Academic literature on the topic 'Neo-classical realism'
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Journal articles on the topic "Neo-classical realism"
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Lomia, Ekaterine. "Political Realism in International Relations: Classical Realism, Neo-realism, and Neo-Classical Realism." International Journal of Social, Political and Economic Research 7, no. 3 (September 3, 2020): 591–600. http://dx.doi.org/10.46291/ijospervol7iss3pp591-600.
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Realism, also known as political realism, is one of the most dominant theories of international relations. The school of thought in realism was established in the post-World War II era; however, it is widely associated with the ancient Greek studies, particularly, in the works of Thucydides who allows a more sophisticated analysis of the conception of power and its place in the anarchic international system. Unlike idealism and liberalism, which underline the idea of cooperation in international relations, realism stresses a competitive and confrontational side of human nature and argues that in global politics there is no space for morality. Thus, states show constant readiness to obtain power and achieve their political ends. The article aims at studying the basic approach, the theory of realism is based on. The study has been prepared as a result of examining articles and books written by dominant realist scholars who have influential opinions in the field.
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Firoozabadi, Jalal Dehghani, and Mojtaba Zare Ashkezari. "Neo-classical Realism in International Relations." Asian Social Science 12, no. 6 (May 20, 2016): 95. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ass.v12n6p95.
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<p>Neo-classical realism is result of foreign policy studies through studying both structure of international system and domestic factors and their complex interactions with each other. The main goal of neoclassical realism is to find out how distribution of power in international system, motivations and subjective structures of states toward international system shape their foreign policy. Neo-classical realists reject the idea of neo-realism in which it is argued that systemic pressures will immediately affect behaviours of units. They believe that the extend of systemic effects on states behaviour depends on relative power and also internal factors of states in anarchical system. This article is to study how neo-classical realism applies assumptions such as anarchy, effects of structure-agent, role of power in creating behaviours, national interests, survival and security in order to analyse international politics.</p>
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HEILKE, THOMAS. "Realism, Narrative, and Happenstance: Thucydides' Tale of Brasidas." American Political Science Review 98, no. 1 (February 2004): 121–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0003055404001042.
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Neorealism and some versions of realism seek to furnish nomothetic theories of the international system at the same time that they also strive to prescribe policy for political leaders. Insofar as practical advice is insufficiently articulated by means of either nomothesis or the structural theoretical framework that (neo-)realist paradigms supply, these two aspirations seem contradictory. This essay is an examination of what contemporary realism and, especially, neorealism require to make practical wisdom available for practitioners. It argues that narrative, which is exemplified in the so-called classical realism of Thucydides, remains a crucial component of practical realism and neorealism.
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Kegley, Charles W. "Neo-Idealism: A Practical Matter." Ethics & International Affairs 2 (March 1988): 173–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7093.1988.tb00534.x.
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The classical realist world view places moral standards subservient to the power concerns of international actors. Realists did not make this valuation without some hesitation, as the issue of morality was addressed with seriousness and concern. The neo-realist thinking of today embraces with less hesitation the ultimate conclusion of the realist premises: statesmen never act according to moral precepts, thus such concerns need not be addressed by a political theory. Kegly argues the neo-idealist position that opposes this empirical observation: states consistently act according to values that are based on more than power concerns. Kegley's primary intent is to show that neo-realism ignores factors that influence international actors, and that a theory is needed that expands the notion of self-interest to include the moral sphere.
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Gruzdev, Vladimir Sergeevich. "On the nature of American classical legal realism." Право и политика, no. 9 (September 2020): 15–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.7256/2454-0706.2020.9.33566.
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The subject of this research is one of the trends in the American legal thought – legal realism in the context of clarification of its specificity, key theoretical-methodological perspectives formed in the classical period, represented by the founders of this direction O. W. Holmes, R. Pound and K. Llewellyn. Studying the heritage of the classical American realists is important for the purpose of elucidation of their views, since many aspects remain unclear or simplified, and interpreted in form of patterns and schemes; as well as due to the fact that in the modern American legal science and well beyond it, more popularity multiple variations of “clarification” of realism in form of “neo-“ versions, and realism itself is declared the symbol of modern age. Main attention is given to the question of overcoming simplifications with regards to legal views of the classical American realists. The scientific novelty of this work consists in elucidation of the perceptions of the nature and specificity of legal views of the representatives of classical American legal realism. This is primarily associated with the fact that orientation towards demythologization of conceptualism in the works of legal realists of the period of establishment of this trend is erroneously identified with the rejection of moral arguments in substantiation of law, which to a large extent was justified by the desire of some researchers to substantiate the meaning of radical pragmatism as a philosophical foundation of the modernized legal theory. Secondly, unjustified broadening of the concept of legal realism and its identification with naturalization of conceptual apparatus of law is one of the factors that led to multiple simplifications and distortions of the methodological importance of the fundamental principles of legal realism.
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Griffiths, Martin. "Order and international society: the real realism?" Review of International Studies 18, no. 3 (July 1992): 217–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0260210500117243.
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The school of thought known as Realism (with a large R) has been a central focus of debate in international theory. Nevertheless, its content and epistemological status (and therefore the criteria for its evaluation) remain elusive. In part this is due to the variety of contexts and debates within which Realism has been discussed in the field. In the 1930s and 1940s the debate was framed around a Realist-Idealist axis. In the 1970s Realism was contested by liberal analyses of the causes and consequences of an allegedly growing global interdependence. In the 1980s there emerged a three-cornered debate between competing Kuhnian ‘paradigms’, among which Realism dominated. Given that the meaning of Realism has been partly constructed by historically variable theoretical and political issues, its identity has also varied over time. If, however, one chooses to think about Realism outside of these various contexts within which it has been both defined and evaluated, it remains unclear how such diverse thinkers as Thucydides, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Carr, Morgenthau and Kenneth Waltz can coherently be considered as part of a single tradition of thought. Sensitivity to their differences may be a virtue for the historian of ideas, but it runs the risk of undermining the point of the exercise! Despite these problems, which are only partially corrected by distinguishing between types of Realism (notably classical and ‘neo’ or ‘structural’ varieties), most scholars would agree with Alan James that Realism is a school whose members harbour shared assumptions about the primacy of states as international actors, the separation of domestic and international politics, and who describe the latter in terms of anarchy and a concomitant ubiquitous struggle for power and security.
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Ratti, Luca. "Post-cold war Nato and international relations theory: The case for neo-classical realism." Journal of Transatlantic Studies 4, no. 1 (March 2006): 81–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14794010608656841.
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Fauzi, Nabil Ahmad. "Politik Luar Negeri Indonesia dan Malaysia Terhadap China di Era Perang Dingin." Insignia Journal of International Relations 1, no. 01 (October 16, 2014): 11. http://dx.doi.org/10.20884/1.ins.2014.1.01.426.
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Since the proclamation on the 1st October 1949, the People's Republic of China has gained an important role in international relations after World War II. The success of communism conquered China, has changed the dynamics of competition between the United States and the Soviet Union that lead the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc. The situation has forced the newly independent states in this era, like Indonesia and Malaysia, to determine their position. In addition to facing the same international politics pressures, the two countries also have relations in the domestic issues related to China, namely the existence of the local Communist Party and ethnic of "Chinese overseas". The external and domestic factors that ultimately affect the choice of the countries' foreign policy towards China. This article attempts to identify and explore the factors that influence the similarities and differences in Indonesia and Malaysia foreign policy towards China using the approach threat perception, leader perception and domestic legitimacy within the framework of neo-classical realism. This article is expected to provide scientific contributions to understanding the comparison of Indonesia and Malaysia foreign policy towards China.
Keywords: Indonesia and Malaysia foreign policy, the existence of China, Cold War era, threatperception, leader perception, domestic legitimacy, neo-classical realism
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Nekhaev, Andrei. "GEORGE EDWARD MOORE IN THE HISTORY OF ARISTOTELIAN SOCIETY OF XX CENTURY." Respublica literaria, no. 1 (December 25, 2020): 78–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.47850/s.2020.1.22.
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George Edward Moore is the brightest philosopher of British neo-realism. During the first half of XX century he remained the undisputed leader of this philosophical movement, which organically and fruitfully combinedele-ments of classical British empiricism with new original tools for the conceptual analysis of ordinary language expressions. By the example of innovative ideas in moral philosophy, outlined by G.E. Moore in Principia Ethica, there is analyzed the intellectual context of the formation of philosophical metaethics in the XX century.
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Ankarloo, Daniel. "New Institutional Economics and economic history." Capital & Class 26, no. 3 (October 2002): 9–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/030981680207800102.
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New Institutional Economics (NIE) has been celebrated as a path-breaking approach to the understanding of capitalism. This article advances a conceptual critique of NIE approaches to economic history. The author suggests that NIE cannot solve the underlying tension, that its economics remains ahistorical, and that when history, social relations and realism are invoked, the economics disappears, being replaced by various cultural and state-centred explanations. Therefore NIE is not so much a research programme in progress, but rather an indication of the degeneration of the tools of neo-classical economics.
Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Neo-classical realism"
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Deksnys, Domininkas. "The Disguised Variable - The Influence of Russian Elite Clans on Russian Foreign Policy." Thesis, Malmö universitet, Fakulteten för kultur och samhälle (KS), 2020. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:mau:diva-21399.
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This paper analyzes the influence of Russian elite clans on Russian foreign policy-making. The goal of this paper is to discover the missing link that connects the changes in the International System to the formation of Russian foreign policy, more specifically the Russo-Georgian War, the occupation of Crimea, and the intervention in Syria. Therefore, the theory of neo-classical realism is applied to a systematic process analysis in order to trace the chain of causal relations in which the struggle of elite clans influences foreign policy-making. The combination of neo-realism and state capacity analysis complements the approach of neo-classical realism. This paper argues that the beliefs of the elite clans play an important role in shaping Russia’s foreign policy. The elite clans struggle to establish themselves and consolidate their power within the Russian government structures, which affected the shift from pragmatism and a multipolar approach to a transimperialist approach in Russian foreign policy.
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Salimzade, Samir. "Internal and External Factors Shaping Russia’s Foreign Policy towards the Baltic States." Thesis, Malmö universitet, Fakulteten för kultur och samhälle (KS), 2018. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:mau:diva-23120.
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This thesis discusses one of the most serious security challenges faced by the Baltic states since regaining their independence. This security challenge is a product of Russia’s assertive foreign policy towards its western neighbours, which has intensified after the annexation of Crimea in 2014. In order to understand the rationale behind the Kremlin’s policy in the region, the thesis aims to analyse how internal and external factors shape the foreign policy of Russia towards the Baltic states. By taking neo-classical realism as its theoretical framework, the thesis uses mixed research methods for collecting data and applies qualitative content analysis to analyse the three main factors that shape Russia’s Baltic policy. The thesis identifies that NATO’s actions in the anarchic international system raise security threats towards Russia. This shapes Putin’s threat perceptions and compels him to react with counteractions, and since the foreign policy in Russia is concentrated mainly in the hands of the president, his perceptions are decisive. Nevertheless, Putin is dependent on Russians’ support and exploits nationalist feelings of the Russian population to pursue his foreign policy. The thesis concludes that the combination of these three factors makes Russia’s foreign policy towards the Baltic states more aggressive.
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Liu, Chen-Teng, and 劉鎮燈. "Study of the Impact of Strategic Competition and Cooperation between U.S. and China on Taiwan’s National Security Strategy: A Perspective of Neo-Classical Realism." Thesis, 2016. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/8p875y.
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博士國立中興大學
國際政治研究所
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Abstract This dissertation is a study on the influences of strategic competition and cooperation between the US and China on Taiwan’s national security strategy that seeks to understand the policy implications of US-China strategic interactions on Taiwan. The triangular relationship between the US, China and Taiwan currently stands at the heart of regional security in the Asia Pacific. Changes to any set of relations in the triangle – US-China, US-Taiwan or China-Taiwan – is directly linked with adjustments and transformations in regional relations. Although the strategic triangle model is useful in explaining changes in the relationship between actors, its negligence of domestic level variables leaves open questions regarding the driving force of change. Accordingly, adopting neo-classical realism and approaching the key problem from the systemic and domestic levels, this study attempts to understand the implications of US-China strategic competition on Taiwan by placing its focus on how external pressures influence domestic variables such as the political process, leadership style and public opinion. This study concludes that in the foreseeable future, the US and China will continue to maintain a situation of competition and cooperation. In particular, under foreign policy traditions of “benevolent governance” and “domestic problems first,” China seeks to dispel doubts and suspicions on its peaceful rise. Such development provides an opportunity for Taiwan to cooperate with China on national security and international trade. Based on the insights of neo-classical realism, if Taiwan can exploit its advantages and bargaining power effectively, the island nation stands the chance of realizing its interests amidst great power politics.
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Allenet-Moulin, Tiffany. "Sécurité et stabilité : quelles sont les conditions qui ont poussé l’Égypte, la Syrie et Israël à entrer en guerre en 1967?" Thèse, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/1866/10245.
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Ce mémoire s’intéresse aux conditions qui ont mené à la guerre de six jours de 1967 au Moyen-Orient. Tout particulièrement, mon mémoire investiguera les dynamiques domestiques qui influent sur la prise de décision politique. L’hypothèse principale suppose que le mode de gestion de la société, choisi par le gouvernement au pouvoir, influe et contraint les options de politique étrangère disponibles à celui-ci. . Un régime peut recourir à deux modes de gestion de la société : l’exclusion et l’inclusion, à plusieurs degrés. En fonction du mode de gestion choisi, le gouvernement aura besoin de plus ou moins de ressources pour le mettre en place et pour le préserver. La quantité et la nature des ressources utilisées au niveau domestique contraindront les options de politique étrangère disponibles au régime
Les guerres du Moyen-Orient, et la politique étrangère des pays de la région sont souvent interprétées selon des principes réalistes : la recherche du pouvoir et de sécurité guide la politique étrangère. Ce mémoire cherche à souligner l’importance de dynamiques domestiques sur le processus de prise de décision politique, mais également l’influence qu’a le conflit israélo-arabe sur la structure, le fonctionnement et la société des pays concernés.This thesis looks at the conditions that led to the outbreak of the 1967 Six Day War in the Middle East. Specifically, my thesis investigates the domestic dynamics that influence the political decision-making process. The main hypothesis suggests that the type of societal management chosen by the government in power will influence and determine the foreign policy options available. A regime may choose between two types of societal management: exclusion and inclusion, which can be applied to greater or lesser degrees. Depending on the type of societal management chosen, the government will need more or less resources to implement and maintain it. The quantity and nature of resources used domestically will determine the foreign policy options available to the regime. In the Middle East, wars and foreign policy are often interpreted according to realist principles: the quest for power and safety are said to be the main determinants of foreign policy. This thesis seeks to highlight the importance of domestic dynamics in the process of political decision-making, but also the influence of the Arab-Israeli conflict on the structure, development and society in the countries involved.
Books on the topic "Neo-classical realism"
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Shihadeh, Ayman. Theories of Ethical Value in. Edited by Sabine Schmidtke. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.013.007.
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This article offers a new interpretation of the debate on the nature of ethical value in the developed kalām tradition. After situating the problem in the broad context of theodicy, it proposes to revise the reading, conventional since George Hourani’s studies published in the early seventies, of the ethical realism propounded in Baṣran and Baghdādī Muʿtazilism and of the rival views of classical Ashʿarism. It argues that the latter school did not subscribe to a simple divine command theory of ethics, but in fact grounded this theory in a fairly developed anti-realism, which became the basis for the more sophisticated consequentialist ethics advanced in neo-Ashʿarite sources.
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Albert, Craig Douglas. Teaching International Relations Theory. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.013.312.
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International relations (IR) theory is favorably described in almost every syllabus since 1930. The most important questions asked were: “What is theory?” and “Is there a reason for IR theory?” The most widely used texts all focus on the first question and suggest, among others, that IR theory is “a way of making the world or some part of it more intelligible or better understood.” We can gauge where the teaching of IR theory is today by analyzing a sample of syllabi from IR scholars serving on the Advisory Board of the International Studies Association’s (ISA) Compendium Project. These syllabi reveal some trends. Within the eight undergraduate syllabi, for example, a general introduction to IR theory is taught in four separate classes. Among the theories discussed in different classes are realism, classical realism, neo-realism, Marxism and neo-Marxism, world-systems theory, imperialism, constructivism, and international political economy. Novel methods for teaching IR theory include the use of films, active learning, and experiential learning. The diversity of treatments of IR theory implied by the ISA syllabi provides evidence that, with the exception of the proliferation of perspectives, relatively little has changed since the debates of the late 1930s. The discipline lacks much semblance of unity regarding whether, and how, to offer IR theory to students. Nevertheless, there have been improvements that are likely to continue in terms of the ways in which theories may be presented.
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Miklitsch, Robert. The Glass Web. University of Illinois Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.5406/illinois/9780252040689.003.0010.
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Since 3-D was originally developed, like CinemaScope, in response to the catastrophic decline of the movie audience, studios were eager to exploit three-dimension and apply it to genres such as the “meller” or “thriller.” Set in the “exotic” world of live TV, featuring a three-dimensional femme fatale, and revolving around the production of a true-crime television show called “Crime of the Week,” The GlassWeb appeared in 1953, the annus mirabilis of 3-D movies. However, despite certain spectacular 3-D passages, the visual style of The Glass Web tends toward the “zero degree,” reflecting the dominant postwar trend toward television and neo-realism. In just this sense, The Glass Web represents an uncommon mixture of classical Hollywood cinema and TV, a witch’s brew of the “silver” and “small screen,” classic expressionist noir and Dragnet, that reads, in retrospect, as both “retro” and prescient.
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Nadkarni, Vidya, and J. Michael Williams. International Relations and Comparative Politics. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.013.408.
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Both the political science fields of International Relations (IR) and Comparative Politics (CP) developed around a scholarly concern with the nature of the state. IR focused on the nature, sources, and dynamics of inter-state interaction, while CP delved into the structure, functioning, and development of the state itself. The natural synergies between these two lines of scholarly inquiry found expression in the works of classical and neo-classical realists, liberals, and Marxists, all of whom, to varying degrees and in varied ways, recognized that the line dividing domestic and international politics was not hermetically sealed. As processes of economic globalization, on the one hand, and the globalization of the state system, on the other, have expanded the realm of political and economic interaction, the need for greater cross-fertilization between IR and CP has become even more evident. The global expansion of the interstate system has incorporated non-European societies into world politics and increased the salience of cultural and religious variables. These dynamics suggest that a study of cultures, religions, and histories, which shape the world views of states and peoples, is therefore necessary before assessments can be made about how individual states may respond to varied global pressures in their domestic and foreign policy choices.
Book chapters on the topic "Neo-classical realism"
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Sperling, James. "Neo-classical realism and alliance politics." In Theorising NATO, 61–92. Routledge, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315658001-4.
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Jackson, Robert, Georg Sørensen, and Jørgen Møller. "6. International Political Economy: Classical Theories." In Introduction to International Relations, 177–96. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/hepl/9780198803577.003.0006.
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This chapter examines the three most important classical theories within the field of International Political Economy (IPE): mercantilism, economic liberalism, and neo-Marxism. It considers the relationship between politics and economics, and between states and markets in world affairs, that IR has to be able to grasp. It suggests that IPE is about wealth, poverty, and power, about who gets what in the international economic and political system. The outlook of mercantilism has much in common with realism, while economic liberalism is an addition to liberalism. Mercantilism and economic liberalism thus represent views on IPE that are basically realist and liberal. The chapter concludes with a discussion about the original theoretical position of Marxism.
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Jackson, Robert, and Georg Sørensen. "6. International Political Economy: Classical Theories." In Introduction to International Relations. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/hepl/9780198707554.003.0006.
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This chapter examines the three most important classical theories within the field of International Political Economy (IPE): mercantilism, economic liberalism, and neo-Marxism. It also considers the relationship between politics and economics, and between states and markets in world affairs, that IR has to be able to grasp. It suggests that IPE is about wealth and poverty, about who gets what in the international economic and political system. The outlook of mercantilism has much in common with realism, while economic liberalism is an addition to liberalism. Mercantilism and economic liberalism thus represent views on IPE that are basically realist and liberal. The chapter concludes with discusses the original theoretical position of Marxism.
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Moore, Gregory J. "Locating Reinhold Niebuhr in Contemporary IR Theory." In Niebuhrian International Relations, 177–97. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197500446.003.0010.
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There is much more to Reinhold Niebuhr’s thought, and his impact on international relations ([IR] and IR theory) has been deeper and more profound than has been commonly acknowledged. Indeed, Niebuhr has been a seminal figure in the Realist movement, but his impact goes beyond Realism. This chapter documents his contributions in the context of the revival/recovery of classical Realism, along with a recognition of the importance of nonmaterial factors (with contemporary interpretivists and constructivists), regime type (as with neo-liberal institutionalists or democratic peace), and human nature (Rosen), among other things. There are deep strains of existentialism in Niebuhr’s work as well, which is usually associated with postmodernism/poststructuralism, as Niebuhr draws in important ways from Kierkegaard, Dostoyevsky and Nietzsche. This chapter reconsiders Niebuhr’s theoretical innovations and in the process more adequately and systematically locates his work in IR theory, considering both his influences and the influences he has had therein and thereupon.
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David, Wilfred L. "The New Orthodoxy: Classical and Neo-Classical Resurgence." In The Conversation of Economic Development: Historical Voices, Interpretations, and Reality, 197–214. Routledge, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315503332-11.
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David, Wilfred L. "Neo-Classical Monoeconomics: Market Fundamentalism and Decentralized Development." In The Conversation of Economic Development: Historical Voices, Interpretations, and Reality, 44–60. Routledge, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315503332-3.
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"A View from Europe." In British Sociology Seen from Without and Within, edited by Colin Crouch. British Academy, 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.5871/bacad/9780197263426.003.0010.
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The history of sociology can be likened to the history of the Habsburg Empire, which claimed to have legitimate sovereignty over the whole of Europe but eventually became a discontented jumble of margins. In the same way, Talcott Parsons tried to claim that sociology was the empress of the social sciences; economics, political science, and the others being allocated their places within its realm. But sociology could not match the tougher, tighter theoretical structures of political science, economics, psychology, and even possibly anthropology. It became an internally divided subject, cultivating the margins. There is a field called neo-institutionalism in which an increasing amount of good research is being done and which is challenging some of the orthodoxies of the neo-classical economics and neo-liberal political science which have come to dominate the intellectual world since the decline of Keynesianism in the 1970s.
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Lipman, Jonathan. "A Proper Place for God: Ma Zhu’s Chinese-Islamic Cosmogenesis." In Islamic Thought in China. Edinburgh University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9781474402279.003.0001.
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This chapter focuses on Ma Zhu (1640-after 1710), a Yunnanese literatus educated in the Neo-Confucian and Islamic curricula, author of the classical Chinese text Qingzhen zhinan (the compass or guide to Islam). His intended audience included both non-Muslim elites and Muslims literate only in that language. As he justified his ancestral religion, he had to solve an intractable problem—how could he narrate creation of the cosmos ex nihilo, a necessary part of the description of the Islamic God (Ar. Allāh), in a cultural context that lacked a cosmic creator? He solved this by placing God at the beginning of the conventional Neo-Confucian progression of the cosmos’s uncaused, impersonal evolution—from the chaos of Beyond Ultimate (wuji), via the Great Ultimate (taiji), yin and yang, the Five Phases, Heaven and Earth (qiankun) to phenomenal reality. Though unsuccessful in persuading non-Muslims of God’s cosmogenetic power, Ma Zhu’s book remains popular among Sino-Muslims, who combine Chinese and Islamic cultures in their intellectual and religious lives.
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Roland, Alex. "2. Land warfare." In War and Technology: A Very Short Introduction, 7–41. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780190605384.003.0002.
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Land warfare, the oldest and most complex form, has the longest history. ‘Land warfare’ subdivides this physical realm into traditional periodization and further delineates it by two “combined arms paradigms” and two “military revolutions”—the introduction of the chariot and of gunpowder. It begins with wooden spears used in prehistoric warfare, then moves into ancient warfare during the Neolithic revolution. The vast majority of prehistoric weapons were dual-use technologies that served both military and civilian purposes. Siege warfare of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the technologies of classical warfare during Greek and Roman times, the heavily armed and armored mounted knight of medieval warfare, and the gunpowder revolution are also described.
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Schliephake, Konrad Heinz. "Transport Costs in a Shrinking World." In Sustainable Logistics and Strategic Transportation Planning, 391–404. IGI Global, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-0001-8.ch018.
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Logistics is about reducing costs in freight transport and removing virtual (rather than physical) obstacles in the event. Reports dwell on the quest for efficiency and show ways to remove bottlenecks and costs. The reduction of these costs was instrumental to an ever increasing exchange notably of finished goods between the countries of the World. The cost elements of transportation de-pend on the nature of the goods to be transported as well as the topography, the distance to overcome and the modal choice. But day-to-day reality seems to paint a totally different picture to the economic analyst. Does it still make sense to apply or even study the theories of the classical and neo-classical transportation geography which allocate the spheres of production and of consumption according to costs in space. This paper dwells on two diverging opinions. The combination of two sets of models, one coming out of the classic methodologies and one from modern marketing concepts, leads to an explanative approach which reconciles both model builders and empirical analysts.