Academic literature on the topic 'Non-innocent'

En la majoria dels exemples clàssics de catàlisis homogènia, el focus cau en el centre metàl·lic, el qual és el que duu a terme la reacció, mentre que els lligands juguen un rol principalment d'espectadors. Així, l'aproximació inicial per modificar la reactivitat dels sistemas era reemplaçar el metall. Aquest ha sigut el punt inicial en la majoria dels treballs en catálisis homogènia amb complexos organometàl·lics. La modificació de les propietats estèriques o electròniques dels lligands afecta el metall, i pot tindre un gran impacte en el resultat de la reacció: rendiment més alt, millor selectivitat o supressió de reaccions no desitjades. Aquest concepte va donar un pas més enllà a l'adonar-se que els lligands poden tindre una participació més activa en els principals passos del cicle catalític. Aquests lligands es coneixen com a lligands no innocents a causa de la seva naturaleza reactiva durant un procés químic. Aquest comportament difereix i complementa el dels lligands innocents els quals "només" contribueixen mitjançant modificacions als lligands. En aquesta Tesis presentem tres estudis computacionals on els lligands tenen un rol actiu durant el transcurs de la reacció. Hem sigut capaços d'estudiar mitjançant eines DFT les característiques i particularitats de cada sistema. Aquests estudis contribuiran en ultima estància al desenvolupament de nous sistemas basats en la cooperació metall-lligand, i milloraran la comprensió dels mecanismes que governen aquesta reactivitat.<br>En la mayoría de los ejemplos clásicos en catálisis homogénea, el foco reside en el centro metálico, el cual es el que lleva a cabo la reacción, mientras que los ligandos juegan principalmente un rol de espectador. Así, la aproximación inicial para modificar la reactividad del sistema era reemplazar el metal. Este ha sido el punto inicial de la mayoría de trabajos en catálisis homogénea con complejos organometálicos. La modificación de las propiedades estéricas o electrónicas de los ligandos afecta al metal, y puede tener un gran impactos en el resultados de la reacción: mayor rendimiento, mejor selectividad o supresión de reacciones no deseadas. Este concepto dio un paso más allá al darse cuenta que los ligandos pueden tener una participación más activa en los principales pasos del ciclo catalítico. Estos ligandos se conocen como ligandos no inocentes debido a su naturaleza reactiva durante un proceso químico. Este comportamiento difiere y complementa el de los ligandos inocentes los cuales "solo" contribuyen mediante modificaciones en el metal. En esta Tesis presentamos tres estudios computacionales donde los ligandos tiene un rol activo durante el transcuros de la reacción. Hemos sido capaces de estudiar con herramientas DFT las características y particularidades de cada sistema. Estos estudios contribuirán en última instancia al desarrollo de nuevos sistemas basados en la cooperación metal-ligando y mejoraran la comprensión de los mecanismos que gobiernan esta reactividad.<br>In most classical examples of homogeneous catalysis, the focus resides on the metal centre, which is the one that carries out the reaction, while the ligands play mainly a spectator role. Thus, the initial approach applied to modify the reactivity of a system was the replacement of the metal. This has been the starting point of the majority of work in homogeneous organometallic catalysis. The tuning of the electronic or steric properties of the ligands affects the metal, and can have a huge impact on the reaction outcome such as higher yields, better selectivity or suppression of undesired side reactions. The concept has been taken one step further upon the realization that ligands may have a more active participation in the main steps of the catalytic cycle. These ligands are known as non-innocent ligands owing to their reactive nature during a chemical process. This behaviour differs with and complements that of innocent ligands which “only” contribute through tuning of the metal. In this Thesis we present three computational studies where the ligands have an active role on the outcome of the reaction. We have been able to study with DFT tools the features and particularities of each system. These studies will ultimately contribute on the development of new systems based on metal-ligand cooperation and improve the understanding of the mechanism governing this reactivity.

The existence of complexes of that display non-innocence has been of interest in the field of coordination chemistry since the investigations of square-planar dithiolene complexes of the late transition metals in the 1960s. The ligands used in these systems are termed “non-innocent” when bound to a number of the late transition metals, because the orbital energy levels are similar to those of the central metal ion. This allows there to be significant electron delocalisation over the complex with the potential for the complexes to exist in a number of electronic states due to the combined electrochemical activity. In 1966, Jørgensen classified innocence as ligands that “allow oxidation states of the central atoms to be defined”, thus by this logic non-innocent ligands are defined as complexes where the precise oxidation states of the ligand and metal are ambiguously assigned. However it should be noted that no ligand is inherently non-innocent, but rather the ligand may behave in a non-innocent manner under the right circumstances. The qualification of non-innocence should therefore only be applied to combinations of metal and ligand that result in the aforementioned properties. In this thesis, the term “non-innocent” will be used to define ligands that often possess non-innocent behaviour when complexed to the metal centres they are bound to. A general form of ligand that displays non-innocent behaviour is that of the 1,2-bidentate moiety with an unsaturated carbon backbone. The chelating donor groups (X) are either O, NH, S, or a combination of the three. The central transition metal is generally a late metal that favours a square-planar geometry, because the planarity of the complex is crucial for electron delocalisation within the molecule and molecular interactions in the solid material. When the metal is nickel or platinum for example, their square-planar complexes with such ligands have shown threemembered electron-transfer series. Specific examples of ligands that have been shown to display non-innocent behaviour are those of catechol (1,2-dihydroxybenzene) and 1,2-diaminobenzene, where the unsaturated backbone is provided by a phenyl group. The electronic nature of these compounds has been extensively investigated by the groups of Pierpont and Lever, with focus on their redox and magnetic properties. The combined metal and ligand redox activity results in interesting magnetic behaviour, with potential for magnetic exchange interactions between a paramagnetic metal centre and the radical ligand or between two radical ligands mediated by a diamagnetic metal centre. This research has been advanced by Wieghardt and co-workers who have performed experimental and theoretical examination of non-innocent complexes of 1,2-substituted phenyl chelates, where the donor group is a combination of O and NH. These studies have focused on the understanding the nature of the metal-ligand interactions to apply to biological systems, such as those observed at the active site of enzymes that act upon molecules with similar moieties to the non-innocent ligands. Compounds of catechol may be referred to as dioxolenes in analogy to the sulfur-based dithiolenes. The deprotonated, dianionic form of catechol is known as catecholate (cat), which can be readily oxidised to the monoanionic o-semiquinone (SQ) and neutral o-benzoquinone (Q) forms. It has been seen that catecholate compounds can be described by localised electronic states with defined oxidation states, unlike many of the dithiolene class of molecules. However these states can exist in equilibrium with each other when the metal and ligand orbitals are close in energy, with differences in the charge and spin definition in what has been described as “valence tautomerism”. Therefore, although the complexes may not be seen as non-innocent by definition that their oxidation states are not ambiguous, it is still a useful description due to the potential for easily accessible charge states. Metal dithiolene complexes, where the metal is coordinated by one or more ligands with two S-donor atoms linked by a conjugated backbone, are one of the best researched of the non-innocent class of molecules. The square-planar bis-dithiolenes of the late transition metals have interesting magnetic, optical and electrical properties arising from the delocalised nature of the constituent metal and ligand orbitals, which has enabled their use for a wide range of applications such as non-linear optics, transistors and near-infrared switches. Of particular interest is the ability to fine tune the electrical properties to fit the application by changing the substituents on the core dithiolene moiety. For example, Anthopoulos has shown that by lowering the energy of the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO), stable n-channel conductivity can be observed in field-effect transistors (FETs). Materials based on square-planar non-innocent complexes have been tested in FETs, and been seen to display field-effect mobilities as high as 10˗2 cm2 V˗1 s˗1 as with Ni bis(o-diiminobenzo-semiquinonate) complexes. Most of these molecules are based on conjugated, chelating ligands such as 1,2-diaminobenzene and the dithiolene class of molecules. Field-effects have also been observed in square-planar Pt complexes, where the conductivity is thought to arise from beneficial Pt-Pt bonds in addition to the π-stacking between molecules. Despite the similarity to the diaminobenzene and dithiolene counterpart, there are no reports of catechol-based materials displaying field-effect properties in the literature. Catechol compounds are well-researched in the field of biological chemistry due to the prevalence of the catechol moiety and enzymes with which it interacts in nature. However they have not been examined far beyond their simple coordination chemistry or chemical characterisation.

L'utilisation du fer en chimie de coordination et en catalyse suscite un intérêt croissant de par son abondance et sa faible toxicité. Dans le premier chapitre, une étude bibliographique présente deux domaines d'applications du fer : i) l'utilisation de complexes de fer comportant des ligands " non innocent " pour différentes applications en catalyse, et ii) l'utilisation de complexes de fer pour des transformations stœchiométriques et catalytiques du CO2. Dans le chapitre 2, la synthèse et la caractérisation de complexes de fer portant un ligand coopératif non-innocent sont présentées. Le composé hautement réactif [Fe(N(TMS)2)2] a été choisi comme précurseur pour l'étude de la coordination du ligand bis(picolyl)phosphine dans des conditions douces. Une famille de complexes mono- et di-nucléaires de fer a été isolée et le comportement " non-innocent " du ligand a été mis en évidence. La combinaison de plusieurs techniques : diffraction des rayons X, RMN (en solution et à l'état solide), RPE, Mössbauer et spectroscopie infrarouge a permis de complètement caractériser à la fois les complexes diamagnétiques mais aussi paramagnétiques. Le chapitre 3 se concentre sur la transformation de CO2 par un système catalytique efficace au fer. Les complexes dihydrure de fer [Fe(H)2(diphosphine)2] catalysent la fonctionnalisation réductrice du CO2 dans des conditions douces. Dans ce système, la première étape concerne la réduction catalytique du CO2 par des hydroboranes donnant un composé bis(boryl)acetal. Via une stratégie " un pot, deux étapes " l'intermédiaire acétal est ensuite utilisé comme source de méthylène et est fonctionnalisé pour donner une série de composés organiques contenant non seulement des liaisons C-N mais aussi des liaisons C-O, C-S et C-C avec de bons à très bons rendements<br>There is an increasing interest in the use of iron in coordination chemistry and catalysis because it is an earth abundant metal which exhibits a low toxicity. The first chapter is a bibliographic study concerning two areas of applications for iron: the combination of iron with non-innocent ligands leading to highly active catalysts, and the use of iron complexes for CO2 transformations at the stoichiometric and catalytic levels. In chapter 2, the synthesis and characterization of iron complexes bearing a cooperative non-innocent ligand are presented. The highly reactive compound [Fe(N(TMS)2)2] has been chosen as a precursor for the study of the coordination of the bis(picolyl)phosphine ligand under mild conditions. As a result, a family of mono- and di-meric iron complexes has been isolated and the non-innocent behavior of the ligand has been observed. The combination of several techniques: X-ray diffraction, NMR (in solution and in the solid state), EPR, Mössbauer and infrared spectroscopy allows to clearly characterize both diamagnetic and paramagnetic complexes. Chapter 3 focuses on the transformation of CO2 catalyzed by an efficient iron-based system. In this system, iron hydride complexes [Fe(H)2(diphosphine)2] have been chosen to catalyze the reductive functionalization of CO2 through a one-pot two steps strategy under mild conditions. The first step concerns the iron-catalyzed reduction of CO2 by hydroboranes affording a bis(boryl)acetal compound. This intermediate is then used as a source of methylene in functionalization reactions, leading to a series of organic compounds containing not only C-N but also C-O, C-S, and C-C bonds in good yields

Les ligands phosphasalen développés au sein du laboratoire peuvent être considérés comme les analogues phosphorés des ligands salen dont ils diffèrent par la présence de groupements iminophosphorane à la place des imines. L’introduction de ces fonctions a d’importantes conséquences sur les propriétés de ces ligands, qui sont plus électrodonneurs et plus flexibles que les dérivés salen correspondants, capables de stabiliser des métaux à haut degré d’oxydation. Ces ligands ont également un caractère redox non-innocent, une propriété très étudiée de nos jours tant en chimie de coordination qu’en catalyse.Dans la cadre de cette thèse, différents ligands ont été synthétisés en modifiant les différents paramètres au sein du ligand : les substituants du cycle phenolate, MeO vs. tBu (PsalentBu et PsalenOMe); les substituants du phosphore, alkyl vs. aryl (iPrPsalen); et le lien entre les deux azotes, avec l’introduction de différentes o-phenylenediamines à la place d’ethylenediamine, qui donne les ligands Psalophen, PsalophenOMe2, PsalophenMe and PsalophenCF3.Les complexes neutres de cuivre et nickel, ainsi que les produits de mono-oxydation ont été synthétisés et caractérisés. Pour déterminer précisément la structure électronique des complexes différentes techniques ont été utilisés : des spectroscopies UV-visible, RMN et RPE, voltampérométrie cyclique, diffraction de rayons X, mesures magnétiques à l’état solide (SQUID), ainsi que des calculs DFT.De manière générale ces travaux montrent que les phosphasalen sont mieux à même de stabiliser la densité de spin sur le métal, donnant en certains cas des complexes à haute valence (NiIII, CuIII) encore rares dans la littérature. Dans certains cas les observations expérimentales et les calculs pointent vers un état fondamental multiconfigurationel. Contrairement aux ligands salen, les complexes portant un lien aromatique entre les deux azotes dimerisent lors de l’oxydation. Afin de contrôler la densité électronique sur ce cycle, une série des complexes à ligands phosphasalophen ont été également étudies.Une synthèse de complexes phosphasalen de manganèse(II) et (III) a été également réalisée. La stabilisation des complexes oxo ou nitrido, ainsi que la catalyse d’oxydation ont été envisagés avec ces complexes et des résultats prometteurs ont été obtenus<br>Phosphasalen ligands developed in our laboratory can be considered as the phosphorous analogues of salen ligands where the imines have been substituted by iminophosphorane functions. The presence of the P-N bond makes these ligands more electro-donating and more flexible than salen analogues. They are able to stabilize high-valent metal complexes, as in the case of a Ni phosphasalen complex, which was characterized as a NiIII complex in solution and in solid state. This was never obtained before with salen-type ligands.Phosphasalen ligands, as the salen ones, can act as redox non-innocent ligands. Therefore, upon oxidation either the ligand or the metal center can be oxidized depending on the relative energy of metal and ligand orbitals. This behavior has been deeply investigated in coordination chemistry and in catalysis.In order to elucidate the factors that influence the oxidation locus different ligands have been synthetized modifiying the phenolate subtituents, MeO vs. tBu (PsalentBu and PsalenOMe); the phosphorous substituents, alkyl vs. aryl (iPrPsalen); and the linker between the two nitrogen atoms, ethylenediamine vs. phenylenediamine (Psalophen, PsalophenOMe2, PsalophenMe and PsalophenCF3).The neutral and one-electron oxidized copper and nickel complexes were synthetized and characterized. In order to determine the electronic structure of the complexes a combination of different characterization techniques were used: UV-vis, EPR and NMR spectroscopies, cyclic voltammetry, X-ray diffraction, magnetic measurements (SQUID), as well as theoretical calculations.In a general manner, phosphasalen ligands favor a metal center oxidation in a higher extent than salen derivatives, leading in some cases to high-valent metal complexes (NiIII, CuIII), remaining rare cases in the literature. For some complexes, experimental observations and theoretical calculations point to the presence of multiconfigurational ground states. Contrary to salen, complexes bearing an aromatic linker between the two nitrogen atoms dimerize upon oxidation. In order to tune the electronic density in the central ring, a series of phosphasalophen complexes displaying different substituents in the aromatic bridge, have been studied.Manganese (II) and (III) phosphasalen complexes has been also studied. The stabilization of oxo and nitride complexes as well as catalytic applications have been targeted for these complexes and encouraging results have been obtained

This thesis involves the preparation and exploration of the reactivity of a variety of organocopper complexes with N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) ligands. The ligands contain either pyridyl/picolyl/allyl N-substituents or a xanthine-derived backbone. Structural modifications were made to the NHC ligands which were investigated for their catalytic activity when coordinated with Cu(I) in situ in an Ullmann-type etherification reaction. The ligand found to be the most active in catalysis was 1 allyl-3-picolylbenzimidazol-2-ylidene. The catalytic reaction was studied in more detail to assess deactivation pathways through reductive elimination of aryl imidazolium, dehalogenation and/or homocoupling of aryl iodide. In order to quantify the deactivation pathways, the preparation of novel aryl-imidazolium salts via C 2 selective arylation of imidazole, and of a biaryl via a Pd-catalysed was necessary, which led to more understanding the Cu-catalysed reaction and further side-reactions. The arylation of NHC-related species was exploited in the C 2 arylation of xanthine-derived compounds. The reactions were investigated via Cu NHC complexes, prepared using an electrochemical method. The kinetics of the arylation of a xanthine-derived Cu-NHC complex were studied using in situ 1H NMR and IR spectroscopies. Optimisation and a full understanding of this reaction has potential application in the detection of mismatched DNA bases. Further to the non-innocent behaviour of NHCs, an unusual Cu-mediated annulation reaction involving an allyl N-substituent was investigated. The reaction is proposed to occur via oxidative addition of C-Br to a Cu2Br2 cluster, Br migration and reductive elimination of the annulated product. Although most of the reactions discussed in this thesis are thought to proceed via a Cu(III) intermediate, the isolation of a Cu(III)-NHC has not been achieved to date. Attempts were therefore made to stabilise a Cu(III)-NHC using the macrocyclic effect, which may allow more understanding of the elusive Cu(III) NHC intermediate in a variety of reactions.