Journal articles on the topic 'North American raccoon'

Cestodes from four badgers (Meles meles) and eight raccoons (Procyon lotor) were studied. The badgers and seven of the raccoons were taken from the wild near the city of Berlin, Germany. This paper is the first record of Atriotaenia incisa (Railliet, 1899) (Cestoda: Anoplocephalidae) from P. lotor in Europe. Atriotaenia incisa is redescribed and compared with morphological descriptions of the North American species Atriotaenia procyonis (Chandler, 1942), a common parasite of the raccoon in Canada and the United States. No morphological differences were found between the two species and it is suggested that they may be conspecific.

SUMMARYTrypanosoma cruzi (Tc), the causative agent of Chagas disease, is a diverse species with 2 primary genotypes, TcI and TcII, with TcII further subdivided into 5 subtypes (IIa–e). This study evaluated infection dynamics of 4 genetically and geographically diverse T. cruzi strains in 2 South American reservoirs, degus (Octodon degus) and grey short-tailed opossums (Monodelphis domestica). Based on prior suggestions of a genotype-host association, we hypothesized that degus (placental) would more readily become infected with TcII strains while short-tailed opossums (marsupial) would be a more competent reservoir for a TcI strain. Individuals (n=3) of each species were intraperitoneally inoculated with T. cruzi trypomastigotes of TcIIa [North America (NA)-raccoon (Procyon lotor) origin], TcI [NA-Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana)], TcIIb [South America (SA)-human], TcIIe (SA-Triatoma infestans), or both TcI and TcIIa. Parasitaemias in experimentally infected degus peaked earlier (7–14 days post-inoculation (p.i.)) compared with short-tailed opossums (21–84 days p.i.). Additionally, peak parasitaemias were higher in degus; however, the duration of detectable parasitaemias for all strains, except TcIIa, was greater in short-tailed opossums. Infections established in both host species with all genotypes, except for TcIIa, which did not establish a detectable infection in short-tailed opossums. These results indicate that both South American reservoirs support infections with these isolates from North and South America; however, infection dynamics differed with host and parasite strain.

AbstractUnlike the Asian and North American Pliocene record, fossil occurrences of Canidae in Europe (and Africa) are uncommon and fragmentary. The revision of canid material from the late Pliocene site of Kvabebi (eastern Georgia) revealed the contemporaneous occurrence of three different taxa: (1)Nyctereutes megamastoides(a derived species of the Eurasian Pliocene raccoon dog-like canids); (2)Vulpescf.V.alopecoides(representing the first occurrence of a member of the vulpine taxonV.alopecoides, a species that was the most widespread fox in the early Pleistocene in western Europe); and (3)Eucyonsp. The latter occurrence at Kvabebi completes our knowledge of the late Pliocene evolutionary history of the latest representatives of the genus in Western Europe and Central Asia. Our revision of Kvabebi canids registers a previously undocumented case of established niche partitioning among early Pliocene sympatric Canidae.

1. Somatosensory representation of the forelimb in the dorsal horn of spinal segments C5-T2 was examined in 13 North American raccoons anesthetized with pentobarbital sodium. Single- or multiple-unit responses to light mechanical stimulation were recorded at a total of 504 loci, which were subsequently reconstructed from stained, transverse sections. From these, dorsal view maps of forelimb representation in Rexed's laminae III and IV were synthesized. 2. There was a shifting, serial overlap of representations of different forelimb regions in both the rostrocaudal and mediolateral axes of the dorsal horn. The rostrocaudal progression of receptive fields was from preaxial forelimb to forepaw to postaxial forelimb, whereas the mediolateral progression was from the volar glabrous forepaw toward the trunk. 3. Representations of the glabrous surfaces of the digits and palm pads showed considerable overlap, with the digital representations extending more laterally, but the palmar representations extending more rostrally and caudally. One-third of all recording loci were devoted exclusively to glabrous skin representation. 4. Comparison with results of earlier studies in raccoons indicates that representation of a given digit or palm pad is more restricted in rostrocaudal extent in the dorsal horn than in the dorsal roots, and that, compared with various nuclear regions of the dorsal column-medial lemniscal system, the glabrous surfaces of the forepaw are underrepresented in the dorsal horn. 5. The results suggest that there is a dorsoventral modular organization of forelimb representation in the dorsal horn. These wedge-shaped modules from larger aggregates which represent major body subdivisions and which course sinuously in the rostrocaudal dimension.

SUMMARYBased on 18S rRNA sequence analyses 2 distinct genotypes of piroplasms have been described in raccoons. One genotype resides in the Babesia sensu stricto clade and the other in the Babesia microti-like clade. Since these organisms appear morphologically indistinguishable, it is unclear which strain is responsible for the majority of the infections in raccoons. In order to overcome these limitations we performed a molecular survey of raccoons using polymerase chain reaction assays specific for each genotype. We tested blood samples from 41 wild raccoons trapped in eastern North Carolina using PCR assays and found that 95% (39/41) had detectable piroplasm DNA. Ninety percent (37/41) of the samples contained Babesia sensu stricto DNA and 83% (34/41) samples contained Babesia microti-like DNA. DNA from both genotypes was present in 76% (31/41) samples suggesting a very high rate of co-infections. The presence of dual piroplasma infections in carnivores appears to be an uncommon finding. This study highlights the need for molecular assays for the accurate identification of piroplasma. Further studies are indicated to investigate the ability of these parasites to infect domestic animals as well as their zoonotic potential.

Food subsidies from human sources are often exploited by free-ranging vertebrates living in human-dominated landscapes. To explore the importance and attempt to estimate the reliance of raccoons (Procyon lotor (Linnaeus, 1758)) — common synanthropes in North America — on such food subsidies, we analyzed hair samples from 122 raccoons collected across four states in the Midwestern United States (Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and Illinois), including 9 raccoons that were livetrapped and sampled in Madison (Wisconsin). We found that raccoons inhabiting areas with more agriculture had higher δ13C values, indicating a diet enriched with anthropogenic food from C4 photosynthetic plants, like corn (Zea mays L.). Surprisingly, raccoons inhabiting increasingly urban areas showed lower δ13C values, suggesting a diet with less anthropogenic food. Regardless, raccoons in urban areas enriched in 13C possessed high indices of body condition, suggesting that anthropogenic food subsidies are contributing to their overall nutritional condition. Our findings reveal that the degree to which synanthropes rely upon human foods differs by land-cover type and that the use of these calorically rich subsidies has important implications on individual health.

AbstractThe gene IGF1 has been shown to have a significant influence on the size of individuals, including animals of the Canidae family. In this study we determined SNP mutations of the IGF1 gene in dogs, raccoon dogs and farmed and free-living red foxes from Poland and Canada. No SNP mutations were noted in dogs or raccoon dogs, but a total of 14 single nucleotide polymorphisms were identified in foxes, including 12 substitutions, as well as one new mutation missense variant (exon 6) in wild Polish foxes and one synonymous mutation variant in wild foxes from Canada. We identified specific SNP profiles characteristic only for farmed foxes and only for wild foxes, as well as specific SNP profiles or wild foxes from North America (Canada) and from Europe (Poland).

Summary Baylisascaris procyonis is a helminth parasite of raccoons Procyon lotor and represents a health concern in paratenic hosts, including humans and diverse domestic and wildlife species. In North America the helminth is expanding its geographic range. To better understand patterns of infection in the Ozark region of the USA, raccoons (n = 61) were collected in 2013-2014 from five counties in Missouri and Arkansas, USA and necropsied. We documented B. procyonis in all surveyed locations. The overall prevalence of B. procyonis was 44.3 % (95 % CI = 31.9 - 57.4) and was significantly higher in females than males. There were also significant differences in prevalence among raccoons sampled north and south of the Missouri River. Mean intensity was 9.9 (CI = 5.44 - 17.22), and parasites were highly aggregated among hosts such that approximately 20 % of hosts harbor 90 % of parasites. These levels of parasitism indicate that B. procyonis is common in the region and its impacts on paratenic hosts could be qualitatively similar to effects observed in other localities.

AbstractIn North America, the raccoon-associated variant of rabies virus (RRV) is of special concern, given its relatively rapid spread throughout the eastern USA and its potential public health impact due to high raccoon host densities in urban areas. Northward expansion of this epizootic included an outbreak in the Canadian province of Quebec in 2006–2009 due to trans-border spread from the State of Vermont. To inform a more proactive approach to future control efforts, this study uses phylogenetic analyses to explore the role of geography and alternative carnivore hosts in the dynamics of RRV spread within Vermont. Specifically, we sought to examine whether striped skunks, a species frequently infected by RRV, could be part of the maintenance host community. Whole genome sequencing of 160 RRV samples from Vermont and neighbouring US states were used for fine-scale phylogeographic analyses. Results, together with the complete surveillance record of raccoon rabies since its entry into Vermont in 1994, document incursions by two distinct viral lineages and identify topographical features of the landscape which have significantly influenced viral spread, resulting in a complex distribution pattern of viral variants throughout the state. Results of phylogenetic cluster analysis and discrete state reconstruction contained some evidence of skunk-to-skunk and skunk-to-raccoon transmission but overall failed to support a role for skunks as alternative maintenance hosts.

Leptarctus is a poorly known fossil carnivore that ranges through the Miocene of North America and Inner Mongolia, China (Lim, 1996; Zhai, 1964). Though it has been one of the least studied carnivores, more than 20 localities in North America have produced Leptarctus (Lim, 1999). The characters diagnosing Leptarctus as a mustelid include absence of M2, absence of a notch between the blades of the upper carnassial, and a reduced dentition with loss of PI and pi. Though Leptarctus is a mustelid, the teeth bear many similarities to those of procyonids, Procyon lotor and Nasua nasua and stand as a remarkable example of dental convergence (Leidy, 1856; Lim, 1999). Unlike other mustelids, Leptarctus has prominent double sagittal crests, heavy zygomatic arches, a prominent occipital crest, a well-developed hypocone on P4, labially curved upper canines, grooved lower canines, raccoon-like mandibles, elongated metatarsals, and unique bony projections on the tympanic bullae (Lim, 1999).

Twenty-eight lactating dairy cattle in New York State were exposed to botulism toxin; 12 died and 16 recovered but never returned to full productivity. Pieces of a raccoon carcass were found in the total mixed ration on the first day of the outbreak. Clinical signs included anorexia, decreased milk production, decreased tongue tone, profound weakness, and recumbency. Clostridium botulinum type A (BoNT/A) was detected in rumen contents from 2 deceased cows via matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). In addition, C. botulinum type C was cultured from the liver of a third cow, and C. botulinum neurotoxin-producing type C gene ( bont/C) was detected via real-time PCR. On postmortem examination, 4 cows had findings suggestive of toxic myopathy, but the cause and significance of these lesions is unknown given that botulism is typically not associated with gross or histologic lesions. This outbreak of BoNT/A in cattle in North America was diagnosed via MALDI-TOF MS, a rapid and sensitive modality for detection of botulinum preformed neurotoxin.

Mesocarnivores fill a vital role in ecosystems through effects on community health and structure. Anthropogenic-altered landscapes can benefit some species and adversely affect others. For some carnivores, prey availability increases with urbanization, but landscape use can be complicated by interactions among carnivores as well as differing human tolerance of some species. We used camera traps to survey along a gradient of urban, rural, and forest cover to quantify how carnivore landscape use varies among guild members and determine if a species was a human exploiter, adapter, or avoider. Our study was conducted in and around Corvallis, Oregon from April 2018 to February 2019 (11,914 trap nights) using 47 camera trap locations on a gradient from urban to rural. Our focal species were bobcat (Lynx rufus), coyote (Canis latrans), gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), opossum (Didelphis virginiana), raccoon (Procyon lotor), and striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis). Raccoon and opossum were human exploiters with low use of forest cover and positive association with urban and rural developed areas likely due to human-derived resources as well as some refugia from larger predators. Coyote and gray fox were human adapters with high use of natural habitats while the effects of urbanization ranged from weak to indiscernible. Bobcat and striped skunk appeared to be human avoiders with negative relationship with urban cover and higher landscape use of forest cover. We conducted a diel temporal activity analysis and found mostly nocturnal activity within the guild, but more diurnal activity by larger-bodied predators compared to the smaller species. Although these species coexist as a community in human-dominated landscapes throughout much of North America, the effects of urbanization were not equal across species. Our results, especially for gray fox and striped skunk, are counter to research in other regions, suggesting that mesopredator use of urbanized landscapes can vary depending on the environmental conditions of the study area and management actions are likely to be most effective when decisions are based on locally derived data.

Subspecific designations are useful for wildlife management when they represent real barriers to gene flow. In this study, we assess genetic partitioning of mitochondrial DNA control region variation to determine if the structuring is congruent with morphologically defined subspecies of the common raccoon (Procyon lotor (L., 1758)). Mitochondrial control region sequences were analyzed within and among four subspecies ( Procyon lotor elucus Bangs, 1898, Procyon lotor lotor (L., 1758), Procyon lotor hirtus Nelson and Goldman, 1930, and Procyon lotor varius Nelson and Goldman, 1930) that occur along the eastern seaboard of North America through to the central United States. This identified 76 haplotypes, 59 of which were specific to one of the four ranges, while only 1 haplotype was wide-spread. Phylogenetic analysis revealed three distinct lineages: one found primarily in Florida, one along the eastern seaboard, and the third predominantly to the west of the Mississippi River. These lineages likely diverged during the Pleistocene, as a result of rising sea levels creating barriers to gene flow. The range of P. l. elucus is still primarily one lineage supporting the subspecific designation; however, there is considerable lineage mixing across the ranges of P. l. hirtus, P. l. lotor, and P. l. varius, suggesting that they be synonymized to P. l. lotor. While some of these subspecies designations are not supported, we have found that landscape attributes affect gene flow, which can be of use in informing rabies management.

The products of the genes of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) are known to be drivers of pathogen resistance and sexual selection enhancing offspring genetic diversity. The MHC further influences individual odour types and social communication. However, little is known about the receptors and their volatile ligands that are involved in this type of chemical communication. Here, we have investigated chemosensory receptor genes that ultimately enable females to assess male genes through odour cues. As a model, we used an invasive population of North American raccoons ( Procyon lotor ) in Germany. We investigated the effect of two groups of chemosensory receptor genes—trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs) and olfactory receptors (ORs)—on MHC-dependent mate choice. Females with more alleles of the TAAR or OR loci were more likely to choose a male with a diverse MHC. We additionally found that MHC class I genes have a stronger effect on mate choice than the recently reported effect for MHC class II genes, probably because of their immunological relevance for viral resistance. Our study is among the first to show a genetic link between behaviour and chemosensory receptor genes. These results contribute to understanding the link between genetics, olfaction and associated life-history decisions.

The introduction of new tick species poses a risk to human and animal health. Systematic active surveillance programs are expensive and uncommon. We evaluated a passive animal surveillance program as a monitoring tool to document the geographic distribution and host associations of ticks in Wisconsin. Passive surveillance partners included veterinary medical clinics, domestic animal shelters, and wildlife rehabilitation centers from 35 of the 72 Wisconsin counties. A total of 10,136 tick specimens were collected from 2325 animals from July 2011 to November 2017 and included Dermacentor variabilis Say (29.7% of all ticks), Ixodes texanus Banks (25.5%), Ixodes scapularis Say (19.5%), Haemaphysalis leporispalustris Packard (13.8%), Ixodes cookei Packard (4.4%), and Dermacentor albipictus Packard (1.7%). Less common species (<1% of collection) included Ixodes dentatus Marx, Ixodes sculptus Neumann, Ixodes marxi Banks, Amblyomma americanum Linnaeus, and Rhipicephalus sanguineus Latreille. Of the 2325 animals that were examined, most were domestic dogs (53%), eastern cottontail rabbits (16%), domestic cats (15%), and North American raccoons (11%). An additional 21 mammal and 11 bird species were examined at least once during the six years of the study. New county records are summarized for each species. Public health, academic, and veterinary and animal care partners formed a community of practice enabling effective statewide tick surveillance.

Introduction Alliaria petiolata, an herbaceous plant, has invaded woodlands in North America. Its ecology has been thoroughly studied, but an overlooked aspect of its biology is seed dispersal distances and mechanisms. We measured seed dispersal distances in the field and tested if epizoochory is a potential mechanism for long-distance seed dispersal. Methods Dispersal distances were measured by placing seed traps in a sector design around three seed point sources, which consisted of 15 second-year plants transplanted within a 0.25 m radius circle. Traps were placed at intervals ranging from 0.25–3.25 m from the point source. Traps remained in the field until a majority of seeds were dispersed. Eight probability density functions were fitted to seed trap counts via maximum likelihood. Epizoochory was tested as a potential seed dispersal mechanism for A. petiolata through a combination of field and laboratory experiments. To test if small mammals transport A. petiolata seeds in their fur, experimental blocks were placed around dense A. petiolata patches. Each block contained a mammal inclusion treatment (MIT) and control. The MIT consisted of a wood-frame (31 × 61× 31 cm) covered in wire mesh, except for the two 31 × 31 cm ends, placed over a germination tray filled with potting soil. A pan filled with bait was placed in the center of the tray. The control frame (11 × 31 × 61 cm) was placed over a germination tray and completely covered in wire mesh to exclude animal activity. Treatments were in the field for peak seed dispersal. In March, trays were moved to a greenhouse and A. petiolata seedlings were counted and then compared between treatments. To determine if A. petiolata seeds attach to raccoon (Procyon lotor) and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) fur, wet and dry seeds were dropped onto wet and dry fur. Furs were rotated 180 degrees and the seeds that remained attached were counted. To measure seed retention, seeds were dropped on furs and rotated as before, then the furs were agitated for one hour. The seeds retained in the fur were counted. Results For the seed dispersal experiment, the 2Dt function provided the best fit and was the most biologically meaningful. It predicted that seed density rapidly declined with distance from the point source. Mean dispersal distance was 0.52 m and 95% of seeds dispersed within 1.14 m. The epizoochory field experiment showed increased mammal activity and A. petiolata seedlings in germination trays of the MIT compared to control. Laboratory studies showed 3–26% of seeds were attached and retained by raccoon and deer fur. Retention significantly increased if either seed or fur were wet (57–98%). Discussion Without animal seed vectors, most seeds fall within a short distance of the seed source; however, long distance dispersal may be accomplished by epizoochory. Our data are consistent with A. petiolata’s widespread distribution and development of dense clusters of the species in invaded areas.

Context The role of wildlife in faecal pollution of water bodies (deposition of Escherichia coli (E. coli)) is not well understood. Current water-quality and land-use planning research largely relies on unreliable wildlife data (e.g. poor sourcing of abundance estimates, population density estimates applied to multiple fundamentally different areas, suspect or insufficiently described data collection techniques) Aims Our goal for the present research was to investigate deposition of E. coli into a floodplain by free-ranging mammals. Objectives of the research were to determine the density of important free-ranging meso- and large mammals in the study area, determine faecal E. coli loads for each species, and evaluate spatial data on species-specific faecal deposition. Methods We conducted our research in south-eastern Texas, USA, on two cattle ranches bisected by Cedar Creek (44-km long). Cedar Creek has elevated E. coli concentrations. We conducted mark–recapture and mark–resight population density estimates (2008/09) for meso- and large mammals in the study areas. We collected faecal samples from all captured wildlife. We also conducted transects through the study area to determine faecal-deposition patterns. Key results We found that raccoons (Procyon lotor), wild pigs (Sus scrofa), Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana) and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) all had substantial faecal E. coli loads and population densities, thus implying an important role in E. coli deposition into the study floodplain. All species were widely distributed through the floodplain. Conclusions Free-ranging mammals contribute E. coli to floodplains and potentially affect water quality. We determined that four species commonly found in floodplains throughout North America all contributed E. coli to the study floodplain, thus implying mammal E. coli contributions in many locations and this is potentially important for E. coli management. Implications Improved locally specific mammal population estimates and estimates of locally derived E. coli concentration will improve floodplain and water-quality models that often depend on data of various quality. Additionally, our analyses demonstrated the need for continued research into the role of wildlife in E. coli deposition.

Abstract Here we present the initial comparison of the nuclear genomes of the North American raccoon (Procyon lotor) and the kinkajou (Potos flavus) based on draft assemblies. These two species encompass almost 21 million years of evolutionary history within Procyonidae. Since assemblies greatly impact downstream results such as gene prediction and annotation, we tested three de novo assembly strategies (implemented in ALLPATHS-LG, MaSuRCA, and Platanus), some of which are optimized for highly heterozygous genomes. We discovered significant variation in contig and scaffold N50 and L50 statistics and genome completeness depending on the de novo assembler used. We compared the performance of these three assembly algorithms in hopes that this study will aid others looking to improve the quality of existing draft genome assemblies even without additional sequence data. We also estimate the demographic histories of raccoons and kinkajous using the Pairwise Sequentially Markovian Coalescent (PSMC) and discuss the variation in population sizes with respect to climatic change during the Pleistocene, as well as aspects of their ecology and taxonomy. Our goal is to achieve a better understanding of the evolutionary history of procyonids and to create robust genomic resources for future studies regarding adaptive divergence and selection.

Background: The raccoon, Procyon lotor Linn. (Procyonidae) is native to North and Central America but has been introduced in several European and Asian countries including Japan, Germany and Iran. Objective of this study was to determine frequency of gastrointestinal and tissue helminthes from feral raccoons in Iran.
 Methods: During 2015-2017, 30 feral raccoons including 12 males and 18 females were collected from Guilan Province, northern Iran (the only region in Iran where raccoons are found). The gastrointestinal tracts and tissues such as lung, liver and muscles were examined for presence of helminthes.
 Results: Twenty raccoons (66.7%) were found infected with five intestinal helminth species. The prevalence of infection with Strongyloides procyonis Little, 1966 (Nematoda) was 63.3%, Plagiorchis koreanus Ogata, 1938 (Trematoda) (13.3%), Centrorhynchus sp. Lühe, 1911 (Acanthocephala) (10.0%), Camerostrongylus didelphis Wolfgang, 1951 (Nematoda) (3.3%), and Spirocerca lupi Rudolphi, 1809 (Nematoda) (3.3%). No larvae or adult worms were found in other tissues of the examined raccoons.
 Conclusion: Most of the raccoons were infected with S. procyonis. The public health importance of zoonotic parasites transmittable through raccoons, the rapid control and decrease of raccoon populations and their distribution in Iran are also discussed.

Video games are predicated on representations of space, and those spaces are depicted and delimited by specialised visual markings that specify how the game can be played in those areas. For games to present a sense of space, they must display some sense of spatiality beyond that of merely virtualizing a simple game, in the way that puzzle and card games like Tetris and computerized Solitaire do. For games to present space, the games must contain immersive play environments. Many games present immersive environments for play and these spaces can come in many forms: from cityscapes to general play environments in games of various genres and game play styles like Grand Theft Auto 3 (GTA3), Warcraft III, and Super Mario Brothers. Given the many video game genres, this article focuses on games that present some type of virtualized environments. Although video games that present play spaces or environments can be divided into walls, ceilings, and floor or ‘turf’ sections, turf sections prove the most pivotal of the in-game elements to game play. The game turf sections are any part of the game space that the player can use as a basis for spatial exploration. In games like Resident Evil where movement is restricted to walking and running across the floor, only the floors are turf areas. In games like Spiderman—where the player can climb the walls and ceilings with equal ease—the walls, ceilings, and floors all merge into a heterogeneous turf. These game turfs often employ codes such as green for safe and red for danger and create a basic gaming rhetoric for spatial representation and a method for reading video game spaces. In this way, video game turfs serve to mark boundaries and borders for methods of exploration and play. The internal game spaces and delimitations and the external delimitations of the play spaces constitute game turfs. This article also argues that debates over violence in video games misunderstand these turf boundaries and maintains that the violence in video games can be perceived not as random desensitising violence, but as violence within a specific space—that of game play. Media theorists like Dave Grossman and Gloria DeGaetano (Stop Teaching Our Kids to Kill ) and educators like Jeanne B. Funk (“Violent Video Games: Who's at Risk?”) both argue that violent video games can lead to an increase in violent behaviour or desensitization towards violence. These debates over violence in video games ignore the rhetoric of gaming created through markings like turf, and they ignore the physical turf on which video games are most often played. The arguments against violence in video games assume a simple causal relationship between people playing video games and actual violence. These arguments neglect the rhetoric of gaming, which establishes borders and spaces of acceptable action as well as setting the moral turf for actions. Similarly, players rely on the game turfs to indicate game play methods and spatial usage. When the turfs are incorrectly represented, video game players suffer frustration during game play; games also purposely complicate these turfs at times to increase game play difficulty, or to intentionally frustrate players. The internal game space of a video game cannot be examined outside of the space of play because the space of play dictates how the game is played and how the game space is to be read. This interrelationship of game to play space can be seen through the concept of cheating. Johan Huizinga notes that The player who trespasses against the rules or ignores them is a ‘spoil-sport.’ The spoil-sport is not the same as the false player, the cheat; for the latter pretends to be playing the game... It is curious to note how much more lenient society is to the cheat than to the spoil-sport. This is because the spoil-sport shatters the play-world itself. (11) The significance of the play-world to the video game space still holds as true as with other games. While the games have internal rules for game play, the games are played within spaces of play which encompass more than just the rules within the game. The complex relationship of video game internal space as it exists within a field of play requires that any valid discussion of video games and violence must acknowledge the acts and functions within the game and within the play space. For constructing the internal game space, Mark Wolf notes in his article “Abstraction and the Video Game” that video game imagery can be discussed in terms of both appearance and function: “Since the substance of video games is both simultaneously imagery and events, their elements can be abstracted in both appearance and behavior” (49). Wolf’s comment illustrates the multiple levels of significance that accompany seemingly simple video game representations. The simplest level of video game representation is clearly illustrated with games like the Legend of Zelda series, which depicts roads and towns as safe (or safer), and wilderness areas, like forests, swamps, and mountains, as unsafe. The level of ‘safe’ for any area determines how many fights, also called random encounters, occur. The Final Fantasy game series also uses the same distinction with road areas as more secure than wild areas. In addition to security, the area types--desert, forest, swamp--indicate the type of monsters to be encountered. In similar ways, simulation and colonization games like SIMCITY and Warcraft III depict controlled and well developed areas in particular ways while depicting undeveloped areas with markings to indicate the resources or game space type for those areas. The game music also sets the score for the game space, with games like Resident Evil using one score only for the save rooms, a rare safe space in Resident Evil, where the player can save the game and store the items. These game space delimitations help players in reading the game spaces and how the game spaces will operate. These turf types also indicate the acceptable levels of play—that is, how to play appropriately in the game—which both children and adults learn in other types of organised play like sports, board games, card games, and other organised play activities – that is, how to play appropriately in the game. These turf types all indicate internal game space creation. Internal game space rules are also established through the game narrative. These space divisions are not always marked by the same visual language that marks the basic turfs of other games. Instead, these spaces are defined by the visual language as combined with the game narrative. In fact, the game that has sparked the most recent violence and video game controversy, Grand Theft Auto 3, has some of the most exacting narratively defined turfs. GTA3 presents an amoral world of gangsters, crooked cops, prostitutes, and others of similar character. GTA3 further delimits its game space by setting certain areas as turfs for the different criminal elements, including Chinatown for the Chinese gangs, Yakuza areas for the Japanese mafia, and a Mob area for the Italian mafia. Within these turfs, the violence–in-video-games controversy notes violence in terms of blood spilt, but it fails to recognise how the fighting is contextualised within the scope of the game narrative, a turf in itself. Fighting certainly constitutes violence, but in video games it primarily remains violence as self-defense and as violence against non-human creatures. The division between human and non-human may seem grossly arbitrary, but children’s cartoon regulations allow for violence against non-humans while violence against humans remains regulated. Violent turfs, then, also relate to the narrativised nature of the characters against whom the violence is directed. Game narratives also divide games into narrativised turfs with spaces of acceptable action. Within a game like Legend of Zelda or Diablo the player can interact with the villagers, but the player cannot hurt or kill the villagers. The village or town space is a safe place for the player and for the villagers, as are many areas outside of the towns and villages where villagers reside. This safe space also prevents the player from hurting the villagers when they demand inflated prices for goods that would help the player to save the town. This sort of enforced morality based on the game turf is neglected in the debate over violence in video games as with articles like Craig A. Anderson and Karen E. Gill’s, which seek to examine the game as divorced from the play space and from the game narrative even though it shows how video game violence is most often situated within a moral landscape (“Video Games and Aggressive Thoughts”). Distinctions within game spaces are evident in all games that present environments of play because games require borders of play to function. In addition to the visual and narrative turfs within them, video games are played within a physical play space. The game space is the space of the immersive game environment—the story space of Diablo II, for instance. The play space is the space in which the game is played – often a living room or bedroom in a home. The debate over violence in video games neglects the multiple landscapes over which they argue. Furthermore, although this debate focuses on the possibility of children playing video games and then becoming violent, it ignores the fact that the play space of video games is a physical and mental space of unreality and make-believe where players are most often heroes fighting against evil monsters. Arguments over violence in video games collapse these levels of game space and the play space within which the games are played. Although the internal game space may be filled with mobsters, blood, and killing, the play space is most often defined by patience, quiet attention, and sharing with other players as the games are played communally with siblings and friends. In confusing the game space by viewing it as solely defined by the narrative of the actual game, the debate over violence in video games also fails to recognise that the use of media varies with different play styles, which also influences the overall play space. While video games do often have violent narratives, video game spaces and play are composites of the actual game and the spaces in which the games are played, which are heavily controlled by how the players play. Video game spaces cannot be reduced to merely the game narratives or game spaces because video game play requires the interaction of play. Considering play requires considering both the internal game spaces and the exterior environment of where and how the players play. Thus, an awareness and examination of game turfs provides a different perspective on the debate over violence and video games that embraces the multiple spaces and multiple uses of space in video games. Works Cited Anderson, Craig A. and Karen E. Dill. “Video Games and Aggressive Thoughts, Feelings, and Behavior in the Laboratory and in Life.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 78:4 (April 2000): 772-790. Blizzard Entertainment. Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos. (PC). 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New York: Routledge, 2003. 47-65. Citation reference for this article MLA Style Taylor, Laurie. "Video Game Internal Turfs and Turfs of Play" M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture <http://www.media-culture.org.au/0403/09-video.php>. APA Style Taylor, L. (2004, Mar17). Video Game Internal Turfs and Turfs of Play. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture, 7, <http://www.media-culture.org.au/0403/09-video.php>