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Journal articles on the topic 'Nicaragua'
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1
Otterstrom, Samuel M., Sarah M. Otterstrom, Amy Kimball Engar, Sarah Udall, and Thomas A. Robins. "Comparative Nicaraguan Migrant and Non-Migrant Experiences in the Early Twenty-First Century." Social Sciences 10, no. 10 (September 25, 2021): 355. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/socsci10100355.
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This paper examines the circumstances in which Nicaraguan migrants to Costa Rica found themselves and the situations of families in Nicaragua who had household members who had moved to Costa Rica from the late 1990s to 2012. Through surveys and interviews conducted in both Nicaragua and Costa Rica, this paper peers into the immigrant experience of Nicaraguans in Costa Rica and explores such issues as does time in Costa Rica improve the immigrant situation, how competitive were immigrants’ wages compared to those of their home country of Nicaragua, and what percentage of immigrants would send remittances home. The background literature written on the topics of central American migration, chain migration, push and pull factors, and remittances help contextualize the findings of this study. This paper also includes a consideration of how social or trust networks may relate to migrants’ tendency to send remittances. The analysis of the data collected yielded findings such as a small correlation between an immigrant’s salary and the amount of time the immigrant stayed at his or her job, a six times greater wage earned by Nicaraguan immigrants in Costa Rica than the average Nicaraguan wage, and a lower percentage of immigrants sending remittances back to Nicaragua than one might expect, from responses of both Nicaraguan migrants and non-migrants.
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McLaughlin, Ivan. "Is there a Sheriff anymore? Vietnam’s legacy on US-Nicaraguan relations during the Carter Era, 1977-1981." Boolean: Snapshots of Doctoral Research at University College Cork, no. 2011 (January 1, 2011): 144–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.33178/boolean.2011.32.
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My project explores the extent to which the Vietnam legacy influenced US-Nicaraguan relations during the transition of power that took place in Nicaragua during James Earl Carter’s presidency. The Vietnam legacy is characterised by the increased influences of the US Congress, press, public and Latin America on US executive decisions. Understanding the role of the Vietnam legacy shows that the Carter administration had not regained the US’s ‘lost confidence.’ The US’s anxiety over Vietnam remained and left a void in the Western Hemisphere when Nicaragua needed guidance and assistance from the US during its political transition. On July 19, 1979, the forty-year old traditionally US backed dictatorship led by Anastasio Somoza Debayle was overthrown in Nicaragua by a coalition of Nicaraguans encompassing the business, academic, religious and working classes. Somoza’s opponents went on to create a new government for Nicaragua. Although they were initially euphoric in the aftermath of Somoza’s ...
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Gismondi, Michael, and Jeremy Mouat. "“La Enojosa Cuestión de Emery”: The Emery Claim in Nicaragua and American Foreign Policy, C. 1880-1910." Americas 65, no. 3 (January 2009): 375–409. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/tam.0.0075.
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This article will argue that a seemingly trivial dispute between the Nicaraguan government and an American lumber company operating on Nicaragua's Mosquito Coast escalated to become a major source of tension between the U.S. State Department and Nicaragua, as well as a catalyst that drew U.S. banks into Nicaragua. Despite its significance, the convoluted story of this dispute has attracted little scholarly attention. The importance of the Emery claim was widely acknowledged at the time, however. Stories about it appeared in contemporary newspapers and magazines, and it became a topic worthy of discussion by a U.S. Senate hearing. The claim was also connected to José Santos Zelaya's resignation as president of Nicaragua in the autumn of 1909, a gesture that came shortly after he had agreed to settle the Emery claim.
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Grossman, Nienke. "Territorial and Maritime Dispute." American Journal of International Law 107, no. 2 (April 2013): 396–403. http://dx.doi.org/10.5305/amerjintelaw.107.2.0396.
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On November 19, 2012, the International Court of Justice rendered its judgment in a dispute involving territorial and maritime claims raised by Nicaragua against Colombia in the Caribbean Sea. The Court considered Nicaragua’s requests for a declaration of Nicaraguan sovereignty over seven disputed maritime features and delimitation of a single maritime boundary between the continental shelves and exclusive economic zones appertaining to Nicaragua and Colombia. The Court awarded all disputed territory to Colombia and delimited the maritime boundary between the states’ continental shelves and exclusive economic zones by using a novel mix of weighted base points, geodetic lines, parallels of latitude, and enclaving.
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Martí i Puig, Salvador, and Macià Serra. "Nicaragua: De-democratization and Regime Crisis." Latin American Politics and Society 62, no. 2 (March 23, 2020): 117–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/lap.2019.64.
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ABSTRACTThe aim of this article is to analyze three key issues in current Nicaraguan politics and in the political debate surrounding hybrid regimes: de-democratization, political protest, and the fall of presidencies. First, it analyzes the process of de-democratization that has been taking place in Nicaragua since 2000. It shows that the 2008 elections were not competitive but characteristic of an electoral authoritarian regime. Second, it reflects on the kind of regime created in Nicaragua under Daniel Ortega’s mandate, focusing on the system’s inability to process any kind of protest and dissent. Third, it examines the extent to which the protests that broke out in April 2018 may predict the early end to Ortega’s presidency, or whether Nicaragua’s political crisis may lead to negotiations between the government and the opposition.
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Linsenmeyer, William S. "Foreign Nations, International Organizations, and Their Impact on Health Conditions in Nicaragua since 1979." International Journal of Health Services 19, no. 3 (July 1989): 509–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.2190/5fv4-w26a-adgt-kepb.
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In July 1979, a coalition of social forces in Nicaragua, under the leadership of the Sandinistas, toppled the discredited 43-year Somoza dictatorship. In addition to revolutionary Nicaragua's own substantial efforts, since 1979 international forces and developments have had profound impacts on the nation's ambitious social programs. This article investigates the impact of foreign nations and international organizations on Nicaragua's health conditions since 1979. Given or pledged assistance, for health and other social needs, has been forthcoming, for example, from Latin America, Western Europe, socialist countries, the United Nations, the Organization of American States, and the European Economic Community. International forces, however, have also had a negative impact on Nicaragua's health conditions. Since 1981, counter-revolutionary guerilla forces, known as contras, have fought the Nicaraguan government troops in a disastrous conflict, involving substantial international assistance for each side. The United States and several other nations have provided some form of aid to the contras. The war in Nicaragua has resulted in enormous human and material losses, and, of course, has adversely affected health conditions.
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Aguirre González, Medardo, Claudio Candia Campano, and Lilliam Antón López. "A Gravity Model of Trade for Nicaraguan Agricultural Exports." Cuadernos de Economía 37, no. 74 (July 1, 2018): 391–428. http://dx.doi.org/10.15446/cuad.econ.v37n74.55016.
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This research aims to find the determining factors of Nicaraguan agricultural exports. To carry out this study, the author formulated a Gravity Model of Trade (GMT) and then made an estimation using a version of Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) that incorporates a consistent covariance matrix estimator to correct the heteroskedasticity and autocorrelation effects. The data considered observations over twenty years and for twelve countries: eight have signed a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with Nicaragua and four have not. The variables that significantly increased the flow of Nicaraguan agricultural exports are the following: Nicaragua’s trading partners’ population, Nicaragua’s Gross Domestic Product per capita (GDP pc), the Real Exchange Rate (RER), and Nicaragua’s trading partners’ GDP pc; however, the distance variable turned out to be significantly trade-inhibiting. Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) predominantly have significant effects.
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Cerna, Christina M. "Resolution on the Situation in Nicaragua (OAS)." International Legal Materials 57, no. 6 (December 2018): 1146–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/ilm.2018.46.
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On July 18, 2018, the Organization of American States (OAS) adopted a resolution on the crisis situation in Nicaragua, almost thirty-nine years after the date of the triumph of the Nicaraguan Revolution over the dictator Anastasio Somoza. The crisis started three months earlier, on April 18, 2018, unexpectedly, when pro-government groups violently crushed a protest demonstration against reforms to Nicaragua's social security system announced by President Daniel Ortega's wife, Rosario Murillo. The “reforms” increased the contributions to be paid by workers and pensioners and decreased their benefits, in order to shore up the failing social security system, widely seen as a source of discretionary funds abused by previous governments. Corruption was not unique with Ortega. Arnoldo Aleman, for example, a former president of Nicaragua (1997–2002), was convicted in 2003 of money laundering, fraud, embezzlement, and electoral crimes, and sentenced to twenty years in prison. The demonstrators against the social security reform resented paying for the state's mismanagement of the system. Subsequently, as the demonstrations increased, the protesters equated Ortega with Somoza and called for his departure as they had done for Somoza's. Since April 18, some 400 Nicaraguan demonstrators have been killed and over 2,000 have been injured.
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Kassam, Narmin, Anne Fanning, Jose Ramon Cruz, and Alejandro Tardencilla. "Outcome of Tuberculosis Treatment: A Comparison between Alberta and Nicaragua." Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases 11, no. 2 (2000): 85–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2000/831067.
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OBJECTIVE: To measure the outcome of tuberculosis treatment in a low incidence, high income region, Alberta, and compare with an intermediate incidence, low income country with a model national tuberculosis program, Nicaragua.DESIGN: All 1992 sputum smear-positive pulmonary cases from both regions were included. Treatment outcome was assigned retrospectively to Alberta cases according to the International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Diseases' (IUATLD) criteria of cure, failure, transfer, absconder and death.SETTING: Alberta laboratories are required to report allMycobacterium tuberculosiscultures to Alberta provincial tuberculosis services. Nicaragua cases are reported centrally to the Programa de control de tuberculosis in Managua using the IUATLD criteria.MAIN RESULTS: In Alberta, 222 tuberculosis cases were identified, of which 61 were smear positive. Nicaragua had 1552 smear positive cases of 2885 tuberculosis cases. Alberta's outcomes were 82% cured, no failed treatment, 5% absconded, 2% transferred and 11% died; Nicaragua's outcomes were 77% cured, 2% failed, 13% absconded, 5% transferred and 4% died. There was no significant difference in cure rates between Alberta and Nicaragua, P=0.33.CONCLUSIONS: Treatment outcomes can be measured effectively and reported in high income, low incidence settings. Alberta is achieving comparable cure rates with the Nicaraguan national tuberculosis program.
10
Valenta, Jiri. "Nicaragua: Soviet-Cuban Pawn or Non-aligned Country?" Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 27, no. 3 (1985): 163–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/165605.
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It is now six years since the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) toppled the regime of Nicaraguan dictator Anastasio Somoza Debayle. Even today, the nature of the FSLN - its road to power, its political complexion and orientation, and its objectives - remains the subject of heated debate. Some still argue that the Sandinista regime is a nationalistic, non-aligned, although radical, Third World government. Others emphasize the Marxist-Leninist overtones characterizing its seizure and consolidation of power, its foreign relations, and its efforts to introduce socialist transformation to Nicaraguan society.Basically, there are two exaggerated views of Nicaraguan foreign policy: one depicts Nicaragua as a communist pawn of Moscow and Havana; the other views Nicaragua as a classical non-aligned Third World nation. Neither school of thought reflects the complex reality of Nicaraguan politics and foreign policy.
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Martínez-Fonseca, José Gabriel, Julio Loza, Maynor Fernandez, Milton Salazar-Saavedra, and Javier Sunyer. "First country record of Rhinobothryum bovallii (Andersson, 1916) (Squamata, Colubridae) from Nicaragua." Check List 15, no. 4 (July 5, 2019): 555–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.15560/15.4.555.
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We report on the first definite record of the False Tree Coral Snake, Rhinobothryum bovallii (Andersson, 1916), from Nicaragua based on one specimen from the Refugio Bartola, department of Río San Juan, southeastern Nicaragua. The newly found specimen narrows a 510 km distributional gap between occurrences from near the Honduran–Nicaraguan border and the nearest occurrence in Costa Rica.
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Snyder, Emily. "“Cuba, Nicaragua, Unidas Vencerán”: Official Collaborations between the Sandinista and Cuban Revolutions." Americas 78, no. 4 (October 2021): 609–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/tam.2021.5.
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AbstractThe Cuban and Sandinista Revolutions stand together as Latin America's two socialist revolutions achieved through guerrilla insurgency in the latter half of the twentieth century. But beyond studies that demonstrate that Cuba militarily trained and supported the Sandinistas before, during, and after their guerrilla phase, and observations that the two countries were connected by the bonds of socialist revolution, the nature of Cuba and Nicaragua's revolutionary relationship remains little explored. This article traces exchanges of people and expertise between each revolutionary state's Ministry of Foreign Relations and Ministry of Culture. It employs diplomatic and institutional archives, personal collections, and oral interviews to demonstrate the deep involvement of Cuban experts in building the Sandinista state. Yet, Cuban advice may have exacerbated tensions within Nicaragua. This article also shows that tensions marked the day-to-day realities of Cubans and Nicaraguans tasked with carrying out collaborations, revealing their layered and often contradictory nature. Illuminating high-level policy in terms of Cuban-Nicaraguan exchanges and how they unfolded on the ground contributes to new international histories of the Sandinista and Cuban revolutions by shifting away from North-South perspectives to focus instead on how the Sandinistas navigated collaboration with their most important regional ally.
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Ndumu, Ana, and Lorraine Mon. "An investigation of the experiences of Nicaraguan Costeño librarians." IFLA Journal 44, no. 2 (April 19, 2018): 106–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0340035218764496.
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This research examines the experiences of librarians in Bluefields, Nicaragua. Semi-structured interviews and photovoice activities were used to investigate librarians’ professional development, daily operations, and ways of meeting the information needs of Costeños—or, Miskitu, Rama, and Sumu indigenous groups as well as African-descending Creoles. The findings suggest that librarians’ accounts coincide with established knowledge on Nicaragua's library landscape: libraries are predominantly formal and education-related; Nicaraguan society values oral knowledge or word-of-mouth information; and when compared with academic libraries, Nicaraguan public libraries are fewer and lack resources. Libraries on the Atlantic coast can strengthen their services through collaborations as well as culturally-based services. Additionally, the photovoice technique was found to be an effective tool for conducting research involving multicultural communities.
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Perera Lumbí, Juan Francisco. "Ranking de artículos más leídos de la URACCAN publicados en sus revistas electrónicas con acceso abierto." Ciencia e Interculturalidad 13, no. 2 (December 18, 2013): 21–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.5377/rci.v13i2.1275.
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Este estudio muestra el ranking de los artículos más leídos de la Revista Ciencia e Interculturalidad y la Revista Universitaria Caribe; así ha inducir una reflexión interna en las universidades nicaragüenses, con énfasis en la Universidad de las Regiones Autónomas de la Costa Caribe Nicaragüense (URACCAN), sobre las ventajas de la difusión de resultados de investigaciones desde las revistas electrónicas tanto en el uso de acceso abierto y de software de código abierto como Open Journal Systems (OJS).Entre los resultados sobresalen: i) La revista digital Ciencia e Interculturalidad Incorporada en el Portal de Revistas Nacionales de Nicaragua, Portal del Sistema Regional de Información en Línea para revistas científicas de América Latina, el Caribe y Portugal (Latindex) y en el portal de Latin American Journals Online (Lamjol). ii) Ciencia e Interculturalidad, en Latin American Jornal online (Lamjol) recibió un total de 53,757 visitas desde marzo 2011 a octubre 2013; en el Portal de Revistas de Nicaragua recibió un total de 12,522 visitas en revisión a resúmenes y 13,881 para revisar o descargar artículo completo en PDF, del 2012 a noviembre del 2013; y en el Portal de Revistas de URACCAN recibió un total de 18,661 visitas para revisar resúmenes y 32,254 para revisar o descargar artículo completo en pdf, durante junio 2011 a octubre 2013. iii). El Consejo Nicaragüense de Ciencia y Tecnología de Nicaragua (CONICYT), entregó en noviembre del 2013, un reconocimiento a la revista “por su esfuerzo en elevar la calidad y aplicación de los criterios de LATINDEX y lograr visibilidad de la producción científica de Nicaragua en LAMJOL”.SummaryThis study shows the ranking of the most read articles in the Science and Interculturality Magazine and the Caribbean University Magazine, which induce and brought across an internal reflection within Nicaraguan universities, with emphasis on the University of the Autonomous Regions of the Nicaraguan Caribbean Coast (URACCAN), regarding the benefits of disseminating research results from electronic magazines by using both open access and open source software code such as Open Journal Systems (OJS).Among the results we highlight: i) The digital magazine Science and Interculturality, incorporated in the Nicaragua’s National Magazine Portal, Portal Online Regional Information System for scientific magazines of Latin America, the Caribbean and Portugal (Latindex) and the portal Latin American Journals Online (Lamjol). ii) Science and Interculturality in Latin American Journals Online (Lamjol) received a total of 53.757 visitors since March 2011 to October 2013; the Portal of Journals of Nicaragua received a total of 12,522 visits that reviewed abstracts and 13,881 to review or download full article in PDF, from 2012 to November 2013. And the Portal of Journals of URACCAN received a total of 18,661 visits to review abstracts and 32,254 to review or to download full article in PDF during June 2011 to October 2013. iii). The Nicaraguan Council of Science and Technology (CONICYT), delivered in November 2013, a recognition to the magazine "for their efforts in raising the quality and application of the LATINDEX criteria’s and to achieve visibility of scientific production in LAMJOL - Nicaragua".
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Pisani, Michael J. "Contemporary Female Entrepreneurship in Nicaragua." AD-minister, no. 33 (December 12, 2018): 5–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.17230//ad-minister.33.1.
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Women are important entrepreneurial actors within the Nicaraguan economic ecosystem. Majority fe-male-owned firms comprise 32.7% of all urban Nicaraguan formal enterprises; these ownership rates far exceed the regional (21.8%) or global averages (14.5%). Within Nicaragua, self-employment rates for women (43.3%) surpass that of men (28.3%). This article describes the contemporary Nicaraguan entrepreneurial landscape for female-owned enterprises using the 2016 Nicaraguan Enterprise Survey of 333 formal sector urban-based firms conducted by the World Bank. Principal multivariate results include the concentration of female top management with majority female-ownership, the role of the informal sector in spawning formal female enterprises, and size constraints of female-owned enterprises.
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DeGrave, Analisa. "Radio of Flesh and Bone: Community Radio in the Authoritarian and Patriarchal Context of Today’s Nicaragua." Conjunctions 10, no. 1 (October 1, 2023): 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/tjcp-2023-0006.
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Abstract In A Passion for Radio: Training of Trainers José Ignacio López Vigil asserts that community radio “is (made) of flesh and bone” (2015, p. 25). In the context of authoritarianism and patriarchy in today’s Nicaragua these words suggest at least three meanings. One recalls threats to the lives and livelihoods of Nicaraguans that work for Nicaragua’s surviving independent media, including community radio, particularly following the political and humanitarian crisis that began in April 2018. Community radio as “flesh and bone” also relates to the bodies of its listening public and is examined in this paper through the prism of the feminist community radio station, Radio Vos (Radio You 101.7 FM). Radio as “flesh and bone” also serves as a metaphor for community radio’s material and operational existence, a body that functions via multiple interworking parts and systems. In discussing the challenges facing community radio in Nicaragua, this essay incorporates excerpts from an interview with Argentina Olivas, the director of Radio Vos.
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Bederman, David J. "Border and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and Admissibiuty." American Journal of International Law 83, no. 2 (April 1989): 353–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2202749.
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On July 28, 1986, the Republic of Nicaragua filed an application instituting proceedings against the Republic of Honduras in the International Court of Justice. Nicaragua alleged that Honduras had allowed armed bands, known as contras, to operate from its territory to the detriment of Nicaraguan sovereignty, that Honduran military forces had directly participated in attacks on Nicaragua and that the Government of Honduras had given material aid and logistical support to the rebels. Nicaragua requested that the Court declare the acts and omissions of Honduras to be violations of international law and order it to desist from all such activities and to make reparations to Nicaragua. Honduras objected to the jurisdiction of the Court and to the admissibility of the Application. The parties subsequently agreed that the Court should first decide these questions before proceeding to the merits. Relying on the Pact of Bogotá for its jurisdictional rationale, the Court unanimously held: that it had jurisdiction and that the Application could be entertained.
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Huete-Pérez, Jorge A., Eduardo Mendoza-Ramírez, and Lucía Páiz-Medina. "Genomic Biorepository of Coastal Marine Species in Estero Padre Ramos and Estero Real, Nicaragua." Encuentro, no. 93 (December 10, 2012): 6–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.5377/encuentro.v0i93.908.
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Nicaragua, located in southern Mesoamerica between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, has acted as a land bridge for flora and fauna migrating between North and South America during the last 3 million years. Because of Nicaragua’s location and history, it is rich in terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity. To study this biodiversity and preserve it for the future, Nicaragua’s Molecular Biology Center at the University of Central America (CBM-UCA) created the Genomic Biorepository Project. The Project collects and catalogs coastal marine biodiversity in the Estero Real and Padre Ramos estuaries, located in Nicaragua’s northern Pacific region.The biorepository holds more than three thousand tissue and genomic specimens, comprising 1,049 samples (714 specimens from Estero Padre Ramos and 335 from Estero Real) belonging to 100 species and 54 families, genomic extracts in triplicates for every sample collected and environmental sandy sediments representing 60 different sites. Changes in the biological composition of the region were documentedas compared to previous sampling. Of the 1,049 samples obtained from the two estuaries, 30 new residents were recorded in Estero Real, and 19 in Estero Padre Ramos. The Cytochrome Oxidase I (COI) gene was sequenced for a number of species, including 19 fish species, and published to public databases (BOLD SYSTEMS). The records contained in the genomic biorepository here described lay the foundation for the most complete marine biodiversity database in Nicaragua and is made available to national and international specialists, facilitating knowledge of Nicaraguan biodiversity.
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Baker, Suzanne M., and Ruth Ann Armitage. "Cueva La Conga: First Karst Cave Archaeology in Nicaragua." Latin American Antiquity 24, no. 3 (September 2013): 309–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.7183/1045-6635.24.3.309.
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Cueva la Conga, recorded in June 2006, is the first limestone cave in Nicaragua reported to contain prehistoric rock paintings, culturally modified natural formations called speleothems, and artifacts. Located in northcentral Nicaragua in the Department of Jinotega, Cueva la Conga is the farthest south on the Mesoamerican periphery that a cave of this type has been reported, and it extends our knowledge of ritual cave use, including cave painting and speleothem modification, to include Nicaragua. Radiocarbon analysis of charcoal in five samples of the paint, the first such dating of Nicaraguan rock art, yielded calibrated dates from cal A.D. 680—905 to cal A.D. 1403—1640. The baseline data provided by Cueva la Conga are of great importance for regional rock art analysis and for our growing understanding of regional and Nicaraguan prehistory. More archaeological survey and excavations in the area will be key in establishing a firm cultural context for the rock art and ritual cave use found at Cueva la Conga.
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Braveman, Paula, and David Siegel. "Nicaragua: A Health System Developing under Conditions of War." International Journal of Health Services 17, no. 1 (January 1987): 169–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.2190/db43-mwpl-2v12-wgxy.
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Since its inception in 1979, the Nicaraguan National Health System has dramatically improved health care in Nicaragua through the provision of universal coverage, emphasis on preventive community-based primary care, and community participation in health activities. Of major importance in the development of the health system has been the decentralization of the administration, planning, and implementation of health programs. The war in Nicaragua has had a major impact on the development of the health system. Nicaraguan health personnel and facilities have been the objects of attack by the contras and scarce resources have been diverted from the development of social programs to military activities. A large refugee population has been created which further strains existing resources. Community-based preventive health programs have been adversely affected, particularly in rural areas where military activity is the most intense. Because of the war, efforts to optimize regionalization of the health system have been retarded. Economic pressures both within Nicaragua resulting from the war and within the entire Latin American area have further hampered efforts for development. Continued major improvements in health care in Nicaragua will depend on a settlement of the present military conflict which is draining resources in all sectors of development, including health.
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Antsygina, Ekaterina, and Bernardo Pérez-Salazar. "Sovereign Rights on the Extended Continental Shelf: The Case of the Nicaraguan Rise in the Western Caribbean." International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 35, no. 4 (April 8, 2020): 772–800. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15718085-bja10006.
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Abstract In 2016, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) ruled on Colombia’s preliminary objections to Nicaragua’s claim over the extended continental shelf in the Western Caribbean, which forms part of a submarine geographic feature known as the ‘Nicaraguan Rise’. This article recalls the long-standing Nicaragua–Colombia conflict over islands and maritime zones and analyses the 2012 and 2016 ICJ decisions with respect to the correlation between the distance and natural prolongation criteria. The article also addresses the role of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf in delimitation, and concludes by discussing the geopolitical consequences of the future ICJ ruling concerning the delimitation of the extended continental shelf.
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Reichler, Paul S. "The Nicaragua Case: A Response to Judge Schwebel." American Journal of International Law 106, no. 2 (April 2012): 316–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.5305/amerjintelaw.106.2.0316.
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Judge Stephen Schwebel has every right to attack the International Court of Justice's judgment in the Nicaragua case and to defend his dissenting opinion. But he goes too far when he accuses Nicaragua of perpetrating a "fraud on the Court." A response is appropriate, especially from counsel cited by Judge Schwebel for "proposing, developing, and arguing Nicaragua's case."
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Gould, Jeffrey L. "‘For an Organized Nicaragua’: Somoza and the Labour Movement, 1944–1948." Journal of Latin American Studies 19, no. 2 (November 1987): 353–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022216x00020113.
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The historiography of the Nicaraguan workers' movement suffers from two basic problems: an extreme paucity and dispersion of primary sources and a tendency to compensate with analytic frameworks for what is lacking in substance. The triumph of a revolutionary movement in 1979, genuinely interested in allowing the Nicaraguan people to become ‘dueños de su historia’, has stimulated the search for primary source materials and has awakened the interest of historians in the trajectory of class struggle in Nicaragua. However, if at this moment, we do not confront fundamental methodological problems this new search for the past will offer precious little illumination on the problems of class development and conflict in contemporary Nicaragua.
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Gould, Jeffrey L. "The Enchanted Burro, Bayonets and the Business of Making Sugar: State, Capital, and Labor Relations in the Ingenio San Antonio, 1912-1926." Americas 46, no. 2 (October 1989): 159–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1007081.
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Since the 1920s, the San Antonio sugar mill in Chichigalpa, Nicaragua has been that country's largest manufacturing establishment. The ingenio (the sugar mill along with the plantation) employed close to 2,000 workers in 1920, and has since consistently employed far more workers than any other single enterprise. The owners of San Antonio were—and continue to be—the most economically powerful group within the Nicaraguan elite, In contemporary Nicaragua, the above affirmations remain valid: San Antonio is still the largest employer and economically most powerful financial group in the country.Any consideration of the development of Nicaraguan capitalism must take into account the history of the Ingenio San Antonio (ISA). In this article, I will examine the development of relations among labor, management, and the state in San Antonio from the 1890s until 1930 using archival and oral sources. Throughout this period, politics and economics were inseparable for the workers. Particularly after the U.S. Marines occupied Nicaragua in 1912 and bolstered the Conservative regime, the political Liberalism of the San Antonio workers was something of a popular revolutionary
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Geleta, Mulatu, Isabel Herrera, Arnulfo Monzón, and Tomas Bryngelsson. "Genetic Diversity of Arabica Coffee (Coffea arabicaL.) in Nicaragua as Estimated by Simple Sequence Repeat Markers." Scientific World Journal 2012 (2012): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1100/2012/939820.
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Coffea arabicaL. (arabica coffee), the only tetraploid species in the genusCoffea, represents the majority of the world’s coffee production and has a significant contribution to Nicaragua’s economy. The present paper was conducted to determine the genetic diversity of arabica coffee in Nicaragua for its conservation and breeding values. Twenty-six populations that represent eight varieties in Nicaragua were investigated using simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers. A total of 24 alleles were obtained from the 12 loci investigated across 260 individual plants. The total Nei’s gene diversity (HT) and the within-population gene diversity (HS) were 0.35 and 0.29, respectively, which is comparable with that previously reported from other countries and regions. Among the varieties, the highest diversity was recorded in the variety Catimor. Analysis of variance (AMOVA) revealed that about 87% of the total genetic variation was found within populations and the remaining 13% differentiate the populations (FST=0.13;P<0.001). The variation among the varieties was also significant. The genetic variation in Nicaraguan coffee is significant enough to be used in the breeding programs, and most of this variation can be conserved throughex situconservation of a low number of populations from each variety.
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Rowles, James P. "“Secret Wars,” Self-Defense and the Charter—A Reply to Professor Moore." American Journal of International Law 80, no. 3 (July 1986): 568–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2201774.
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In a recent article entitled The Secret War in Central America and the Future of World Order, Professor John Norton Moore, a staunch defender of United States actions toward Nicaragua, sets forth a comprehensive array of factual assertions and legal arguments to support his conclusions that support by the United States of Nicaraguan counterrevolutionaries or “contras” and its own actions against Nicaragua are justified as collective self-defense under international law. He also presents arguments to support his conclusion that the International Court of Justice has so exceeded its authority in exercising jurisdiction in the case of Nicaragua v. United States that its decisions are void, and consequently may be ignored by the United States—or, for that matter, Nicaragua. Professor Moore’s analysis and conclusions differ sharply from those of the present writer. It should therefore be useful to identify the main points of disagreement, and to suggest the policy implications of the different legal arguments and conclusions.
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Martínez-Fonseca, José Gabriel, Iris A. Holmes, Javier Sunyer, Erin P. Westeen, Maggie R. Grundler, Peter A. Cerda, Maynor A. Fernández-Mena, et al. "A collection and analysis of amphibians and reptiles from Nicaragua with new country and departmental records." Check List 20, no. 1 (January 18, 2024): 58–125. http://dx.doi.org/10.15560/20.1.58.
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Nicaragua is a biodiverse country, but documented herpetological specimens are underrepresented compared to neighboring countries. In 2018 we conducted a collaborative expedition between the University of Michigan Museum of Zoology and Nicaraguan biologists. We visited sites in the Pacific Low‑ lands, Caribbean Lowlands, and the Central Highlands, representing the three major biogeographic regions of Nicaragua. We collected specimens of 100 species from a total of 106 encountered. We provide acces‑ sion numbers and morphological, genetic, and ecological information for these specimens. We recorded 23 new departmental records and the first country record of Metlapilcoatlus indomitus (Smith & Ferrari‑Castro, 2008), filling gaps in the known distribution of the species within Nicaragua and across Central America. When available for each species, we provide range maps and comparative genetic trees including conspecific reference sequences from the region, making this work a significant addition to existing checklists of the herpetofauna in Nicaragua.
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Bagley, Bruce Michael. "Contadora: The Failure of Diplomacy." Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 28, no. 3 (1986): 1–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/165705.
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By Mid-1986, The Contadora Group's search for a negotiated peace in Central America had reached a seemingly insurmountable impasse. Negotiations were deadlocked over the issues of arms limitations, democratization, and US support for the Nicaraguan counter-revolutionaries (contrarevolucionarios or contras). The United States and its closest Central American allies - Costa Rica, Honduras and El Salvador - demanded that Nicaragua reduce the size of its armed forces and install a democratic political system before they would end support for the contras Nicaragua's Sandinistas, in turn, refused to disarm until the United States and its Central American neighbors halted their support for the contras, they also rejected all proposals for direct negotiations with the contras.
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Stumpf, B. Cameron, and Kelly B. T. Chang. "Resilience in Nicaragua: Preliminary Factor Analysis and Validation of the CYRM-28." International Journal of Child and Adolescent Resilience 8, no. 1 (June 7, 2021): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/1077722ar.
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Objectives: The current study used factor analytic techniques to examine the performance of the Child and Youth Resilience Measure (CYRM-28) in Nicaragua.
Method: Nicaraguan youth from Managua, León, Chinandega, and Granada (n = 2,764) completed the CYRM-28 and the Personal Wellbeing Index (PWI-A). The CYRM-28 and PWI-A are self-report measures that were translated into Spanish in previous studies.
Results: A confirmatory factor analysis on the CYRM-28 did not support the eight-factor model from previous research. An exploratory factor analysis yielded a six-factor model: Social Belonging, Cultural Context, Caregiver Context, Social Skills, Spiritual Context, and Responsibility. Seven items were removed to improve model fit, reducing the CYRM-28 to only 21 items. We named this the CYRM-21-N (Nicaragua). Conclusion: The CYRM-28 did not yield an eight-factor structure in our data from Nicaraguan youth.
Implications: From our analyses, we constructed the CYRM-21-N, a briefer version of the CYRM-28 with a revised factor structure. The CYRM-21-N may be useful in studying youth populations or assessing intervention outcomes in Nicaragua.
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Pérez, Mijail, A. Meyrat, J. Zolotoff, O. Saldaña, A. Medina, G. A. Ruiz, and M. Sotelo. "Conservation of endemic species in the national system of protected areas from Nicaragua." UNED Research Journal 5, no. 2 (November 20, 2013): 271–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.22458/urj.v5i2.271.
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Nicaragua, in the framework of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), agreed to establish a “Representative system of protected areas that adequately conserve biodiversity and terrestrial, marine and inland water ecosystems”. Pursuant to the above, we conducted a Gap Analysis of Biodiversity Conservation for the National System of Protected Areas (SINAP) of Nicaragua, focused on terrestrial and inland water ecosystems as well as on terrestrial species. This paper presents the results of the analysis of the conservation status of the endemic species in the national system of protected areas of Nicaragua. The groups considered for analysis were plants, mollusks, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. Data presented came from reviewing books, scientific papers, management plans of protected areas and unpublished reports by the authors, and nearly 140 websites. Of the 75 plant species and 31 animal species considered in the analysis, 25 species have some distribution points within the SINAP (ten of them have only one point). There are 80 species apparently absent from the SINAP. Nicaraguan endemic species are severely unprotected.KEY WORDSEndemism, conservation, protected areas, Nicaragua, mollusks, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, plants
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Reed, Jean-Pierre. "Religious Dialogue in the Nicaraguan Revolution." Politics and Religion 1, no. 2 (July 1, 2008): 270–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1755048308000205.
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AbstractThis article is an historical study of the Nicaraguan revolution that makes a case in favor of interpreting revolutionary stances/action as driven by religious dialogue. To this end, seminary dialogues that assumed revolutionary significance during the 1970s in Solentiname, Nicaragua, are studied. Institutional shifts in religious meaning, both in the region and Nicaragua, are historically detailed. Three dialogues fromThe Gospel in Solentiname, a four-volume collection of Bible-centered dialogues, are analyzed. These are evaluated in terms of their role for revolutionary outlooks. Innovative and developmental features of dialogue are identified in order to underscore the revolutionary potential of dialogue.
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RocaMartinez, Silvia. "“¿Qué sos, Nicaragua, para dolerme tanto?” Gioconda Belli and the Nicaraguan Cause”." International Journal of Language and Literary Studies 2, no. 3 (September 30, 2021): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.36892/ijlls.v2i3.703.
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This article traces Gioconda Belli’s trajectory as a writer, feminist, and political activist. Belli, who is known as one of the organic intellectuals of the Nicaraguan Sandinista Revolution, has consistently used her platform as one of the most renowned contemporary Latin American writers to provide a voice that transcends national borders to the Nicaraguan cause since the early 1970s. Through the analysis of some of her most notable works, some of her contributions in the national and international press, as well as social media publications, we examine the way her many roles have informed each other over the years and accomplished a two-fold goal: on the one hand, she has documented and theorized on the recent history of Nicaragua, in addition to keeping those in power in check; on the other hand, she has become one of the foremothers of Nicaraguan feminism. As this article shows, not only has she crafted—both in writing and action— a roadmap for younger generations of women, but she has also documented and influenced the evolution of feminism in Nicaragua.
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Espinoza-Miranda, Suyén E., Julio A. Gómez-Rodríguez, and Jorge Huete-Pérez. "Mining for Restriction Endonucleases in Nicaragua." Encuentro, no. 93 (December 10, 2012): 49–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.5377/encuentro.v0i93.910.
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The Molecular Biology Center at the University of Central America in Nicaragua(CBM-UCA) was founded in 1999 to strengthen biotechnology research capacity and education in Nicaragua and the Central American region. One of the first projects launched by the CBM-UCA was bio-prospecting for key industrial enzymes. This ongoing study seeks to discover and characterize restriction enzymes (RE) in bacteria, and to create a database of microorganisms isolated and identified by 16S rDNA sequencing methodology. In this paper we highlight the importance of studying the extreme environmental conditions for building knowledge of Nicaraguan biodiversity through modern molecular biology techniques such as metagenomics. The isolation of prototype enzymes such as EcoRV and ClaI is presented as an update and extension of previously undertaken work.
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Adams, Anna. "Missionaries and Revolutionaries: Moravian Perceptions of United States Foreign Policy in Nicaragua, 1926–1933." Missiology: An International Review 15, no. 2 (April 1987): 49–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/009182968701500204.
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German Moravian missionaries came to Nicaragua's east coast in 1849. They built churches, schools, and hospitals for the native Miskitu, Sumu, and Rama Indians. Their teachings stressed a Christian communal life, frugality, and the importance of work. In 1917 the headquarters of the mission moved to Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. Today most Miskitu Indians are Moravian. Some scholars have blamed the present conflict between Nicaragua's Sandinista government and the east coast Indians on traditional Moravian pro-American political bias. Yet documents in the Moravian Church Archives clearly show that during the period when Sandino was active fighting the U.S. presence in Nicaragua (1926–1933) the American missionaries in Nicaragua were hardly sympathetic with U.S. political goals which often conflicted with the mission's evangelical work.
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Whisnant, David E. "Ruben Dario as a Focal Cultural Figure in Nicaragua: The Ideological Uses of Cultural Capital." Latin American Research Review 27, no. 3 (1992): 7–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0023879100037213.
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Most of the critical commentary on Nicaraguan poet Rubén Dario has been called forth and shaped by his being a seminal pan-Latin American and an international literary figure. Less known is the fact that for more than a century, Darío has been the focus of a much contested discourse concerning national cultural identity within Nicaragua itself. Comprehending this more limited and focused discourse requires carefully analyzing the changing cultural-political constructions that Darío's fellow Nicaraguans have placed upon his life and work, and especially the role of ideology in those constructs. Such analysis can also offer insight into the role of focal Latin American cultural figures in the negotiation of national cultural identity, especially during periods of dramatic political transformation, crisis, and reconstruction like the Somoza era (1936–1979) and the Sandinista Revolution (1961–1989).
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Ruíz, Javier, Allan Gutiérrez, Osmar Arróliga, Luis Martín Arauz, and Oscar Flores. "El topo de bolsillo nicaragüense Orthogeomys matagalpae J.A. Allen, 1910 (Familia Geomyidae) en el bosque de neblina de Santo Domingo (Chontales), Nicaragua." Encuentro, no. 103 (May 23, 2016): 40–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.5377/encuentro.v0i103.2691.
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Realizamos la captura de un espécimen de topo de bolsillo nicaragüense - conocido en inglés como “Nicaraguan pocket gopher” (Orthogeomys matagalpae) en Santo Domingo (Chontales) en Nicaragua. El topo de bolsillo nicaragüense es una especie de roedor que pertenece a la familia Geomyidae.
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Miani, Rozinaldo Antonio. "Uma análise discursivo-imagética dos cartazes políticos na Nicarágua Sandinista (1979-1990)." Comunicación, propaganda y movimientos revolucionarios en la historia, Especial (May 31, 2022): 43–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.24137/raeic.9.e.3.
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In July 1979 the Popular Revolution in Nicaragua, led by the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN), became victorious. The first years after the revolutionary insurrection were marked by the implementation of a broad program of social transformations. The struggles and experiences built throughout the 1980s, which marked the construction of a new identity and everyday culture in Sandinista Nicaragua, were promoted and recorded through posters that presented or disseminated values and ideas for the new times to come. The graphic documents that illustrated the political-cultural awakening of the Nicaraguan people reveal the challenges faced and the achievements obtained in their struggle for the right of self-determination and for the conduct of a process of revolutionary transformation of society. In this sense, the objective of this article was to carry out a discursive-imagery analysis of the production of political posters in Sandinista Nicaragua during the 1980s, verifying how a discursive-ideological formation centered on the exaltation of nationalism constituted itself as a driving force for the advancement of the objectives of the Nicaraguan revolution. As a result, we found that the graphic posters used in the context of the great campaigns of the Sandinista government were constituted as communicative practices of ideological propaganda and fulfilled an educational and politicizing function, as well as popular mobilization in defense of the Revolution.
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Moro, Diana. "Rubén Darío en el debate sobre la literatura nacional nicaragüense." (an)ecdótica 5, no. 1 (January 29, 2021): 61–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.19130/iifl.anec.2021.5.1.19784.
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The debate on literature in Nicaragua, at various moments in the country’s history, is elaborated on the figure, aesthetics, and work of Rubén Darío. Not only the birth and death of the poet on vernacular soil are central aspects in the appropriation made, but above all, the international cultural capital built through his wandering life and cosmopolitanism in his work. The appropriation of his aesthetics, as well as the distancing and debates about his contribution, persist in various moments of Nicaraguan literary history. We will explore some interventions by Nicaraguan intellectuals who are members of the Avant-garde Group, above all, their subsequent critical review and the contribution that Ventana magazine made in the 1960s. Finally, it will be observed that during the revolutionary decade, 1979-1989, the figure of Darío concentrates, at least, two simultaneous appropriations, the “anti-imperialist” and the “half-blood”. Both perspectives coincide in the conviction that, in Nicaragua, there would be no literature without the magisterium of Darío.
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Rykhtik, Mikhail. "The profile of Nicaragua’s economic elite. The limits of political influence during the presidency of D. Ortega." Latinskaia Amerika, no. 5 (2023): 6. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s0044748x0025402-1.
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The article studies the dynamics of Nicaragua’s economic elite which helps to define it and assess its ability to influence political process of the country. The analysis of the evolution of Nicaraguan big business reveals its high adaptability to ever-changing social conditions. As a result, the reaction of economic elite to the Sandinista revolution demonstrates its strategy and tactics concerning restructuring of the assets. The authors pay special attention to the Supreme Council of Private Enterprise (Consejo Superior de la Empresa Privada, COSEP) which serves as a main representative of collective interests of the Nicaraguan capital. The article examines the relationship between the left-wing radical partisan Sandinista National Liberation Front (Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional, FSLN) and national elite as well. It has transformed from hostile confrontation at the end of 20th century to a tactical alliance in the 2010s. The article concludes with an analysis of existing tensions between Sandinistas and big business as well as the prospects for the transition of power in Nicaragua.
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Booth, John A., and Patricia Bayer Richard. "Revolution's Legacy: Residual Effects on Nicaraguan Participation and Attitudes in Comparative Context." Latin American Politics and Society 48, no. 02 (2006): 117–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-2456.2006.tb00349.x.
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Abstract A longstanding scholarly debate asks what lasting changes revolution makes in political attitudes and behaviors. Scholars generally regard revolution as transformative, but research on revolution's behavioral and cultural legacies after transfers of state power has been limited. This study explores revolution's residual impact on individuals' electoral participation, civil society engagement, and social capital by comparing postrevolutionary Nicaraguans to their Central American neighbors. Using survey data on comparable samples of urban Central Americans, the research found higher electoral engagement in Nicaragua than in the other nations in the region that experienced major insurgencies but not revolution. It also found among Nicaraguans greater support for civil disobedience, greater school and union activism, and more frequent leftist political identification. Although revolution did leave residual effects in Nicaragua, more significant influence appears to have decayed rapidly.
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Millett, Richard L. "Nicaragua." Current History 89, no. 543 (January 1, 1990): 21–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/curh.1990.89.543.21.
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Jackson, Gale. "Nicaragua." Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 13, no. 1 (1992): 40. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3346943.
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Tomaševski, Katarina. "Nicaragua." Human Rights in Development Online 2, no. 1 (1995): 203–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/221160895x00097.
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Zalkin, Michael. "Nicaragua." Latin American Perspectives 15, no. 4 (October 1988): 71–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0094582x8801500404.
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Peterson, Connie. "Nicaragua." Journal of Christian Nursing 24, no. 1 (January 2007): 32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005217-200701000-00010.
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Delgado Rocha, Byron Antonio. "Nicaragua." Actualidades Investigativas en Educación 20, no. 2 (May 1, 2020): 1–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.15517/aie.v20i2.41600.
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Este artículo analiza los resultados de una investigación curricular realizada en Nicaragua, en el período 2018-2019 y en la modalidad regular, provisto por el Ministerio de Educación de Nicaragua y gestionado por las escuelas normales, que otorga el título de Maestro de Educación Primaria y que se cursa simultáneamente con la secundaria a partir del noveno grado. El propósito fue contrastar lo que la evidencia teórica marca como necesario saber y poder hacer para enseñar a leer y escribir en educación inicial, y el contenido del plan de formación del profesorado de Educación Primaria. La metodología responde a un enfoque cualitativo que se basó en el mapeo del currículo, entrevistas a docentes formadoras y en formación y observaciones de clases de las asignaturas relacionadas con las dimensiones sobre desarrollo infantil, contenidos sobre lectoescritura inicial y evaluación. Entre sus principales resultados, se destaca que existe una alineación parcial e insuficiente del contenido del currículo en relación con la evidencia. Se detectaron brechas relacionadas con la carencia de contenidos, bibliografía y tiempo con respecto a la necesidad real de la formación. También se encontró que en muchas líneas lo prescrito es diferente a lo implemento debido al contexto y las experiencias individuales e institucionales de las docentes formadoras. La investigación concluye que se están evadiendo ámbitos clave para asegurar los procesos de aprendizaje de la lectoescritura inicial. No se está considerando los aportes de la evidencia teórica en el plan de formación inicial docente, y no se cuenta con el tiempo suficiente para la enseñanza y la práctica sobre lectoescritura inicial.
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Meiselas, Susan. "Nicaragua." NACLA Report on the Americas 50, no. 3 (July 3, 2018): 248–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10714839.2018.1525032.
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Parajón, Gustavo. "Nicaragua." Transformation: An International Journal of Holistic Mission Studies 2, no. 1 (January 1985): 4–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026537888500200104.
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Ramírez-Ayérdiz, Danny. "Nicaragua." Realidad, Revista de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades 1, no. 162 (July 31, 2023): 16–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.51378/realidad.v1i162.7729.
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En este trabajo el autor busca generar explicaciones respecto de la relación entre la memoria y la violencia política del “pasado reciente” nicaragüense iniciado en 1979 en ocasión de la revolución sandinista. El autor considera que la memoria respecto de ese pasado reciente es, considerablemente, “institucional”, es decir, moldeada tanto por el Estado como por los intereses de las élites, las cuales han sido protagonistas de una violencia política recurrente sin la cual no se podría dar contenido y sentido a la historia del país. Se propone el “redimensionamiento” de la violencia como una tarea primordial y urgente a fin de “desencuadrar” y democratizar la memoria nicaragüense, institucionalizada, reflejo de los proyectos de las élites, especialmente en el marco de la espiral represiva que perpetra contra la población el gobierno de Daniel Ortega desde 2018. Realidad: Revista de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades No. 162, 2023: 16-35.
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Scruggs, T. M., John McCutcheon, Paul Reisler, Bill Nowlin, and David Blair Stiffler. "Nicaragua... Presente! - Music from Nicaragua Libre." Latin American Music Review / Revista de Música Latinoamericana 12, no. 1 (1991): 84. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/780055.
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