axis internationalism’ by looking at Spanish health experts' involvement with Nazi Germany during the Second World War. Despite the ambiguous relationship between the Franco regime and the Axis powers, a wide range of Spanish health experts formed close ties with colleagues from Nazi Germany and across Axis and occupied Europe. Many of those involved were relatively conservative figures who also worked with liberal international health organisations in the pre- and post-war eras. Despite their political differences, their opposing attitudes towards eugenics and the tensions caused by German hegemony, Spanish experts were able to rationalise their involvement with Nazi Germany as a mutually-beneficial continuation of pre-war international health cooperation amongst countries united by a shared commitment to modern, ‘totalitarian’ forms of public health. Despite the hostility of Nazi Germany and its European collaborators to both liberal and left-wing forms of internationalism, this phenomenon suggests that the ‘New Europe’ deserves to be studied as part of the wider history of internationalism in general and of international health in particular.
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Ristović, Milan. "From “Blood Related” to “Racially inferior”: The Labor Force from Southeastern Europe in the Nazi War Economy (1941–1944/5)." Balkanistic Forum 34, no. 1 (2025): 201–28. https://doi.org/10.37708/bf.swu.v34i1.11.
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In the plans for the future, as well as those for the needs of the wartime economy, National Socialist German strategists placed Southeastern Europe in an important position as a region that was to be one of the key sources of cheap labor. Both the occupied countries and territories, as well as those allied with the Third Reich, were supposed to provide, regardless of their own needs, the necessary labor for the German economy, either through recruitment contracts for workers or through the forced recruitment of laborers, the use of concentration camp prisoners, and war prisoners. The paper highlights the intertwining of what was a pragmatic approach to this issue with the ideological concepts from Nazi racist doctrine, resulting in a specific categorization of workers, their position on the scale of utility, and the assessment of the “danger to the purity of German blood” posed by their mass employment in Germany. Allied states (Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Independent State of Croatia) paid with their labor force for their participation in the construction of the Nazi “New European Order,” while the occupied countries (Serbia, Greece) paid a part of their ”punishment” through this type of contribution by being forced to supply workers.
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Ward, James Mace. "“People Who Deserve It”: Jozef Tiso and the Presidential Exemption." Nationalities Papers 30, no. 4 (2002): 571–601. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00905992.2002.10540508.
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Between March and October of 1942, Slovakia deported the majority of its Jews to extermination camps in German-occupied Poland. Since then, critics and apologists of the nominally independent Nazi satellite state have argued bitterly over who was to blame. Did the Slovaks act voluntarily or under German pressure? If the latter, were they in any position to do otherwise? With equal vigor, the two sides have clashed over whether the Slovaks realized they were participating in genocide, whether they acted to limit or stop the deportations once the truth came out, and whether, compared with other German-occupied or German-allied countries, Slovakia succeeded in saving a relatively high percentage of its Jewry.
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Jockusch, Laura, and Grzegorz Rossoliński-Liebe. "Collaboration, Complexity, and ‘Integrated History’: Jewish and German Historiographical Representations of Non-German Perpetrators during the Holocaust." Polin: Studies in Polish Jewry 37 (January 2025): 332–57. https://doi.org/10.3828/polin.2025.37.332.
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Prompted by recent historiographical debates between Polish and German historians over the roles that citizens of countries occupied by or allied with Nazi Germany played in the Holocaust, this chapter explores how Jewish and German historians have written about the complex division of labour between German and local perpetrators. It shows that while Jewish historians—building on their own experiences of persecution—strongly advocated the study of local perpetrators alongside Nazi perpetrators, German historians have long ignored the subject as they focused on German perpetrators, institutions, and sources. Finally it examines how Saul Friedländer’s concept of ‘integrated history’ and the turn to wartime and post-war Jewish sources prepared the ground for a transnational history of the Holocaust that integrates the roles of non-German perpetrators into the historical narrative.
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Lowe, Martyn. "Alternatives in Poland: I The Clandestine Press in Poland/ II Krakow And Other Ecological Initiatives In Poland." Information for Social Change, no. 3 (March 1, 1996): 14–20. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4615682.
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There were two periods of non-violent resistance in Poland: during the Nazi occupation of World War Two and during the period of Martial Law in the 1980s. There are many myths about World War Two, particularly when it comes to the question of non-violent civilian defence. Yet throughout Europe during the Nazi occupation some circa 9,000 clandestine newspapers were produced. The figures are both impressive and a testament to the efforts that ordinary people will make to resist evil. The statistics are truly amazing when you take into account the number of clandestine newspapers that were produced within individual countries during that period. In Belgium, Norway, Denmark, France, the Netherlands, Czechoslovakia and all Nazi-occupied countries, the clandestine press flourished. Clandestine publishing was a widespread and successful resistance activity. In Warsaw 18 clandestine newspapers were established in 1939; by 1944 this number had risen to 166. Altogether some 1,400 clandestine titles were produced throughout Poland under the occupation. During the Warsaw Uprising, the clandestine press played an important role in spreading news and information to the population. At that time, there were approximately 130 clandestine daily newspapers with print-runs that varied between 1,000 and 28,000 copies. Within the Warsaw Ghetto alone there existed 46 different titles.
Books on the topic "Nazi-occupied countries"
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United States. War Department. War Crimes Branch, Safehaven (Program), and United States. National Archives and Records Administration, eds. SAFEHAVEN reports on Nazi looting of occupied countries and assets in neutral countries. Gale, a part of Cengage Learning, 2011.
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Goldberg, Harold J. Daily Life in Nazi-Occupied Europe. ABC-CLIO, LLC, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9798400636981.
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Daily Life in Nazi-Occupied Europe provides readers with information about political and military affairs, economic life, religious life, intellectual life, and other aspects of daily life in those countries occupied by Nazi Germany during World War II. By the end of 1940, the Nazis controlled most of Europe, and in 1941 they invaded the Soviet Union to complete their mission of domination. The pattern of human resistance to the occupation was equally widespread—in every country, at least a significant minority of the population fought for human dignity. Why did so many risk their lives and refuse to accept defeat? This book goes beyond the impact of the occupation on different European countries, examining that impact on individuals who, regardless of what country they lived in, faced a desperate search for food and the constant threat of death. This volume is intended to help readers to see the variety of struggles that contributed to the defeat of the oppressive occupation imposed by the Nazis. Readers will come away with an appreciation of the fact that there were as many types of daily lives as there were individuals under the occupation and that every person in the war had a unique experience.
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Venema, Derk, Mélanie Bost, Martin Löhnig, et al. Supreme Courts Under Nazi Occupation. Amsterdam University Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.5117/9789463720496.
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This is the first extensive treatment of leading judicial institutions under Nazi rule in WWII. It focusses on all democratic countries under German occupation, and provides the details for answering questions like: how can law serve as an instrument of defence against an oppressive regime? Are the courts always the guardians of democracy and rule of law? What role was there for international law? How did the courts deal with dismissals, new appointees, new courts, forced German ordinances versus national law? How did judges justify their actions, help citizens, appease the enemy, protest against injustice? Experts from all democracies that were occupied by the Nazis paint vivid pictures of oppression, collaboration, and resistance. The results are interpreted in a socio-legal framework introducing the concept of ‘moral hygiene’ to explain the clash between normative and descriptive approaches in public opinion and scholarship concerning officials’ behaviour in war-time.
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Prusin, Alexander. Serbs and Jews. University of Illinois Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.5406/illinois/9780252041068.003.0009.
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Assesses the role of native collaboration and poplar attitudes to the genocide of Jews in Serbia. Similarly to other German-occupied countries, participation in the Holocaust in Serbia was a part of general collaboration, whereby the native civil servants and policemen strove to demonstrate loyalty or ideological affinity to Nazi Germany. To this end, while playing an auxiliary role in the genocide, the Serbian collaborationists displayed considerable initiative and energy in implementing the Nazi racial policies. At the same time, many Serbs risked their lives providing their Jewish co-nationals with “Aryan” documents, hiding them from the police, or leading them to safety.
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Friedländer, Saul. The Holocaust. Edited by Martin Goodman. Oxford University Press, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199280322.013.0017.
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Notwithstanding almost six decades of scholarship and a fast-swelling stream of publications, the historiography of the Holocaust still remains divided in its initial and traditional clusters: the history of the perpetrators, that of the bystanders, and that of the victims. Most of the historical publications about the Holocaust deal with the perpetrators (the Germans and their collaborators) and their anti-Jewish policies and measures in the Reich and throughout occupied Europe. The history of Nazi policies and measures often tends to be considered as equivalent to the history of the Holocaust as such. The second cluster of monographs examines the attitudes and initiatives of the bystanders, of local authorities in occupied countries, of the European populations, the churches, the neutral countries, and the Allies. The third historiographical cluster deals with the life and death of the victims.
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Zeidman, Lawrence A. Brain Science under the Swastika. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198728634.001.0001.
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Eighty years ago the greatest mass murder of human beings of all time occurred in Nazi occupied Europe. This began with the mass extermination of patients with neurologic and psychiatric disorders that rendered them “useless eaters” to Hitler’s regime. The neuropsychiatric profession was systematically “cleansed” beginning in 1933, but racism and eugenics had infiltrated the specialty in the decades before that. With the installation of Nazi-principled neuroscientists, mass forced sterilization was enacted, which slowed down by the start of World War II and the advent of patient murder. But the murder of roughly 275,000 patients by the end of the war was not enough. The patients’ brains and neurologic body parts were stored and used in scientific publications both during and long after the war. Also, patients themselves were used in unethical ways for epilepsy and multiple sclerosis experiments. Relatively few neuroscientists resisted the Nazis, with some success in the occupied countries. Most neuroscientists involved in unethical actions continued their careers unscathed after the war. Few answered for their actions in a professional or criminal sense, and few repented. The legacy of such a depraved era in the history of neuroscience and medical ethics is that codes exist by which patients and research subjects are protected from harm. But this protection is possibly subject to political extremes and only by understanding the horrible past can our profession police itself. Individual neuroscientists can protect patients and colleagues if they are aware of the dangers of a utilitarian, unethical, and uncompassionate mindset.
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Bartrop, Paul R., and Eve E. Grimm. The Holocaust. Bloomsbury Publishing Inc, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9798765110164.
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From genocidal campaigns to careful neutrality to valiant lifesaving efforts, every country’s experience of the Holocaust was different during and immediately following World War II. This book profiles 50 nations and territories from around the globe, examining how prewar conditions and attitudes toward Jews influenced the trajectory of that place’s wartime experience and its role in the Holocaust. It also explores the aftermath and lasting impact of the Holocaust in these places. Each profile begins with a collection of at-a-glance facts about population, government leaders, wartime status, and more. All profiles begin with a brief introduction, followed by information about the Jewish population in that place, the prewar environment, wartime experiences, and the aftermath of the Holocaust. This standardized format makes it easy for readers to find specific information while also helping them place events within the proper historical context. A curated selection of further readings at the end of each profile and an end-of-volume list of books and Internet resources point readers toward materials for additional study. While often conceptualized as a single event that happened the same way across all Axis or Axis-occupied countries, the Holocaust and reactions to it varied widely from country to country. In many cases, political and economic conditions in the prewar years, as well as the degree of anti-Semitism in a nation, influenced that country’s experience of the Holocaust. Even after the war, countries experienced the aftermath of the Holocaust in different ways. Some places, such as Palestine, became a beacon for Jewish refugees, while others, such as Brazil, became a hideout for Nazi war criminals.
Book chapters on the topic "Nazi-occupied countries"
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Bazyler, Michael J., Kathryn Lee Boyd, Kristen L. Nelson, and Rajika L. Shah. "Albania." In Searching for Justice After the Holocaust. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190923068.003.0001.
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Albania was occupied by Fascist Italy and then Nazi Germany during World War II. Albania’s occupation experience was unique among all Axis-occupied countries. Despite Nazi Germany’s attempt to carry out the genocide of the Jews (the so-called Final Solution), Albanians resisted. Albania was the only Nazi-occupied country where the Jewish population increased after the war. Post-Communist Albania has not enacted any laws for restitution of Holocaust-era confiscated immovable property. Post-Communist restitution laws dealing with return or compensation for property nationalized during the Communist period apply equally to all citizens. Albania endorsed the Terezin Declaration in 2009 and the Guidelines and Best Practices in 2010.
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Morgan, Philip. "Introduction: Remembering the Second World War in Italy." In The Fall of Mussolini. Oxford University PressNew York, NY, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192802477.003.0001.
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Abstract Most continental European countries, with the exception of the neutrals Sweden and Switzerland, have lived through one or all of the experiences of fascist dictatorship, and war, defeat, and foreign occupation. Even though West European countries had not become fascist before the outbreak of war, they suVered military defeat and Nazi German occupation. Some people collaborated with the occupier, some resisted, and the reasons for collaboration and resistance varied greatly. In other Nazi-occupied countries, as in Italy, during and after liberation, the resisters and the people took sometimes bloody revenge on those who collaborated with the Nazis.
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Tomaszewski, Jerzy. "Upside-Down History." In Polin: Studies in Polish Jewry Volume 14. Liverpool University Press, 2001. http://dx.doi.org/10.3828/liverpool/9781874774693.003.0028.
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This chapter reviews an article by David Cymet, entitled ‘Polish State Antisemitism as a Major Factor Leading to the Holocaust’. The article was published in Britain in the Journal of Genocide Research. The chapter considers a number of peculiarities and mistakes present in the article. It questions the sources drawn by the article to expound its thesis. Moreover, the chapter analyses the article's thesis that the views and deeds of Polish antisemites influenced the Nazi policy of genocide in Germany, occupied Poland, and other countries. It argues that the German authorities in occupied Poland were not under the influence of Poles. Indeed, while there were rare cases of individual Polish politicians offering to co-operate with Germany against the Soviet Union, these proposals met with no response.
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Cornelius, Deborah S., and Jonathan A. Grant. "Eastern Europe in World War II." In The Oxford Handbook of World War II. Oxford University Press, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199341795.013.19.
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Abstract As Europe headed for war it became almost inevitable that the Eastern European countries of Poland, Romania, and Hungary would be drawn into the conflict. Germany had plans to harness the region economically and make it subservient to the Reich. Given that each of the Eastern European countries viewed the spread of communism from the Soviet Union as the most immediate threat, the central question became whether they would enter the German orbit as occupied countries, client states, or allies. Poland would first bear the brunt of Nazi and Soviet attack and occupation, whereas Romania and Hungary would gradually move into the German sphere of influence. This chapter addresses the respective roles of Poland, Romania, and Hungary in the war and their contributions to the war effort.
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Piffer, Tommaso. "Resistance and Diplomacy in Occupied Europe." In The Big Three Allies and the European Resistance. Oxford University PressOxford, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198826347.003.0002.
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Abstract After the Soviet pact with Hitler in August 1939, the international communist movement had to adapt to the new course of Soviet foreign policy, scrapping common fronts with the other antifascist forces and focusing the firepower of its propaganda against the Western democracies. When the war finally broke out in September, the European communist parties did nothing to oppose the German invasion of their countries. In the meantime, it was the British who tried to light the fire of rebellion against the Germans in occupied Europe. In a desperate military position, Britain was in search of allies against Nazi Germany, and hoped that aggressive resistance movements would weaken German military capabilities on the continent. In 1940, after the fall of France, they created a new secret organization to stimulate subversion and guerrilla groups on the continent: the Special Operations Executive (SOE).
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Piffer, Tommaso. "The Special Operations Executive at War." In The Big Three Allies and the European Resistance. Oxford University PressOxford, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198826347.003.0003.
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Abstract Over the first months of its existence Special Operations Executive had to reckon with the lack of serious opposition against Nazi Germany in occupied Europe. In enemy nations, a vast majority of the population firmly supported their own governments, and in any case the opposition movements were not ready to betray their countries to the enemy. In occupied Europe most people were stunned by defeat. The exception was Poland, where the German occupation left no space for collaboration and the organization of a strong resistance movement was under way. But the British quickly realized that supporting the resistance posed almost unsurmountable logistical obstacles, and soon gave up the idea of gaining any quick results there. It was only when the war spread to the Balkans in the spring of 1941 and Hitler invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June that the seeds of strong anti-German movements were planted.
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Bazyler, Michael J., Kathryn Lee Boyd, Kristen L. Nelson, and Rajika L. Shah. "France." In Searching for Justice After the Holocaust. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190923068.003.0017.
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Germany invaded France in 1940. A month later the countries entered into an agreement, by which 80 percent of France was occupied by Nazi Germany. Competing property expropriation laws were enacted in both Occupied and Unoccupied (Vichy) France. More than 20 percent of France’s Jewish population was killed during World War II. Restitution and reparations measures—particularly with respect to private and heirless property—took place in two phases. The first occurred in the immediate postwar years and ended around 1954, and the second commenced in the late 1990s and early 2000s and is ongoing. In the late 1990s, a government commission (Matteoli Commission) was established to examine the conditions under which property was confiscated by the occupying or Vichy regimes. A compensation commission (Drai Commission) was subsequently established to provide payment to those not previously compensated for damages resulting from legislation passed either by the occupying or Vichy regimes. France endorsed the Terezin Declaration in 2009 and the Guidelines and Best Practices in 2010.
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Troy, Michele K. "English Books Abroad." In Strange Bird. Yale University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.12987/yale/9780300215687.003.0019.
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This chapter examines Albatross Press's sale of English books in Germany and neutral countries during World War II. Having lost Albatross strongholds in Germany and then France, John Holroyd-Reece reassessed the firm's prospects from his office in London. On July 2, 1940, he wrote to a British literary agency, spreading word that though Albatross had lost access to the bulk of its books, it had not entirely succumbed to the German invasion of France. However, the war made it impossible for Holroyd-Reece to monitor production and sales in Occupied territories. Ironically, losing his toehold on the continent aligned Holroyd-Reece more strongly with other British publishers. This chapter shows that German readers craved for books published by Albatross despite the Nazi regime's attempts to clamp down on Albatross.
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Bazyler, Michael J., Kathryn Lee Boyd, Kristen L. Nelson, and Rajika L. Shah. "United Kingdom." In Searching for Justice After the Holocaust. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190923068.003.0045.
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In September 1939, the United Kingdom declared war against Germany. During the war, London was home to a number of governments in exile. Jewish property in the United Kingdom was not looted or seized, and British Jews, with the exception of those in the German-occupied Channel Islands, were not persecuted. In the decade after the war, the United Kingdom offered an ex gratia scheme to compensate victims of Nazi persecution whose assets had been frozen during the war because they were from countries who had been invaded by the Axis powers. The treatment of possible unreturned assets was revisited in the 1990s. In 1999, a new compensation program was established. The United Kingdom endorsed the Terezin Declaration in 2009 and the Guidelines and Best Practices in 2010.
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Boes, Tobias. "A Blooming Flower." In Thomas Mann's War. Cornell University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501744990.003.0009.
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This chapter highlights the extent to which media featured as weapons in Thomas Mann's struggle against Nazism. Mann benefited from government–industry collaborations, for example, by acquiring access to American studios to record propaganda broadcasts that were then carried into Nazi-occupied Europe. His main intermediary on the continent, however, was his old German publisher Gottfried Bermann Fischer, who fought a battle of his own to keep Mann's books available in those countries that had not yet been conquered by the Nazis. Both forms of transmission—the transmission of Mann's voice via radio waves and the transmission of his books via increasingly convoluted distribution networks—were beset by all sorts of difficulties during wartime. But both were essential in keeping the author's influence alive in a time when he was unable to personally connect to his readership.