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1
Telford, Denise. "The Mesolithic Inheritance: Contrasting Neolithic Monumentality in Eastern and Western Scotland." Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 68 (2002): 289–315. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0079497x00001547.
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Generalised socio-economic models have in the past been applied wholesale to Neolithic monuments throughout Scotland without taking the country's diverse physical landscape and cultural histories into account. This paper explores whether regional variations in Neolithic monumentality can be paralleled with earlier Mesolithic disparities, and considers to what extent, with the introduction of agriculture, contemporary social systems and thus the ideology underlying monumental construction was affected by geographical factors.It is suggested that:• Contrasts during the Mesolithic between the Western seaboard and the Eastern lowlands/South-east Scotland continue throughout the Neolithic.• The different functions of monuments during the Early Neolithic are generally dictated by divergent topography in Eastern and Western Scotland.• By the later Neolithic social hierarchies emerged in regions suited to agricultural development.
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Sims, Lionel, and David Fisher. "Through the Gloomy Vale: Underworld Alignments at Stonehenge." Culture and Cosmos 21, no. 1 and 2 (2017): 11–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.46472/cc.01221.0203.
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Three recent independently developed models suggest that some Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments exhibit dual design properties in monument complexes by pairing obverse structures. Parker Pearson’s1 materiality model proposes that monuments of wood are paired with monuments of stone, these material metaphors respectively signifying places of rituals for the living with rituals for the dead. Higginbottom’s2 landscape model suggests that many western Scottish megalithic structures are paired in mirror-image landscape locations in which the horizon distance, direction and height of one site is the topographical reverse of the paired site – all in the service of ritually experiencing the liminal boundaries to the world. Sims’3 diacritical model suggests that materials, landscapes and lunar-solar alignments are diacritically combined to facilitate cyclical ritual processions between paired monuments through a simulated underworld. All three models combine in varying degrees archaeology and archaeoastronomy and our paper tests them through the case study of the late Neolithic/EBA Stonehenge Palisade in the Stonehenge monument complex.
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Bates, C. Richard, Martin Bates, Chris Gaffney, Vincent Gaffney, and Timothy D. Raub. "Geophysical Investigation of the Neolithic Calanais Landscape." Remote Sensing 11, no. 24 (2019): 2975. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs11242975.
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The northern and western isles of Scotland have proved fertile ground for archaeological investigation over the last 100 years. However, the nature of the landscape with its rugged coastlines and irregular topography, together with rapid peat growth rates, make for challenging surveying. Commonly, an archaeological monument or series of monuments is identified but little is known about the surrounding areas and, in particular, the palaeo-landscapes within which the monuments are located. This situation is exemplified by the standing stones of Calanais in Lewis. Here, surrounding peat bogs have buried a significant portion of the landscape around which the stones were first erected. This project identifies remote sensing geophysical techniques that are effective in mapping the buried (lost) landscape and thus aid better contextualisation of the stone monuments within it. Further, the project demonstrates the most appropriate techniques for prospecting across these buried landscapes for as yet unidentified stone features associated with the lives of the people who constructed the monuments.
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Was, John, and Aaron Watson. "Neolithic monuments: sensory technology." Time and Mind 10, no. 1 (2017): 3–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1751696x.2016.1267922.
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Edwards, Benjamin. "A Henge Too Far? Reinterpreting the Neolithic Monument Complex at Milfield, Northumberland." Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 73 (2007): 59–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0079497x00027304.
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This paper reinterprets the archaeological evidence from the Neolithic monument complex in the Milfield Basin, Northumberland; a palimpsest landscape of earlier Neolithic enclosures, later Neolithic henges and Early Bronze Age burial monuments. Recent interpretative accounts of the Early Neolithic use of this complex have stressed economic factors as the driving-forces behind enclosure construction, whilst the six major later Neolithic henges have been integrated into a scheme of ritual processions. These interpretations are critically evaluated and the sites are placed in their regional and national context in an attempt to provide a new framework for the use and development of the complex. It is concluded that, far from having simplistic economic functions, the earlier Neolithic enclosures could be unique to the area. Representing the formalisation of a community's attempts to ensure social reproduction in times of change, through the articulation of the difference between circular and linear monumental forms. The re-examination of the later Neolithic evidence raises interesting questions as to how far we can ‘read’ monument complexes, and critically evaluates the extent to which we can argue a unity of purpose for these enigmatic accumulations of the past. Importantly, the reinterpretation of the Neolithic activity in this area exposes how readily archaeologists export social models from other regions, such as Wessex, and attempt to fit very diverse evidence into their framework. This paper concludes that we must continue the definition of the British Neolithic on a more regional basis and accept that core-periphery models, even if not explicitly articulated, have no place in archaeological explanation.
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Kipshidze, Shorena. "The Topography of Eastern and Western Georgian Monuments." Works of Georgian Technical University, no. 2(532) (June 10, 2024): 29–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.36073/1512-0996-2024-2-29-35.
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Today more than 70 Pre-farming cultural monuments are discovered on the territory of Transcaucasisa. On the territory of Eastern Georgia, The Pre-farming culture, known as The Shulaveri-Shomutepe culture is familiar, which is more developed and relatively better preserved than The Neolithic settlements of Western Georgia. The topography of Western Georgia with a range of peculiarities is radically different from the types of the Eastern Georgian Neolithic settlements. The Shulaveri-Shomutepe settlement, which is known as the Shulaveri culture, is discovered in Eastern Georgia. During the study of the monument the scientists discovered the homes built with muud-bricks. Their design is round or cone-shaped. The settlement types and dwelling environment proves the sign of long life of numerous populations. In Eastern Georgia only the Late Neolithic monuments are found. Because of the warm climate of Western Georgia, the Neolithic human must have lived in a wicker peasant typed house. This conditioned sign of structures is not evident in the West. Only the pits for posts and economical purposes are discovered. So, the remains found in the earth which were used for rebuilding the weaker peasant typed houses that were out of order, only helps the increase of cultural layers insignificantly. According to the topographical layout and scientific observation, consequential migration of the Neolithic settlements from the mountain to the plain is evident according to the epoch. This is the sign of the fast evolution of society. In terms of topography, Western Georgian Neolithic monuments greatly differ. Shulaveri-Shomutepe cultural settlements are presented on the man-made hills and are relatively more developed than the Eastern Georgian settlements. Only very thin layers are presented in Western Georgia. The main thing is that the monuments of all periods are confirmed in the West as well as in the East, which is very important. Today the peculiarities of Neolithic culture remain the subject of discussion and need the search of new resources. The discovery and study of new artifacts may cause the becoming out-of-date of the Neolithic Era and arising of new questions.
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Yudin, Aleksandr Ivanovich, and Aleksandr Alekseevich Vybornov. "New data about the early Neolithic of the steppe Volga Region." Samara Journal of Science 7, no. 3 (2018): 199–204. http://dx.doi.org/10.17816/snv201873210.
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The issue of early Neolithic isolation in various territories is one of the most difficult to study. The early Neolithic steppe Volga Region was unknown for a long time. This is due to the small number of Neolithic monuments in the region of interest. The situation changed after the study of the Varfolomeevskaya site. The lower layer of this reference monument of the Orel culture belonged to the Middle Neolithic, layers 2B and 2A - to the late Neolithic. This version was based on a limited source base and a few radiocarbon dates, some of which were of a debatable nature. New field surveys in 2014-2017 on three excavations in Oroshaemoe Settlement and significant series of radiocarbon dates for various organic materials obtained in various laboratories (including AMS) allowed us to revise the periodization of both the Varfolomeevskaya site and the Oryol culture on the whole. This allows you to make a typological analysis of materials, as well as technical and technological analysis of ceramic implements. Thus, the earliest ceramics are made from silt with a natural admixture of shells of mollusks. The lower layer of the monument is now defined as Early Neolithic, layer 2B - the Middle Neolithic, layer 2A - late Neolithic.
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Roughley, Corinne. "The Neolithic Landscape of the Carnac Region, Brittany: New Insights from Digital Approaches." Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 70 (2004): 153–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0079497x00001158.
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The typology and chronology of the Neolithic monuments of the Carnac region of Brittany have been much debated. However, the landscape of which they are a part has been under-researched, in part due to the difficulty of conducting landscape research in the field. Through complimenting fieldwork with digital approaches, this paper demonstrates that the Neolithic monuments were deliberately situated in distinct landscape settings. By investigating the characteristics of the locations of the various types of monuments, new insight can be shed on the ways in which the monuments were experienced and perceived.
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Pollard, Joshua. "Inscribing Space: Formal Deposition at the Later Neolithic Monument of Woodhenge, Wiltshire." Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 61 (1995): 137–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0079497x00003066.
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This paper presents evidence for intentionally structured deposition at the later Neolithic earthwork and timber setting of Woodhenge, near Amesbury, Wiltshire. Deposition is seen as a process through which a variety of connotations and symbolic references were incorporated in the monument, in addition to contributing towards a complex classification of space that served to order ceremonial and ritual practices. The evidence for formal deposition is also considered in the context of comparable, contemporary, activity at two other extensively excavated monuments in the region — Durrington Walls and Stonehenge I. Finally, complementarity and contrast in such special practices are viewed in relation to individual monument histories and the possiblity that, whilst the product of a general sacred tradition, the way in which each of the monuments was used was structured by different sets of meanings.
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Young, Andrew, and Andy M. Jones. "A Possible Cursus Monument at Lovington, Itchen Valley." Hampshire Studies 74, no. 1 (2019): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.24202/hs2019001.
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This short paper reports on the discovery of a possible Neolithic cursus at Lovington. The potential cursus is a crop-mark site which was discovered on aerial photographs during the Hampshire South Downs Mapping project.<br/> This is a significant outcome as no other cursus monuments have previously been identified in Hampshire. Its relationship with the potential causewayed enclosure is also important given the apparent absence of Early Neolithic enclosures in Hampshire. The paper describes the crop-mark and reviews the evidence for the interpretation of the site as a cursus monument.
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Museibli, Najaf. "ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS AT CHAGRITEPE: SOME QUESTIONS ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF THE EARLY NEOLITHIC IN THE MIDDLE KURA BASIN." Annali d'Italia 58 (August 26, 2024): 31–45. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13377142.
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In recent years, researches of Neolithic monuments in Azerbaijan and South Caucasus in general have become intensive. The emergence and development stages of early agricultural farms in the context of the Middle EastSouth Caucasus is the main goal of these studies. From this viewpoint, Chagritepe (Çağrıtepe) Neolithic settlement is no exception. Although the monument suffered some destruction as a result of anthropogenic interventions during the Soviet era, it was preserved at a relatively satisfactory level for research compared to other archaeological monuments in the region.In the 50s - 70s of the last century, archaeological excavations were carried out in the settlements of this culture, such as Shomutepe, Toyratepe, Gargalar tepesi, Babadervish. Although extensive scientific information has been obtained, many questions still remain unanswered. One of them, and the most important one, is the problem of the origin, organization and connection of the Neolithic farming culture with the previous period. This scientific problem remains unsolved to this day. The excavations conducted in the nearby Mesolithic and early Neolithic camp of Damjili did not bring sufficient clarity to the issue. The purpose of the excavations in Chagritepe is primarily to investigate this scientific problem. Since the excavations have not fully completed, the monument can be primarily attributed to the end of the 7th millennium - the first half of the 6th millennium BC. A group of tools made of obsidian and flint discovered here during the excavations is analogous to the stone tools of Gobustan from the Mesolithic and early Neolithic periods. These tools, which are considered archaic for Chagritepe, give us reason to make certain assumptions about the mentioned scientific problem.
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Sharples, Niall. "Individual and Community: The Changing Role of Megaliths in the Orcadian Neolithic." Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 51, no. 1 (1985): 59–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0079497x00007039.
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This paper is an exploration of the chronological development of a series of elaborate and architecturally distinctive chambered tombs on the Islands of Orkney. It begins with a short critique of the present views of the Orcadian Neolithic and highlights a failure to understand chronological developments as the most significant problem. Thus after a brief classification of the monuments there is a detailed discussion of the chronological evidence which consciously avoids typological assumptions. This is followed by an examination of the various uses the tombs were put to and involves an assessment of the location and architectural visibility of the monuments and the remains found in the chamber. When combined with the chronological evidence a series of changes in monument size, type, location and use can be hypothesized for the neolithic period. This culminates in a shift away from burial monuments to physically defined spaces, presumably used for ceremonial purposes. These changes can be interpreted as deliberate manipulation by groups within that society to change the ideological concepts which defined the role of the individual in relation to the other members of the society.
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Wysocki, Michael, Seren Griffiths, Robert Hedges, et al. "Dates, Diet, and Dismemberment: Evidence from the Coldrum Megalithic Monument, Kent." Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 79 (July 17, 2013): 61–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/ppr.2013.10.
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We present radiocarbon dates, stable isotope data, and osteological analysis of the remains of a minimum of 17 individuals deposited in the western part of the burial chamber at Coldrum, Kent. This is one of the Medway group of megalithic monuments – sites with shared architectural motifs and no very close parallels elsewhere in Britain – whose location has been seen as important in terms of the origins of Neolithic material culture and practices in Britain. The osteological analysis identified the largest assemblage of cut-marked human bone yet reported from a British early Neolithic chambered tomb; these modifications were probably undertaken as part of burial practices. The stable isotope dataset shows very enrichedδ15N values, the causes of which are not entirely clear, but could include consumption of freshwater fish resources. Bayesian statistical modelling of the radiocarbon dates demonstrates that Coldrum is an early example of a British Neolithic burial monument, though the tomb was perhaps not part of the earliest Neolithic evidence in the Greater Thames Estuary. The site was probably initiated after the first appearance of other early Neolithic regional phenomena including an inhumation burial, early Neolithic pottery and a characteristic early Neolithic post-and-slot structure, and perhaps of Neolithic flint extraction in the Sussex mines. Coldrum is the only site in the Medway monument group to have samples which have been radiocarbon dated, and is important both for regional studies of the early Neolithic and wider narratives of the processes, timing, and tempo of Neolithisation across Britain
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Nash, George. "Light at the end of the tunnel: the way megalithic art was viewed and experienced." Documenta Praehistorica 33 (December 31, 2006): 209–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.4312/dp.33.19.
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This paper explores how megalithic art may have been viewed during a period when Neolithic monuments were in use as repositories for the dead. The group of monuments discussed are primarily passage graves which were being constructed within many of the core areas of Neolithic Atlantic Europe. Although dates for the construction of this tradition are sometimes early, the majority of monuments with megalithic art fall essentially within the Middle to Late Neolithic. The art, usually in the form of pecked abstract designs appears to be strategically placed within the inner part of the passage and the chamber. Given its position was this art restricted to an elite and was there a conscious decision to hide some art and make it exclusively for the dead? In order to discuss these points further, this chapter will study in depth the location and subjectivity of art that has been carved and pecked on three passage graves in Anglesey and NW England. I suggest that an encoded grammar was in operation when these and other passage grave monuments with megalithic art were in use.
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Millican, Kirsty, Helen Goodchild, and Dorothy Graves McEwan. "MONUMENTS AND LANDSCAPE: INVESTIGATING A PREHISTORIC MONUMENT COMPLEX AT LOCHBROW, DUMFRIES AND GALLOWAY." Antiquaries Journal 97 (September 2017): 27–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0003581517000270.
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This paper presents the results of a survey project investigating a complex of prehistoric archaeological sites at Lochbrow, in Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland. An Early Neolithic timber cursus, Late Neolithic or Early Bronze Age timber circles and Bronze Age round barrows were first recorded as cropmarks on aerial photographs in the 1980s and 1990s. The Lochbrow Landscape Project set out to investigate and understand this lesser-known complex of prehistoric sites and their layout in the landscape using non-destructive survey techniques, including geophysical survey, experiential survey and re-assessment of aerial photographs. A pilot survey was undertaken in 2010 followed by a series of short field seasons from 2011 to 2015. Interpretation of the results from geophysical survey has proved challenging because of strong geological and geomorphological signals, but has been successful in detecting both the features known from aerial photographs and additional archaeological features. The simple step of marking out the known archaeology on the ground has provided additional insights into the landscape context of the known monuments and elements of their morphology. This indicates that the monuments were closely tied to their landscape context and that the monument boundaries were used to influence the experience of being within the monuments. Overall, the research has been successful in enriching our understanding of the complex of prehistoric sites known at Lochbrow.
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Wallner, Mario, Michael Doneus, Ingrid Kowatschek, Alois Hinterleitner, Felix Köstelbauer, and Wolfgang Neubauer. "Interdisciplinary Investigations of the Neolithic Circular Ditch Enclosure of Velm (Lower Austria)." Remote Sensing 14, no. 11 (2022): 2657. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs14112657.
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Middle Neolithic circular enclosures, known as Kreisgrabenanlage (KGA), are the oldest known monumental sites in Central Europe, dating roughly to 4850–4600/4500 BC. These large prehistoric monuments are mainly discovered by aerial archaeology and have been investigated by geophysical prospection and archaeological excavations since the 1960s. The site of Velm (Lower Austria) was discovered by aerial photographs in 2001. Due to its unusual location on a flat gravel plateau, the enclosure has become the object of intensive interdisciplinary research in recent years. In 2016, two motorized ground-penetrating radar (GPR) surveys were conducted, resulting in a detailed three-dimensional dataset visualizing the circular ditches, palisades and dwellings of an adjacent settlement. The high contrast between the gravel sediments and the humic earthen backfill of the ditches, palisades and individual postholes resulted in a highly detailed visualization of the Middle Neolithic monument. Based on this survey, selected structures were investigated by targeted archaeological excavations to evaluate the GPR results and to take samples for radiocarbon dating. This paper presents a synopsis of all the methods used. An integrated interpretation of aerial photo information, magnetometry and GPR is conducted, and it is shown to what extent these could be verified by the targeted archaeological excavation. By a detailed analysis of all applied archaeological prospection methods, it is now possible to interpret the monument in its entirety and confirm its dating to the Middle Neolithic Lengyel cultural complex.
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Robin, Guillaume. "Spatial Structures and Symbolic Systems in Irish and British Passage Tombs: the Organization of Architectural Elements, Parietal Carved Signs and Funerary Deposits." Cambridge Archaeological Journal 20, no. 3 (2010): 373–418. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0959774310000478.
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Passage tombs are the most elaborate monuments that were built during the Irish and British Neolithic, not only because of their complex monumental architecture but also because they are the only type of tomb that has carvings and such a diversity of funerary objects. This article focuses on the spatial organization of these three components of passage tombs and identifies several recurrent structures that are classified into three groups. From these spatial structures, an abstract elementary model is proposed that helps to understand the conceptual principles and the symbolic significations that guided the construction, decoration and use of the monuments.
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Ivanischeva, Marina Viktorovna. "Origins of the pottery traditions in the early Neolithic European North of Russia." Samara Journal of Science 7, no. 3 (2018): 214–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.17816/snv201873213.
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The following paper deals with origins of the pottery traditions in the early Neolithic European North of Russia. At present there is a prevailing scheme of ornamental styles development stages in the Early Neolithic antiquities forest zone of the European part of Russia - from pinned-point/without ornament to the later ornamental comb tradition. Among the series of dates taken as a chronological frame for the Neolithic forest belt around 7000 years ago, there are deeper/ancient definitions for pricked fragments, as well as vessels with comb-style ornamentation. The paper presents technical and technological analysis of the ceramic complex of monuments in Berezovaya Slobodka in Nyuksensky district and monuments in Tudozere and Kemozere in Vytegra district.
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Chapman, Henry P. "Rethinking the ‘Cursus Problem’ – Investigating the Neolithic Landscape Archaeology of Rudston, East Yorkshire, UK, using GIS." Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 71 (2005): 159–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0079497x00000992.
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In terms of their interpretation, cursus monuments remain arguably the most enigmatic class of Neolithic landscape monument. This paper reconsiders this ‘cursus problem’ through the study of the complex of cursuses that surrounds the village of Rudston, East Yorkshire. Using a GIS-based analysis, it is argued that two distinct forms of architecture can be recognised. In the earlier phase it is possible to recognise the importance of somatic experience generated through movement along the interior of the monuments, incorporating elements of visual surprise in addition to constant visual relationships with earlier monuments. By the later phase, somatic experience becomes less important, with the cursus forming a more naturalised role in harmony with the natural landscape and less structured for movement. The results of this analysis have wider implications for the study of both cursus landscapes elsewhere and prehistoric landscape archaeology more generally.
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Cummings, Vicki, and Alasdair Whittle. "Tombs with a view: landscape, monuments and trees." Antiquity 77, no. 296 (2003): 255–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0003598x00092255.
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The authors consider the impact that trees would have had on the visibility of the landscape from and around Neolithic monuments. It is suggested that woodland may have been an integral part of the way monuments were experienced.
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Roughley, Corinne, Andrew Sherratt, and Colin Shell. "Past records, new views: Carnac 1830–2000." Antiquity 76, no. 291 (2002): 218–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0003598x00090013.
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The megalithic monuments of Carnac, Brittany, in the Département of the Morbihan, are amongst the most farnous in France. indeed in the world. This region has not only the densest conccntration of such sites in Europe but also retained its importance as a centre of monument-building from the late 5th to the :jrd millennium FK:, giving it a unique significance in the study of Neolithic landscapes (Sherratt 1990; 1998). Its menhirs, stone alignments, and megalithic tombs have attracted the attention of scholars since the 18th century, and there is thus an unusually full record, both written and pictorial, of the nature of these monuments as they were perceived over 300 years.
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Whittle, Alasdair, Alistair Barclay, Alex Bayliss, Lesley McFadyen, Rick Schulting, and Michael Wysocki. "Building for the Dead: Events, Processes and Changing Worldviews from the Thirty-eighth to the Thirty-fourth Centuries cal. bc in Southern Britain." Cambridge Archaeological Journal 17, S1 (2007): 123–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0959774307000200.
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Our final paper in this series reasserts the importance of sequence. Stressing that long barrows, long cairns and associated structures do not appear to have begun before the thirty-eighth century cal. bc in southern Britain, we give estimates for the relative order of construction and use of the five monuments analysed in this programme. The active histories of monuments appear often to be short, and the numbers in use at any one time may have been relatively low; we discuss time in terms of generations and individual lifespans. The dominant mortuary rite may have been the deposition of articulated remains (though there is much diversity); older or ancestral remains are rarely documented, though reference may have been made to ancestors in other ways, not least through architectural style and notions of the past. We relate these results not only to trajectories of monument development, but also to two models of development in the first centuries of the southern British Neolithic as a whole. In the first, monuments emerge as symptomatic of preeminent groups; in the second model, monuments are put in a more gradualist and episodic timescale and related to changing kinds of self-consciousness (involving senses of self, relations with animals and nature, perceptions of the body, awareness of mortality and attitudes to the past). Both more distant and more recent and familiar possible sources of inspiration for monumentalization are considered, and the diversity of situations in which mounds were constructed is stressed. More detailed Neolithic histories can now begin to be written.
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Smagin, Valery Andreevich. "Comparison of geometric microliths of the Northern Caspian and Lower Don." Samara Journal of Science 7, no. 3 (2018): 204–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.17816/snv201873211.
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Geometric microliths are inherent in almost all the Mesolithic and Neolithic monuments in the Lower Volga Region. For the sites of the territory they play a key role. With the help of this type of tools, it is possible to determine the cultural affiliation and chronological position of the studied monuments. In this paper we mainly consider the Neolithic sites on the territory of the Lower Volga and Lower Donets, which have geometric microliths in stone implements. Most of these monuments have a fairly stable series of tools of a geometric type, which makes it possible to compare them among themselves and draw parallels. The results of radiocarbon dating for Neolithic monuments of the Lower Volga and Lower Donets are presented. There is a typological comparison of these sites. The paper discusses similarities and differences, as well as possible contacts, or the lack of population on the two territories - the Lower Volga and the Lower Donets. The author comes to the conclusion that based on the analysis of geometric microliths it is not possible to trace a significant connection between the population of the Lower Volga and the Lower Donets. In the development of the flint industries of these regions there are more differences than similarities.
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PHILLIPS, TIM, and RICHARD BRADLEY. "Pick-Dressing on the Neolithic Monuments of Orkney." Scottish Archaeological Journal 22, no. 2 (2000): 103–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/saj.2000.22.2.103.
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This paper reports on the results of a survey of the treatment of the stone surfaces at a selection of monuments. In discussing the observations comparisons are made with the treatment seen at monuments in the Boyne valley, Ireland. These comparisons lead to the suggestion that these 'pick-dressed' areas may have served as keying to hold 'plaster', which may have been painted.
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Mount, Charles. "Aspects of Ritual Deposition in the Late Neolithic and Beaker Periods at Newgrange, Co. Meath." Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 60, no. 1 (1994): 433–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0079497x00003522.
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The passage tomb at Newgrange served as a focus of ceremonial activity in the Late Neolithic and Beaker periods. A complex of monuments was constructed around the mound, consisting of a timber circle or woodhenge to the south-east and a smaller, possibly roofed, timber circle to the west; an enclosing bank constructed along the southern and western sides, and a free-standing circle of great stones encircling the monument. In this paper the view that the faunal and material remains from the Newgrange excavations are domestic refuse is questioned. The deposition and spatial patterning of the faunal material is interpreted as having a ritual significance and the use of this material as representative of the Late Neolithic/Beaker period economy is rejected
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Bilynska, Sofiia, Andrii Duben, Volodymyr Babyak, and Galyna Gnat. "COMPARISON OF NEOLITHIC HOUSING IN JAPAN AND UKRAINE." Innovative Solution in Modern Science 3, no. 39 (2020): 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.26886/2414-634x.3(39)2020.1.
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The national habitation of Japan and Ukraine during the Neolithic period is studied: comparison of methods of erection of frame structures, influence of lifestyle on the appearance of dwelling in both countries, as well as influence of religion on the arrangement of habitation in Ukraine and Japan, their common and distinctive features. The methods of preserving the architectural monuments in Japan, as well as the forecasts regarding the further state of traditional folk habitation in Ukraine without urgent restoration and renovation.Key words: traditional accommodation, wooden architecture, architecture, Neolith, Trypillia, Ukraine, Japan.
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Thomas, Julian. "Thoughts on the ‘Repacked’ Neolithic Revolution." Antiquity 77, no. 295 (2003): 67–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0003598x00061354.
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Coombs, Alistair. "Chips off the Block." Journal of Skyscape Archaeology 9, no. 1 (2023): 32–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/jsa.26597.
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Material structures organised in pairs were significant features within shrines and special buildings of the Near Eastern Epipaleolithic and early Neolithic. These stone and plaster monuments came to bear defining humanoid features that possibly commemorated mythical brothers or twins. The twin god theme appears widely in ethnographies, and is used to define celestial luminaries, divisions of space and the opposing extremes of the seasonal year. Material and environmental evidence of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic phase of the Near East further indicates that these features, replete with early constellation images, monumentalise a calendar-informed cosmology and reveal a significant correlation between cultic monuments, social gatherings and times of the year.
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Hale, Duncan, Andy Platell, and Andrew Millard. "A Late Neolithic Palisaded Enclosure at Marne Barracks, Catterick, North Yorkshire." Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 75 (2009): 265–304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0079497x00000372.
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An open-area excavation conducted in advance of development at Marne Barracks, Catterick, in 2004 identified a relatively rare Late Neolithic ‘palisaded’ enclosure and other features. Approximately 55% of the enclosure was exposed. It consisted of two concentric sub-circular palisades with diameters up to 175 m and 200 m respectively. Each palisade consisted of a double circuit of posts, with the posts being c. 1 m apart from centre to centre. Many of the posts on the western side of the monument had been sufficiently carbonised for the remains of individual posts to be identifiable. Twenty-one radiocarbon ages were determined and Bayesian modelling has produced a date estimate of 2530–2310 cal BC for the start of construction of the monument. This date matches well with new dates for the construction of Silbury Hill, the appearance of Beaker pottery in graves, the Amesbury Archer, and the timber circles at Durrington Walls, for example.The Marne Barracks monument exhibits significant differences to other known examples of this type, and is in some respects unique. In particular the ‘paired post’ arrangement of a double circuit of posts in each palisade is unparalleled in any other known example. The apparent width of the entrances to the Marne enclosure is also at variance with other known sites, though this may in part be an artefact of post-depositional survival. The monument sits in a ritual landscape and, like a few others of its type, is close to water and a hill or large mound from where the activities taking place within the enclosure might have been observed. Do the nearby hill, the entrances, and the arrangement of the uprights all relate to control of physical and visual access into, or out of, the monument?A number of broadly contemporary monuments, all within 5 km of Marne Barracks, contribute to a significant Neolithic ritual focus on the River Swale gravels. The complex of cursus and henge monuments at Thornborough and the henges at Nunwick, Hutton Moor, and Cana Barn all lie less than 25 km to the south, in the Swale-Ure interfluve.
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Cummings, Vicki. "Between Mountains and Sea: a Reconsideration of the Neolithic Monuments of South-west Scotland." Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 68 (2002): 125–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0079497x0000147x.
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For many years the chambered tombs of south-west Scotland were considered important in understanding the origins of monumentality in Britain. In particular scholars focused on the classification of these monuments in order to understand how ideas about the Neolithic may have spread along and across the Irish Sea. However, the classification of these monuments may be rather more problematic than was once imagined. Among other things, the excavation of a number of them has revealed complex and diverse construction sequences. This paper presents the results of an examination of the landscape settings of the chambered tombs in south-west Scotland. It suggests that a landscape approach can assist in our understanding of the classification and use of these monuments. In addition, the setting of sites within the landscape can also inform us about the nature of the Neolithic in this region of Scotland.
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Gabrilchuk, М. А., M. Fukuda, and D. Kunikita. "CERAMICS OF THE ANCIENT SETTLEMENT OF BIJAN-4." Humanities And Social Studies In The Far East 17, no. 2 (2020): 172–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.31079/1992-2868-2020-17-2-172-179.
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The appeal to the study of plate complexes of the Jewish Autonomous region is due to a number of circumstances. The main ones are: the small number of registered Neolithic settlements in the region, the lack of complete data on the middle Neolithic cultures of the region (which creates a kind of information vacuum between the cultures of the Middle and Lower Amur), the obscurity of connections and vectors of cultural influences of ancient communities, and others. The proposed article is devoted to a preliminary analysis of the ceramic material of the new complex of the Bijan-4 monument of the middle Neolithic period, the nature of the stone industry of which is focused on the preparation of subprismatic micronuclei, their splitting and obtaining knife-shaped blanks. The pottery of the settlement has bright individual features, on the one hand, which have no direct analogues in the famous monuments of archeology of the South of the Far East, and at the same time reveals cultural indicators that indicate a connection.
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Webster, Gary S. "Monuments, mobilization and Nuragic organization." Antiquity 65, no. 249 (1991): 840–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0003598x0008056x.
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Over the last hundred years there have been many publications on the animal remains from the Swiss Neolithic lake sites, ranging from the first descriptions of Rütimeyer (1861) to the detailed analyses of Boessneck et al. (1963) and Becker (1981). During the 1970s I had the privilege to work on one of these faunal assemblages, retrieved by rescue excavation at the site of Yvonand IV on the shore of Lake Neuchätel in the canton de Vaud (Clutton-Brock 1990).
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Hoskin, Michael. "Orientations of Neolithic Monuments of Brittany: (1) Context." Journal for the History of Astronomy 34, no. 4 (2003): 401–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/002182860303400403.
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Harding, Jan. "Interpreting the Neolithic: The Monuments of North Yorkshire." Oxford Journal of Archaeology 16, no. 3 (1997): 279–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-0092.00041.
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Brück, Joanna. "Monuments, power and personhood in the British Neolithic." Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 7, no. 4 (2001): 649–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9655.00082.
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Waddington, Clive, Peter Marshall, and David G. Passmore. "Towards Synthesis: Research and Discovery in Neolithic North-East England." Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 77 (2011): 279–319. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0079497x00000700.
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The Tweed Valley and its tributaries, and particularly the Milfield Basin in north Northumberland, is an area of strategic significance in the geography of the British Isles and it hosts a rich and varied multi-period archaeological and palaeoenvironmental record. This paper summarises some of the key findings for the Neolithic resulting from a long-term and in-depth landscape research project and provides a new chronological sequence for the Neolithic of the region.Attention is drawn to the discovery of what appears to be a new type of Neolithic structure associated with settlement activity hitherto unrecognised in Britain: post-built timber buildings based on a triangular arrangement of timbers. The paper then turns to a consideration of subsistence and land-use practices and the evidence for cereal agriculture from the immediate outset of the Neolithic in the region. Since 1999 many more radiocarbon measurements have become available for Neolithic activity in the area and, together with those obtained before 1999, have been recalibrated and subjected to Bayesian modelling to produce more precise estimates for Neolithic activity. Important findings include the provision of a more robust estimate for dating the onset of the Neolithic in the region, as well as establishing a chronological framework for the Neolithic–Beaker period ceramic sequence. It also reveals that the current dating available for the henge monuments indicates that this ritual complex most likely dates to the Beaker period and not to the Neolithic proper as they do in some other parts of Britain. Truly ‘Neolithic’ ceremonial monuments in the Milfield Basin remain elusive and few of the potential sites that have so far been identified have yet to be tested by excavation and scientific dating. A clear zoning of rock art is apparent, with hundreds of sites all clustered on the Fellsandstone escarpment, while a variety of Neolithic burial types is attested suggesting the region formed a meeting ground for different cultural influences.
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Clynes, Frances. "The Role of Solar Deities in Irish Megalithic Monuments." Culture and Cosmos 24, no. 0102 (2020): 9–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.46472/cc.1224.0203.
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In the great body of Irish myths that became part of an oral tradition and would, much later, be documented and preserved, associations can be found between Sun gods and solar heroes and the great Neolithic monuments of Ireland, including Newgrange, the most well-known monument in the large complex of passage tombs in the valley of the Boyne River that today is known as the World Heritage Site, Brú na Bóinne. In all four cycles of Irish mythology, from the Tuatha De Danaan of the Mythological Cycle to the kings of Tara in the Historical Cycle, repeated mention is made of Brú na Bóinne, the home of the Sun gods, Dagda and Lugh, and the place of the conception and birth of the warrior hero, Cú Chulainn. This chapter examines the roles the monuments played in the myths and their strong association with mythological solar figures and asks if the myths can tell us something about the meaning the monuments held for people from different periods of time.
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Gillings, Mark, and Joshua Pollard. "Making Megaliths: Shifting and Unstable Stones in the Neolithic of the Avebury Landscape." Cambridge Archaeological Journal 26, no. 4 (2016): 537–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0959774316000330.
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This paper focuses upon the web of practices and transformations bound up in the extraction and movement of megaliths during the Neolithic of southern Britain. The focus is on the Avebury landscape of Wiltshire, where over 700 individual megaliths were employed in the construction of ceremonial and funerary monuments. Locally sourced, little consideration has been given to the process of acquisition and movement of sarsen stones that make up key monuments such as the Avebury henge and its avenues, attention instead focusing on the middle-distance transportation of sarsen out of this region to Stonehenge. Though stone movements were local, we argue they were far from lacking in significance, as indicated by the subsequent monumentalization of at least two locations from which they were likely acquired. We argue that since such stones embodied place(s), their removal, movement and resetting represented a remarkably dynamic and potentially disruptive reconfiguration of the world as it was known. Megaliths were never inert or stable matter, and we need to embrace this in our interpretative accounts if we are to understand the very different types of monument that emerged in prehistory as a result.
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González-García, A. César, and Lourdes Costa-Ferrer. "The diachronic study of orientations: Mérida, a case study." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 7, S278 (2011): 374–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921311012828.
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AbstractThe study of orientations is a key ingredient in most archaeoastronomical research. Typically, a number of synchronistic monuments belonging to a given culture or cultural horizon are measured and studied in order to see if they share a similar orientation. If an astronomical orientation appears, we may apply other archaeoastronomical procedures to justify further conclusions.On a few occasions we perform studies that compare, for a given site, monuments of different periods. At most two or three periods are usually compared to verify persistence or to check for evolution in customs of orientation. We argue here that it would also be interesting to study orientations from a diachronic point of view, in order to investigate the persistence/evolution of this particular conception of space through time.Mérida (Extremadura, Spain) and the neighbouring areas present a rich and highly interesting monumental heritage spanning from the Neolithic to the present, with monuments belonging to several different periods and cultures.In the present study we will review the orientation of the monuments in that area. We will present some conclusions on the evolution/persistence of customs of orientation and value the applicability of this method to other areas.
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Ezepenko, Igor Nicolaevich, and Oleg Vasilievich Voronenko. "Materials of the Neolithic settlement of the Komarin 5 in the Verkhny Dnepr River basin (Gomel Podneprovie), on the basis of excavations 1998, 2005-2007, 2011." Samara Journal of Science 6, no. 3 (2017): 155–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.17816/snv201763212.
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In the article the authors summarize the archaeological studies of the Neolithic settlement Komarin 5 in vicinity of Rogachev, Gomel region. The settlement is situated in the northern periphery of the area of the Dnepro-Donetsk ethno-cultural community. In the introductory part of the article the authors present the main approaches in interpreting of the Neolithic monuments with comb-stroke ceramics in the upstream of the Dnepr. The excavations were carried out in the southern part of the man site during 4 field seasons. There is a brief description of the stratigraphy of the studied settlement, the most representative burial and utility objects of the excavation-2 in 2006, the main categories of flint tools, and the ceramic complex of the Neolithic period in the article. With the help of the ceramic complexes we can fix several stages of the development of the territory, from the Neolithic Age till the Late Middle Ages. The overwhelming part of the archaeological materials, especially ceramics, is considered in the context of the III stage of the development of the Dnepro-Donetsk culture and covers a chronological interval within the IV millennium BC. This is confirmed by the only absolute dating of 478090 BP (Кі-15033) with the soil from the pit filling in the utility building (object 2 of the excavation in 2006). The issues of relative and absolute dating of the monument Komarin-5, in particular the top chronological boundary of the Neolithic Dnepro-Donetsk culture, are considered.
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Bradley, Richard. "Time Signatures: The Temporality of Monuments in Early and Middle Neolithic Britain." Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 86 (June 18, 2020): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/ppr.2020.3.
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Analysis of radiocarbon dates has established the chronological contexts of three kinds of Neolithic monument in Britain: long mounds or long cairns, causewayed enclosures, and cursuses. It is more difficult to appreciate how such structures developed over time. The building of a barrow or cairn was sometimes the final act in a place that had already experienced a longer history. The construction of the monument brought activities to an end, and the site was effectively closed. Individual sequences were shorter than once thought but might be repeated at different locations over several hundred years.On the other hand, the construction of causewayed enclosures according to a widely accepted template occurred almost simultaneously. Once those earthworks were established some went out of use, but a few others were adapted and changed so that they could play an increasing variety of roles over a longer period. The same contrasts are illustrated by cursuses. Timber structures in the north had finite histories before they decayed or were destroyed by fire, whilst earthworks had a wider distribution and enjoyed a longer currency. A similar approach might shed light on later monuments, including henges, stone circles, and round barrows. It is important to consider how the chronologies of all these structures are related to past conceptions of time.
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Donnelly, Mike, Chris Barrowman, Jerry Hamer, Olivia Lelong, and Lorna Sharpe. "People and their monuments in the Upper Clyde Valley." Scottish Archaeological Internet Reports, no. 14 (2005): 1–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.9750/issn.2056-7421.2005.14.1-36.
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This report sets out the results of a programme of topographic survey, geophysical survey, field walking and trial excavation, carried out in 1998–99 and funded by Historic Scotland, in and around an extensive upland prehistoric landscape in the Upper Clyde Valley. It was designed to build on the results of limited excavation of a large, late Neolithic enclosure at Blackshouse Burn, South Lanarkshire (NGR: NS 9528 4046) and preliminary survey of nearby monuments undertaken in the 1980s, and to identify and characterize prehistoric settlement in the adjacent valleys through field walking. Topographic survey of the enclosures at Blackshouse Burn, Meadowflatts and Chester Hill, and of hut circles, clearance cairns and a possible ring cairn on Cairngryffe and Swaites Hills, recorded a complex ritual and domestic landscape: evidence of the longstanding prehistoric occupation of the Pettinain Uplands. The geophysical survey of Chester Hill enclosure found traces of internal structures and quarry scoop, while geophysical survey of part of the large Blackshouse Burn monument and smaller adjacent enclosure found evidence for a curvilinear feature in the large enclosure and a possible screen in its entrance. The systematic examination of ploughed fields in the valleys to the west and south-west of the upland monument complex discovered several concentrations of lithics, most notably evidence of late Mesolithic tool production and late Neolithic to early Bronze Age tool production and domestic activity. Trial trenches excavated over a late Mesolithic cluster at Carmichael found a knapping floor and several structural features.
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Clare, T. "Towards a Reappraisal of Henge Monuments." Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 52 (1986): 281–316. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0079497x0000668x.
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The definition and classification of ‘henges’ and ‘hengiform’ sites are reconsidered. A new classification is proposed based on the nature of the perimeter, the number of entrances, and a range of features within or concentric to the perimeter. It is suggested that there is no valid distinction between sites termed ‘henge’ or ‘hengiform’. The site, distribution and chronology of these sites are also considered. Some of the associated features have close parallels in earlier neolithic sites.
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Gibson, Alex. "Excavation and Survey at Dyffryn Lane Henge Complex, Powys, and a Reconsideration of the Dating of Henges." Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 76 (2010): 213–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0079497x00000505.
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The henge monument and round barrow at Dyffryn Lane, near Welshpool, Powys, represent a rare instance of earthwork survival amongst the Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments of the upper Severn Valley. Antiquarian excavation in response to agricultural degradation suggested that the monument represented a round barrow covering a stone circle. Whether these stones represented a stone circlesensu strictoor a stone kerb for a turf barrow, was not determined at the time. Aerial photography subsequently demonstrated that the barrow as surrounded by a single-entranced henge monument. The present excavation was designed to assess the degree of plough damage to the site, determine the nature of the circular arrangement of stones, investigate the development of the site, and retrieve absolute dating and palaeoenvironmental material for the various phases encountered. Excavation has demonstrated that the site saw the ritual deposition of Impressed Ware pottery prior to a stone circle being erected on the site. This circle was allowed to decay before being encircled by a henge and subsequently covered by a round mound. The site adds to a small but growing body of evidence suggesting the lateness of the henge element within multi-phased monuments.
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Clare, T. "Towards a reappraisal of henge monuments: origins, evolution and hierarchies." Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 53, no. 1 (1987): 457–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0079497x00006344.
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A simple derivation of henges from causewayed camps is rejected. Attention is also drawn to a range of neolithic structures, some covered by a mound, some not. Though interpreted as mortuary structures, they have affinities to henges. Henges may thus best be derived from a broad tradition of neolithic structures; this may in turn have been part of a more widely distributed north-west European tradition of both ritual and domestic structures. Within Britain, similarities of form and function suggest that henges should be seen as a parallel development to ring banks, ring ditches and stone circles. Regional preferences rather than distinct regional types of monuments emerged. Later survival of henge traditions into the first millennium is also discussed.
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Noble, Gordon, Moira Greig, Kirsty Millican, et al. "Excavations at a Multi-period Site at Greenbogs, Aberdeenshire, Scotland and the Four-post Timber Architecture Tradition of Late Neolithic Britain and Ireland." Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 78 (2012): 135–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0079497x00027146.
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This report outlines the unexpected discovery of a group of Late Neolithic structures at Greenbogs, Monymusk in Aberdeenshire, along with a series of later prehistoric features in the mid-1990s. Recent radiocarbon dating shows that two four-post timber structures found here date to the period 2890–2490 calbc. These were found in association with a range of other features including an oval structure and diffuse areas of burning. The closest parallels for the four-post structures can be found in a slowly growing body of Late Neolithic timber structures, some being interpreted as roofed dwellings and others as roofed or unroofed monuments. This article places the Greenbogs structures in their wider context, identifies a number of unexcavated parallels in the aerial record and addresses the nature of the four-post structures found across Late Neolithic Britain and Ireland and suggests that four-post structures were a more common element of Late Neolithic architecture than previously identified. A common building type appears to have been shared across large areas of Britain and Ireland in a variety of contexts, from the seemingly mundane to the more ‘charged’, as part of elaborate monument complexes. The later prehistoric features identified at Greenbogs include a concentration of Middle Bronze Age features including graves containing cremated human bones, one with an upright urn, and a number of Iron Age pits and other features.
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Sims, Lionel. "The ‘Solarization’ of the Moon: Manipulated Knowledge at Stonehenge." Cambridge Archaeological Journal 16, no. 2 (2006): 191–207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0959774306000114.
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Recent archaeological research now views the northwest European Neolithic and Early Bronze Age as a period of separation from a resilient complex of traditions of Mesolithic and even Palaeolithic origin. Extending this insight to recent findings in archaeoastronomy, this article treats the sarsen monument at Stonehenge as one among a number of monuments with lunar–solar alignments which privileged night over day, winter over summer, dark moon over full. The aim of the monument builders was to juxtapose, replicate and reverse certain key horizon properties of the sun and the moon, apparently with the intention of investing the sun with the moon's former religious significance. This model is consistent with both current archaeological interpretations of burial practices associated with the monument, and with recent anthropological modelling of hunter-gatherer cultural origins.
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Atakuman, Çiğdem. "From Monuments to Miniatures: Emergence of Stamps and Related Image-bearing Objects during the Neolithic." Cambridge Archaeological Journal 25, no. 4 (2015): 759–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0959774315000396.
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In southwest Asia, the emphasis on architecture and burial ritual, which was instrumental in the construction of place-bound identities during the Early Neolithic (c. 10,000–7000 cal. bc), shifted toward an emphasis on miniature portable objects, such as figurines, stamps and ceramics, during the Later Neolithic (c. 7000–5000 cal. bc). Through a focus on stamps, this article argues that the appearance and proliferation of image-bearing portable objects is related to a new understanding of identities around emergent concepts of ‘house’ and ‘community’, which reordered the terms of social affiliation as well as difference and hierarchy at various scales. In terms of an iconographical approach, stamp imagery shows some affinities with the anthropomorphic and zoomorphic themes of the Early Neolithic; however, the majority of the Later Neolithic stamp imagery is composed of highly abstract types that cannot immediately be associated with the themes of the Early Neolithic. A close examination would indicate that these abstract types were also reproduced by manipulating ancestral imagery. It would also appear that certain types of images were employed on certain types of objects, such as ceramics and figurines, in increasingly structured ways. Arguably, these seemingly different object classes are an outcome of a seamless historical discourse of raw materials, images and forms, continuously shifting the conceptualization of self and society. It is in this context that stamps may be treated as figurines of a highly abstract, highly crafted and highly standardized nature. While the clay figurines appropriated social identities in the domestic sphere, stamps and ceramics were instrumental in linking multiple scales of identity formation, from personal to communal. Reconsidering the material shift from the Early to Late Neolithic, I suggest that the spreading regulation of appropriating body and food was central in the construction of a convergent politics of reproduction around the concepts of ‘house’.
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Milisauskas, Sarunas, and Mark Patton. "Statements in Stone: Monuments and Society in Neolithic Brittany." American Journal of Archaeology 99, no. 1 (1995): 152. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/506884.
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Drewett, Peter, and Mark Edmonds. "Ancestral Geographies of the Neolithic: Landscape, Monuments and Memory." American Journal of Archaeology 105, no. 4 (2001): 718. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/507417.
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