Academic literature on the topic 'Novgorod (Russia) – History'

AbstractBrief research history and new records of agaricoid basidiomycetes from Novgorod Region are provided. Twenty-three species of agaricoid fungi are reported for the first time from Novgorod Region, five species (Gamundia striatula, Mycena erubescens, Mycetinis querceus, Pholiotina brunnea, Sagaranella tylicolor) are new to the North West of European Russia, three species (Baeospora myriadophylla, Entoloma strigosissimum, Mycena renati) are threatened.

In October 1490 Archbishop Gennadii of Novgorod sent a report from the Imperial (Holy Roman Empire) envoy of the Spanish Inquisition to the new Metropolitan of Moscow Zosima. This was in the light of the upcoming synod trial of the accused “Judaic-reasoning Novgorod Heretics,” some of whom Gennadii was then empowered to subject to a humiliating auto-da-fé, without, however, any executions. The overall manuscript evidence indicates that Gennadii’s “judaizing” charges must be taken cum grano salis, that Russian churchmen were clearly concerned with other challenges to Orthodoxy, and the Russian Church’s relationship to Jewish texts was not uniformly hostile. But the report, if quite inaccurate, did have some effect in Russia, even though Russia’s inquisitional proceedings were unique to local conditions and traditions and evinced little influence from any part of the Roman Catholic world. Gennadii’s report dangled the prospects of several thousand immolations and accompanying lucrative property confiscation to the benefit of the royal fisc, but the Russian authorities of the day actually found few such culprits worthy of imprisonment and execution—this in contrast to the former Novgorod Republic’s immense church lands, many of which the state seized and converted into pomest’ia, that is service tenures.

Hanseatic Trading Posts in Russia around 1600When Novgorod was absorbed into the Grand Principality of Moscow in 1478, the traditional medieval framework of Hanseatic trade with Russia was transformed. Henceforth, negotiations and decisions on all important questions took place in Moscow, while the day to day problems of trade lay within the purview of the Great Prince’s (later: the Tsar’s) lieutenant residing in Novgorod. Given the abolition of the medieval structures of communication, Hanseatic representatives suddenly required an intimate familiarity with the Russian court in order to conduct successful negotiations. This article argues that the interaction between Hansards and Russians is best understood as a continuing process of accomodation to one another, and focusses initially on the by-laws (Schra) of the Novgorod Kontor, which were continuously amended and supplemented. Initially, these changes were endogenous, resulting from internal tensions within the Hanse itself. Over time, however, the transformation of the Russian environment became more important. Indeed, many of the new rules and regulations inserted into the by-laws can be best understood if they are conceived to be exogenous, imposed on the Kontor from outside. The article then examines in detail the Hanseatic embassy to Moscow in 1603 and demonstrates how the mutual trust between the Hansards and the Tsars arose and how it was strengthened and developed.

The article is devoted to a comprehensive analysis of historiography and sources concerning the early history of the most ancient temples of Nizhny Novgorod – the cathedrals of Archangel Michael and the Savior's Transfiguration – in order to date their first laying in the 13th – 14th centuries. The historiographical part of the research involves both regional Nizhny Novgorod and All-Russia scientific and popular science literature – a number of publications of various types written from the 1840s to the 2010s. The main objects of the source analysis are Nizhny Novgorod chronicle monuments of the 17th century – the Chronicler about Nizhny Novgorod and Nizhny Novgorod Chronicler, as well as the all–Russia chronicle vaults of the 14th – 16th centuries – Laurentian Codex, Simeonov Codex and other chronicles. The analysis of historiography and sources on the initial history of the oldest temples of Nizhny Novgorod allowed us to formulate the following main provisions. Firstly, the laying of the Savior's Transfiguration cathedral in 1225 is an indisputable historical fact. Secondly, the existence of the stone cathedral of Archangel Michael in the 13th century is extremely unlikely. However, thirdly, the laying of a wooden church in honour of Archangel Michael in Nizhny Novgorod in 1221 is quite acceptable, in our opinion.

Customs books are the major mass source on the history of domestic and foreign trade of Russia in the 17th century. Then one of the most important national centers of trade was Veliky Novgorod. There are several Veliky Novgorod customs books stored in the archives of Moscow and Stockholm: for 1610/11, 1613/14, 1614/15, 1714. In 2019, the author got acquainted with the Novgorod customs book for 1677/78 from the Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts, no information on which has been cited in historical literature. This document was discovered by archeographer N. Ogloblin among the documents of the Siberian Prikaz in the mid-1890s, but was not included in the inventory of the Novgorod bureau of the Razryad and Siberian Prikazes published in late 19th century. The article presents a brief archaeographic description of the Novgorod customs book for 1677/78: its format, volume, binding. The article lists the names of officials responsible for collecting customs in Veliky Novgorod in 1677/78, the customs head and his assistants (tseloval'niki); it also provides data on the customs head and treasurer (larechnyi) from the Veliky Novgorod census book for 1677/78. The structure of the customs book for 1677/78 and the forms of individual records (information on residence and social status of traders, type and quantity of goods) are analyzed in detail. Unique feature of the Novgorod customs book for 1677/78 is that it contains not only the composition of the goods offered for sale, but also of the purchased goods. The analyzed document is a valuable historical source, containing extensive statistical and factual material on the history of domestic and foreign trade, not only in Veliky Novgorod, but in the whole of Russia. It is to be published as a publication-study, in which the text of the source is to be accompanied by the research essay and biographical and terminological notes.

Episcopal election in Western Christianity evolved considerably over the course of the fifth to the twelfth centuries. In the early part of this period, an open electorate consisting of the clergy and the people (clerus et populus), as well as the diocesan clergy and the metropolitan archbishop, all took part in the election and consecration of a new bishop. Over the course of several centuries, the local prince came increasingly to dominate the process due both to Germanic and Roman traditions of the role of the prince and to the growth in power of the local rulers over the course of the Middle Ages. Efforts to harmonize the discordant views of a “democratic” versus an elite (either princely or clerical) electorate with the ideals of canon law, which forbade lay participation in episcopal election, led to assertions that the clergy were to elect the bishop with the people and the prince giving their assent to the bishop-elect. However, with the Gregorian reforms of the twelfth century, the right of the clergy in episcopal elections became preeminent as the reformers sought to enforce the canon laws and exclude the laity from episcopal election, especially in light of past princely abuse. Despite the apparent victory of the reformers in the Investiture Controversy, the local ruler continued to play a preeminent role in episcopal appointments (or elections) into modern times, though the principle of election “by the clergy and the people” fell into disuse.

The article examines the nature of the influence of Germany’s urban law on Novgorod’s schras and the development of trade relations between Velikiy Novgorod and the Hanseatic League. The history of the formation of the municipal law of Germany and its variants — the system of law of the cities of Magdeburg and Lübeck — is covered. The foundation of the law of Lübeck, Magdeburg and other cities was the norms on the basis of which relations were built with the emperor or the episcopal administration, therefore the city’s charters of Germany have a number of coincidences. Some legal provisions borrowed from the city charters, as well as the rights of Lübeck and Magdeburg, will subsequently be included in the texts of Novgorod’s trade agreements and Novgorod hiding after the organization of trade representations (courtyards, factories) of the Hansa. Novgorod’s schras — multidimensional collections containing provisions on the organization of the court, the rules of trade, as well as the rules of criminal law and process. The texts of the laws have come down to our time in seven editions. The basis for all subsequent versions of the collections was the text of the secret of the second half of the XII century. Organized nature, benefits, rights and economic interests allowed German merchants to gain advantages in trade and to exist in Novgorod as a corporation for several centuries. Structural changes in the trade relations of Novgorod and the cities of the Hanseatic League led to important changes in law, especially civil and commercial, most related to the economy. Economic interaction initiated the process of legal integration between Russia and the West, stimulated the rapprochement and mutual influence of Russian and European legal institutions, gave rise to new forms of law that are acceptable for today.

Silver coming through the Hanseatic trade routes to Livonia and further to Russia, was a constructively significant element of the Russian-Hanseatic system of exchange of goods. As a merchandise — “currency”, it replenished the volume of Hanseatic goods entering the Russian market, insufficient for trading on the barter basis, and provided loans and advance payments for trade transactions in the context of the development of trade cooperation. The restoration of the Hanseatic office in Novgorod (German yard) in 1514 was used by Revel in order to establish its own control over the supply of silver to Novgorod and for the transformation of the German yard into a kind of depository or “money place” (Geldstelle), the existence of which was provided for by the order of Hanseatic trade if credit transactions have taken place. This German yard function explains Hanseatic perseverance in the preservation of their Novgorod office.Revel's strategy was aimed to gain leadership in Russian trade and therefore assumed the suspension of Danzig, closely tied with the Fuggers, from the supply of silver to Russia, blocking the Riga- Dorpat-Pskov channel, as well as the management of the company for the unification of its purity standards and the establishment of standard labeling, which facilitated the use of silver as a merchandise — “currency”. Since the beginning of the 1520s, silver inflow to Novgorod has significantly decreased due to the monetary reform carried out by the Livonian Landsgerrs and the introduction of the restrictions (since 1537 — prohibition) on the export of silver from Livonia.The consequence was the destruction of the traditional order of trade between Novgorod and Hansa through mediation by the Livonian cities, led by Revel who controlled the German yard, and creation of a new system based on Lubeck.

The article is devoted to an important event in the political history of post-Soviet Russia, namely the first parliamentary elections in its history. The aim of the work was to determine the specifics of the results of the first elections of deputies of the Russian Parliament after the collapse of the USSR in the Nizhny Novgorod region. The tasks of the work are related to the study of the elections of deputies of the State Duma (both by single-mandate districts and by party lists), and the Federation Council. A number of conclusions are drawn regarding the political sympathies of residents of different administrative-territorial units of the Nizhny Novgorod region in the first half of the last decade. A kind of Nizhny Novgorod «red belt» is defined geographically, consisting of the southern districts of the region, as well as several districts of the north and east of the region, where voters mostly supported the left. It is revealed that the level of political activity in the elections is quite high, which is not surprising in view of the intense political life during the perestroika period in Gorky, and then in Nizhny Novgorod

The article examines the transformation of relations between the state and the Church in the aspect of the repressive policy of the Soviet government on the example of the Nizhny Novgorod diocese in the period 1918 – 1921. This study reflects issues directly related to the reaction of the church administration to the unfolding full-scale persecution. The author compares the situation in the Nizhny Novgorod diocese with the historical circumstances in other dioceses of the Russian Orthodox Church and finds that the Nizhny Novgorod scenario is typical. Nevertheless, there are some features of the historical picture on the Nizhny Novgorod land, due to certain circumstances and personal characteristics of representatives of both secular and Ecclesiastical authorities. This article hypothesizes that the loyal position of the ruling bishop and the diocesan council in relation to the Soviet government did not lead to the cessation of persecution, but contributed to a partial improvement in the state of church affairs in the field. The analysis of the historical situation shows how the degree of loyalty of the diocesan administration towards the new government has changed, taking into account the aggressive pressure from the ruling circles. Russian Russian Orthodox Church. The results of this study can be used in works aimed at studying the history of the Russian Orthodox Church during the period of the beginning of the persecution to obtain a holistic picture of church life, the life of believers in Russia on the example of the Russian province.

Les recherches sur la ville de Nijni Novgorod suscitent des interrogations au sujet de la «ville-nature». Les spécificités de ce territoire, situé dans un autre contexte culturel, nous incitent à contester la généralisation d'un paradigme, celui de la «ville-nature». Il s'agit de revisiter la ville russe contemporaine par la complexité des interactions entre la construction urbaine, conçue par l'homme, et les processus naturels. Par le biais de la «ville-nature» nous repensons la ville et ses changements de conception : le passage d'une ville russe ancienne à la grande ville et à la ville socialiste. L'étude historique était essentielle pour comprendre le phénomène d'urbanisation et les origines des «natures» dans le milieu urbain, dont l'hétérogénéité résulte d'une séquence de bouleversements économiques et politiques. Nijni Novgorod ‒ centre d'agglomération industrielle, pendant la période soviétique Gorki — est fortement marquée par l'industrie. La postsoviétisation et la désindustrialisation ont engendré une recomposition urbaine, en rendant la structure urbaine illisible. Nijni Novgorod s'inscrit dans le territoire par des réseaux multiples dont la reconnaissance et la distinction, réalisées par une lecture stratifiée, à l'aide de la cartographie, mettent en évidence l'émergence du «vert» et participe à la qualification des espaces ouverts. «Sortir du vert» suppose de revisiter le rapport entre l'écologie et l'économie, ainsi que de reconsidérer la présence de la nature dans le milieu urbain par des activités économiques, des enjeux politiques et l'usage des processus naturels par l'homme. La thèse est structurée en entrées thématiques afin de présenter la diversité des rapports que la Nijni Novgorod contemporaine entretient avec la nature. Tout d'abord, sa position à la confluence de la Volga et l'Oka a prédéterminé sa viabilité économique et en même temps a posé le problème de la complexité des conditions naturelles, l'hydrographie et la topographie notamment. En dépit de la réalisation de travaux d'aménagements pendant le XXe siècle, les sols urbains restent difficilement praticables et vulnérables aux processus naturels. Dans la recherche, les espaces ouverts et végétalisés, considérés jusqu'à maintenant non constructibles, sont revisités comme appartenant à l'infrastructure paysagère. Des principes nouveaux d'aménagement sont recherchés pour réorganiser les processus naturels afin d'améliorer la qualité des sols urbains ; le travail du paysagiste s'accorde avec celui de l'ingénieur. Ensuite, la planification stratégique des années 1930 a prédéfini la structure éparpillée de Nijni Novgorod, pensée pour les industries. L'incohérence urbaine résulte des contradictions apparues entre la conception de la ville socialiste unie et la décentralisation uniforme des industries. Les espaces verts conservent l'empreinte des changements sociaux brutaux, de l'inaction politique et des pratiques d'aménagement urbain par les propres moyens des habitants. Le déclin de l'URSS a entraîné l'abandon des grands parcs publics, dont les qualités se rapprochent de celles des terrains réservés pour les espaces verts qui ne furent jamais aménagés. Cependant, la pauvreté des parcs urbains est compensée par la richesse des formes d'agriculture urbaine et périurbaine. Le tissu bâti est composé d'une morphologie dite intermédiaire, incluant des parcelles pour des activités agricoles. Enfin, les processus actuels sont considérés à travers des pratiques d'aménagement qui accompagnent la régénération postindustrielle et l'installation des nouvelles activités. À Nijni Novgorod, la transition postsoviétique accorde de nouvelles données pour le projet urbain, or ce passage se complique par l'ancrage des dogmes soviétiques dans la pensée actuelle. La recherche est réalisée à la rencontre des regards : architectural, territorial et paysager, par le croisement de méthodes différentes : l'histoire, la cartographie, le travail d'enquête sur le terrain
The researches on the city of Nizhny Novgorod raise questions concerning “city-nature”. The specificities of this territory, situated in another cultural context, incite to contest the generalization of one paradigm, that of “city-nature”. This means to revisit the contemporary Russian city through the complexity of the interactions between the urban construction, which is conceived by human, and the natural processes. Through the “city-nature” we are questioning the “city” and the changes in its conception: the passage from the Russian town to the growing city and to the socialist city. The historic study was essential towards the understanding of the phenomenon of urbanization and the origins of the "natures", presented in the urban area. Its heterogeneousness results from a sequence of the economic and political upheavals. Nizhny Novgorod, during the Soviet period Gorky, is the centre of an industrial conglomeration; it is strongly marked by the industry. The postsoviétisation and the deindustrialization engendered the spatial reorganization and made the urban structure illegible. Nizhny Novgorod fit in the territory by multiple networks. Their recognition and distinction, realized by stratified reading through the cartographic analysis, puts in evidence the emergence of the "green" and participle in the qualification of the opened spaces. "Go out of the green" supposes to revisit the report between the ecology and the economy, as well as to reconsider the presence of the nature in the urban area by economic activities, the political aims and the usage of the natural processes by human. The thesis is structured by the thematic entrances in order to present the diversity of reports which contemporary Nijni Novgorod maintains with the nature. First of all, its position in the confluence of the Volga and Oka predetermined the economic viability and at the same time raised the problem of the complexity of the natural conditions, the hydrography and the topography particularly. In spite of improving the urban environment during the XXth century, the urban grounds remain practicable with difficulties and vulnerable in the natural processes. In the researches, the open and vegetated spaces, considered so far as not for construction, are revisited as belonging to the landscaped infrastructure. New principles of urban design are looked for to reorganize the natural processes in order to improve the quality of the urban grounds; the landscape design requires the engineering skills. Then, the strategic planning of the 1930s has predefined the disperse framework by Nijni Novgorod, conceived for the industries. The reason of urban incoherence due to the contradictions appeared between the conception of the united socialist city and the regular decentralization of the industries across the country. The urban green spaces conserve the imprint of the social upheavals, the political inactivity and the practices of urban design by the inhabitants with their own means. The decline of the USSR entailed the desolation of the city parks, whose qualities nowadays get closer to those of the spaces reserved for the new parks which were never realized. However, the poverty of the urban green spaces is compensated with the diversity of the forms of urban and suburban agriculture. The urban morphology consists of intermediate types, which include household plots, particularly for the gardens. Finally, the current processes are studied through the strategies of spatial organization, which will accompany the post-industrial regeneration and installation of the new activities. The post-sovietization brings to Nizhny Novgorod the new conditions for the urban project, but this passage is complicated by the anchoring of the Soviet doctrines in the urban conception. This research is realized on the intersection of the architectural territorial and landscaped regards and by the crossing of different methods: the history, the cartography and the opinion poll

The article analyses and systematizes the results of Russian research on German and Russian Expressionism in the past 15 years. The author focuses on large collective research projects on history and theory of Russian and German literature, which study Expressionism as an integral part of the literary process, as well as on individual research of literary critics and linguists. The geography of Russian studies of Expressionism covers research centers in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Ekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod, Chelyabinsk, Samara.

The article is devoted to the mention of the enigmatic «zabozhnich’e» in the account of 6736 (1228) AD in the Novgorod First Chronicle. Two theories explaining the word (the legal one and the religious one) are both far from being convincing. The author puts forward his own interpretation based on historical as well as linguistic data and comes to the following conclusion: «zabozhnich’e» most likely derives from the word «bozhnitsa» (a church) which was hypothesized by Nikolai M. Karamzin as early as in the beginning of the 19th century, and means a court hearing chaired by the prince’s judge near a church. Such court hearings might have taken place in pogosty — territorial units of the Novgorod agrarian hinterland.

Changes in Russian society, happened in the last three decades, determine the contradictory process of socialization of the younger generation. The blurry of perceptions about the type of personality demanded by society and the state, in many ways, determines the chaotic process of forming the values of young people, which proceed under the influence of random and sometimes divergent factors. Changing objective living conditions in modern Russian society leads to a significant complication of social self-determination processes, the formation of the problematic identity of various youth groups. The authors of the article focused on identifying local-territorial and sociocultural features of the memory of the Great Patriotic War of the students of the large regional centers of the Volga Federal District. The dynamics of this process are analyzed on the basis of data obtained during the research of historical memory of students of Nizhny Novgorod region and cities of the Volga Federal District in 2005–2015. The Volga branch of FCTAS RAS and LUNN, as well as the all-Russian sociological study of the Russian society of sociologists in 2020. The authors of the article substantiate the conclusion that the structure of the historical memory of young students is very selective, often without sufficient justification fixes attention on some events and ignores others, contributing to the mythologization of historical consciousness, disorienting it and creating a favorable ground for the emergence and strengthening of social destruction. The authors’ conclusion is convincing that without special eff orts of society, the state, educational institutions aimed at forming the historical consciousness of young students, it is impossible to maintain the attitude to the Great Patriotic War, as a landmark event in world and national history.

The history of relations between Lubeck and Russia goes back to the Middle Ages. At that time, the main partner of Lubeck was Novgorod. After Novgorod became part of the Moscow state, the city tried to build relations with the tsars. In the XVIII–XIX centuries, the city became an important partner in the difficult Russian-German relations of that period.

The results of morphological analyses of the urban structures more and more attract attention with the aim of understanding the processes and laws of transformation of the city fabric. Comparison of the case studies representing different regional cultures gives reasons to presume the presence of global trends as well as local features. Their dialectical contradictions lead to a unique urban form very often. Thus, recent global conversion caused very similar urban problems as well as methods for their solution characteristic to the whole world. Popularization rate of the past is comparable to the speed of propagation of a certain fashion lifestyle. As the result - reversal of thinking to find local uniqueness of each settlement and this tendency again step by step became global. From other side universal morphological conceptual apparatus built on factual analysis allows to trace the objective process of urban transformation and to give some forecasts concerning changes in their structure. Assumptions must be considered with the adjustment for the modern scale. Never the less contemporary cities - Krasnoyarsk, Nizhnyi Novgorod, Irkutsk demonstrate building and fabric adaptation, redevelopment, additive processes, contrast with transformative processes, agricultural residual (areas of town dachas in Russian urban tradition), augmentative redevelopment, different scales of changes of use, loft-cycle (second, re- use) development, street markets concretion, other, characteristic not only for the historic heritage areas but for the modern city as well. Russian cities in our days demonstrate urban-rural fringe development - somewhat even similar to “cocktail-belts” but with the local eclectic Siberian architecture.