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Vargas-Bianchi, Lizardo, and Marta Mensa. "Do you remember me? Women sexual objectification in advertising among young consumers." Young Consumers 21, no. 1 (March 21, 2020): 77–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/yc-04-2019-0994.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the effect on brand name recall in advertisements with varying levels of female sexual objectification content among young millennials and the effect of distraction on this recall effort. The question arises whether this group evokes those brands that appear in advertisements using different levels of objectification content. Design/methodology/approach The study uses a correlational design that includes two studies with different groups of subjects: an assessment of perceived female sexual objectification levels in a set of ads and a quasi-experimental study that used the assessed perceived levels of female objectification and brand name short-term recall scores of those ads, with and without the intervention of an attention distractor. Findings Results suggest that female sexual objectification content exerts a limited influence on brand name recall between participants. In addition, it is not men who remember brand names from ads using sexual objectified images, but young women. Research limitations/implications The study had an exploratory scope and used a small non-probabilistic sample. Subjects belong to a cultural context of Western world developing economy, and thus perceived female objectification may vary between different cultural settings. Results refer to graphic advertisements, though this cohort is exposed to other audiovisual content platforms. Originality/value Several studies have addressed female objectification in advertising and media, but few focused on young Latin American audiences and its impact on the recollection of advertised brands. Brand name retention and awareness is still a relevant variable that the advertising industry takes in account as one of several predictors toward buying decisions. Even less research has been made on Latin American social and cultural contexts.
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Klainberger, Sarah Agnes Thonsgaard. "The Beef Between Men and Animals." Leviathan: Interdisciplinary Journal in English, no. 6 (March 13, 2020): 128–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.7146/lev.v0i6.118865.
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Fast-food companies often rely on images objectifying women in their advertising as a way to sell their products. Following Carol J. Adams’ work on absent referents, this article argues that they rely on ideas and images objectifying animals as well. However, the use of these ideas and images is problematic because the normalization of the objectification of non-human animals and women in fast-food advertising can have consequences for both as it perpetuates animal exploitation and gender inequality. This article analyzes three examples of fast-food advertising from Arby’s, Carl’s Jr., and Burger King which arguably contribute to the normalization of the objectification of animals and women through their perpetuation of the problematic notion that eating animals is both natural and masculine. The analysis illustrates links between women and non-human animals in advertising and supports the linked oppression theory.
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Acar, Alpaslan. "Translators and Advertisers as an Accomplice in the Objectification of Women in Advertising." International Journal of English Linguistics 10, no. 2 (January 18, 2020): 51. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v10n2p51.
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The study was carried out to find out whether women are objectified in the source language (English) verbally and non-verbally, and evaluate and assess the advertisers and translators’ role in objectification of women in the target language (Turkish). To evaluate the objectification of women in the source and the target languages scientifically, the researcher developed a scale consisting of 16 items, which analyse any advertisement in terms of verbal and non-verbal objectification. To ensure reliability and validity, four experts’ opinion as to the items of the scale was resorted and statistical analysis was carried out before it was applied to. Magnum ice cream, Toyota, Efes Zilli Sally & Delikanlı Harry, Game of Sultans and L`Oréal Paris skin cream commercials were analysed verbally and non-verbally in two languages. The results of the study show that in both languages, women are extensively objectified and in some advertisements, the physical beauty of women was dehumanized and even reached to the border of pornography.
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Anindya, Annisa, and Defhany Defhany. "Feminisme dan Stereotip Gender dalam Iklan Produk Kecantikan." JESS (Journal of Education on Social Science) 3, no. 2 (October 31, 2019): 113. http://dx.doi.org/10.24036/jess/vol3-iss2/159.
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Submission of patriarchal cultural ideologies makes inequality in gender identity. The ideology states that gender should have certain characteristics that are perpetuated from time to time. A stereotype of gender identity was formed which was then displayed in various social interactions, including in the mass media, especially advertising. Gender bias, inequality of women's representation, and women objectification are found in advertisements, especially for beauty products. Feminism is the rationale for this study related to the objectification of these women. But this research will explain how women are forever not only objects, but also begin to show themselves as subjects.
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Afaque, Huma, and Nasreen Aslam Shah. "A Study Of Spectators Perception About The Women Objectification In Commercials Of Pakistani Electronic Media." Pakistan Journal of Applied Social Sciences 8, no. 1 (September 8, 2018): 41–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.46568/pjass.v8i1.321.
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The Western media has conducted extensive research on the objectification of women and has now become an established research field for feminist scholars. However, in Pakistan, the representation of women in television advertising and their objectification has received little attention. This research paper tries to describe the point of view of the spectators in contrast to the women objectification in TVCs. Survey research technique has been applied for the examining the views of 200 respondents of the survey and were classified based on gender. Usually, the advertisers use women as the marketing object to attract the attention of the consumers .The study reveals that women are portrayed as sex object for sexual satisfaction due to male chauvinist society. This study concludes that portrayal of women in advertisements is objectified sexually and uses women as commodity to capture the consumers. Overall evidence of female portrayal as a sex object is found in television commercials in Pakistani media and these commercials do not reflect culture and traditions of Pakistan.
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Zimmerman, Amanda, and John Dahlberg. "The Sexual Objectification of Women in Advertising: A Contemporary Cultural Perspective." Journal of Advertising Research 48, no. 1 (March 2008): 71–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.2501/s0021849908080094.
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Ahmed, Khalid, Anila Tariq, and Arfan Akram. "Semiotic Analysis of the Objectification of Women in Selected Pakistani Advertisements." Journal of Communication and Cultural Trends 2, no. 1 (January 5, 2021): 1–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.32350/jcct/2020/21/1128.
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This study explored the objectification of women in Pakistani advertisements of print and electronic media. The objectification and presentation of women in the advertisements of the western world has been extensively studied but this area lacks research in Pakistan. Semiotic analysis was used as the research tool in order to explore how multiple meanings and beliefs are built in a society by advertising sex. In this research, five advertisements from different Pakistani TV channels and newspapers were selected as sample. These commercials were selected because they presented women in a specific way. For analysis, Barthian semiotic analysis on two levels of significance, that is, the denotative and connotative levels, was employed. The findings of this paper revealed that advertisements in Pakistan focus on the physical appearance and depiction of women body.
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Ahmed, Khalid, Anila Tariq, and Arfan Akram. "Semiotic Analysis of the Objectification of Women in Selected Pakistani Advertisements." Journal of Communication and Cultural Trends 2, no. 1 (March 31, 2020): 1–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.32350/jcct.21.01.
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This study explored the objectification of women in Pakistani advertisements of print and electronic media. The objectification and presentation of women in the advertisements of the western world has been extensively studied but this area lacks research in Pakistan. Semiotic analysis was used as the research tool in order to explore how multiple meanings and beliefs are built in a society by advertising sex. In this research, five advertisements from different Pakistani TV channels and newspapers were selected as sample. These commercials were selected because they presented women in a specific way. For analysis, Barthian semiotic analysis on two levels of significance, that is, the denotative and connotative levels, was employed. The findings of this paper revealed that advertisements in Pakistan focus on the physical appearance and depiction of women body.
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Warrich, Dr Haseeb Ur Rehman, Dr Ayesha Qamar, and Zil e. Huma. "Body-representation and sexual identity projections: A survey of advertising in print media." Journal of Peace, Development & Communication Volume 4, Issue 3 (December 30, 2020): 01–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.36968/jpdc-v04-i03-01.
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Matrimonial advertisements provide an unobtrusive site where the image, construction and perpetuation of normative heterosexuality are observed through socio-cultural discourses. The current study focuses on self-representation and gender role expectations in 550 classified matrimonial ads from two popular newspapers (The Daily Dawn, The Daily Jang) in Pakistan. Gender differences in desirable physical attributes, occupational preferences and personality traits are examined. The results revealed that gender polarization in ideal spousal occupations, and the relative variability in gender identities of women as compared to men. A strong preference for pretty and slim women is observed. Implications for the sexual objectification of women and changing gender roles in changing socioeconomic landscape of Pakistan is due to the impact of globalization.
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Vega Saldaña, Silvia, Daniel Barredo, Carmen Lasso de Vega, and Ana Merchán Clavellino. "Functions and Sales Arguments in Spanish Advertising. A Study on Female Representation." Review of European Studies 10, no. 3 (May 15, 2018): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/res.v10n3p1.
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Advertising is responsible for developing part of the contemporary imaginaries, which tend to be imposed as referential frameworks, especially for strategic groups such as those embodied by young people. In this regard, in the following article we present the results of a study in which we evaluated 1520 images published in advertisements from the main Spanish high-end women's magazines (Cosmopolitan, Elle, Glamor, Telva and Vogue). The results in these publications highlight the presence of a restrictive body type for women, which imposes canons of beauty where thinness and slenderness prevail, and to which physical qualities are associated such as white ethnicity, light eyes tonalities, dark or light hair with a length between the shoulders and the chest, a palpable youth and extreme corporal perfection. And also, a pattern that characterizes women devoid of intellectual roles and arguments to purchase and sell, which is an example of symbolic power and objectification of the female body.
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Sugiarto, Catur, and Virginie de Barnier. "Are religious customers skeptical toward sexually appealing advertising?" Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal 22, no. 5 (November 11, 2019): 669–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/qmr-09-2018-0111.
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Purpose This paper aims to shed new light on the consumer response toward sex appeal in advertising and investigates ad skepticism in a culturally diverse context. Design/methodology/approach By using the qualitative research methodology, the following study draws upon informant opinions regarding the extent of graphic nudity in print advertising is needed to avoid undesirable reactions from potential consumers and how religiosity influences their attitudes toward sexually appealing advertisements. The information was obtained through semi-structured in-depth interviews with 22 interviewees from four groups, namely, academia, advertising practitioners, religious figures and general consumers. Findings The remarkable findings to emerge from the interviews relate to the following: the role of religiosity vis-à-vis nudity and the “lowering of the gaze” concept in Islam, the objectification and stereotypical portrayals of women, the irrational depiction of sexuality and intimacy and factors that lead to contextual interpretation. Research limitations/implications The result provides further evidence that skepticism does not only exist on a cognitive basis but also on an emotional level as a response to the exaggeration, unrealistic and irritating claims made in some adverts. Practical implications This study suggests that advertisers should advance their cultural comprehension by taking into account the moral and social differences. Originality/value This has been the first study to investigate the skepticism toward sex appeal in advertising and integrate both cognitive and affective context of skepticism.
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Morris, Kasey Lynn, Jamie Goldenberg, and Patrick Boyd. "Women as Animals, Women as Objects: Evidence for Two Forms of Objectification." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 44, no. 9 (April 19, 2018): 1302–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167218765739.
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Women are objectified through overt sexualization and through a focus on physical appearance, but empirical research has not yet made this distinction. In three studies, we found evidence consistent with the hypothesis that although both forms of objectification strip women of their humanness, there are unique dehumanizing signatures associated with each. When women were objectified by a focus on their sexual features or functions ( sexual objectification), they were perceived as lacking uniquely human attributes (i.e., animalistic dehumanization). Conversely, when women were objectified by an emphasis on their beauty or physical appearance ( appearance-focused objectification), they were perceived as lacking human nature (i.e., mechanistic dehumanization). In Study 3, we also examined an outcome associated with women’s risk of harm and found that mechanistic dehumanization, in response to appearance-focused objectification, uniquely promoted the perception that a woman was less capable of feeling pain. Implications for objectification research are discussed.
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Muehlenkamp, Jennifer J., and Renee N. Saris-Baglama. "Self-Objectification and Its Psychological Outcomes for College Women." Psychology of Women Quarterly 26, no. 4 (December 2002): 371–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1471-6402.t01-1-00076.
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The objectification of women by our society can become internalized by women, resulting in negative psychological outcomes. Using Fredrickson and Roberts' (1997) objectification theory, we tested a model of the relationships between self-objectification and disordered eating and depressive symptoms in a sample of undergraduate women ( n = 384). One postulate of self-objectification theory is that self-objectification can lead to a lack of internal awareness, which may mediate the relationship between self-objectification and restrictive eating, bulimic, and depressive symptoms. Results of structural equation modeling suggest that self-objectification has a direct relationship to restrictive eating, bulimic, and depressive symptoms. The mediational role of internal awareness was relevant for depressive symptoms but not for restrictive eating or bulimic symptoms. Depressive symptoms did, however, mediate the relationship between self-objectification and bulimic symptoms. The relevance of our findings to the understanding of objectification theory are discussed and future areas of research recommended.
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Gervais, Sarah J., and M. Meghan Davidson. "Objectification Among College Women in the Context of Intimate Partner Violence." Violence and Victims 28, no. 1 (2013): 36–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.28.1.36.
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This study examined intimate partner violence (IPV) and objectification. Specifically, the associations between psychological and physical abuse and self-objectification, body surveillance, and body shame for college women were considered through the lens of objectification theory. Consistent with Hypothesis 1, bivariate correlations showed that more psychological abuse was associated with more self-objectification, more body surveillance, and more body shame. As well, more physical abuse was associated with more body surveillance and more body shame. However, when the unique effects of psychological and physical abuse were considered in a path model, the links between psychological abuse and objectification remained while the links between physical abuse and objectification became nonsignificant. In addition, consistent with Hypothesis 2 and the model proposed by objectification theory, body surveillance and the combined effect of self-objectification and body surveillance explained relations between psychological abuse and body shame. This work fills an important gap in the current literature because it is the only study to date that examines relations between both psychological and physical abuse and self-objectification, body surveillance, and body shame. Implications and future directions are discussed.
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Muehlenkamp, Jennifer J., Jenny D. Swanson, and Amy M. Brausch. "Self-Objectification, Risk Taking, and Self-Harm in College Women." Psychology of Women Quarterly 29, no. 1 (March 2005): 24–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2005.00164.x.
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Objectification theory proposes that the objectification of women's bodies causes women to self-objectify, adopting an outsider's view of themselves. Engaging in a high amount of self-objectification is thought to place women at increased risk for mental health problems such as body dissatisfaction and depression. It was hypothesized that self-objectification would contribute to negative body regard and depression, which would increase participation in risk-taking and self-harmful behaviors. Structural equation modeling was used to test a model of risk for self-harm based upon objectification theory in a sample of 391 college women. Results indicate that the model provided a good fit to the data, but only the paths from self-objectification to negative body regard, negative body regard to depression, and depression to self-harm were significant. Implications of these findings for objectification theory and our understanding of self-harm in women are discussed.
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Bareket, Orly, and Nurit Shnabel. "Domination and Objectification: Men’s Motivation for Dominance Over Women Affects Their Tendency to Sexually Objectify Women." Psychology of Women Quarterly 44, no. 1 (September 8, 2019): 28–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0361684319871913.
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In the present research, we examined the association between heterosexual men’s motivation for dominance over women and their sexual objectification of women. We found that men’s social dominance orientation (SDO) correlated with their tendency to sexually objectify women (Study 1). Inducing threat to men’s dominance over women by assigning men to work under the supervision of women bosses—versus jointly with women partners (Study 2a) or under men bosses (Study 3)—led to increased sexual objectification of women among high-SDO participants. These results persisted when controlling for mood. Examining the corresponding effects among heterosexual women revealed that the correlation between SDO and the sexual objectification of men was non-significant (Study 1) and that working under men bosses did not affect women’s sexual objectification of men (Study 2b). These findings support feminist theorizing that men (re)assert their dominance over women by sexually objectifying them. Increased awareness of the motivations underlying women’s sexual objectification can help professionals plan useful interventions to reduce this phenomenon, hopefully limiting its negative effects on women’s well-being.
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Parent, Mike C., Sheila Garos, Emily Branscome, and Margaret Piper. "What Is Bad From the Gander Is Bad From the Goose: Development and Validation of the Women’s Objectification of Women Scale." Assessment 27, no. 5 (February 14, 2018): 941–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1073191117754138.
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Existing measures of experiences of sexualization and objectification of women focus on behaviors that men do toward women. However, women may also contribute to the objectification of other women. The aim of the present study was to develop the Women’s Objectification of Women Scale (WOWS). Through a series of four studies using samples of college women and samples obtained through MTurk, we (a) established that existing measures of objectification focus on behaviors that men perform, (b) gathered qualitative data on women’s experiences of objectification by women, (c) developed models of the WOWS using classical test theory methods and item response theory, and (d) subjected the WOWS to confirmatory factor analysis and validity testing. The WOWS is a psychometrically sound, brief assessment of women’s experiences of objectification by other women and may help further research on women’s interpersonal experiences as they pertain to body image concerns, mental health, and well-being.
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Hill, Melanie S., and Ann R. Fischer. "Examining Objectification Theory." Counseling Psychologist 36, no. 5 (July 2008): 745–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0011000007301669.
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Many theorists have suggested that living in a culture in which women's bodies are sexually objectified socializes girls and women to treat themselves as objects. This study developed a theory-based measure of cultural sexual objectification and explored the relationship between women's reports of cultural sexual objectification experiences and self-objectification. The possible moderating effects of sexual orientation were explored using hierarchical moderated regressions. The major findings, in a sample of 361 women, were (a) women's reports of sexualized gaze/harassment were significantly related to their own self-objectification, (b) lesbian and heterosexual women reported similar levels of sexualized gaze/harassment, and (c) the relationship between sexualized gaze/harassment and self-objectification was not significantly different for the lesbian and heterosexual subsamples. Potential implications for counseling and directions for future research are discussed.
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Ramsey, Laura R., Justin A. Marotta, and Tiffany Hoyt. "Sexualized, objectified, but not satisfied." Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 34, no. 2 (July 9, 2016): 258–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0265407516631157.
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Although the objectification of women is pervasive, it has not been studied extensively in the context of romantic relationships. This is a curious oversight, given that physical appearance is considered a prominent factor in romantic attraction and conceptualizations of objectification tend to involve an exaggerated emphasis on physical appearance. Thus, objectification theory may have interesting implications for romantic relationships. Women who enjoy sexualization may be more likely to have a partner who objectifies them, which could have negative implications for the relationship, as objectification research has generally found that the experience of objectification has negative consequences for women. Across three studies of heterosexual women in relationships ( N = 114, N = 196, and N = 208), results showed that those who enjoyed sexualization tended to feel more objectified by their partner, which in turn related to lowered relationship satisfaction. These findings persisted even when controlling for perceptions of partner’s sexual desire, self-objectification, and objectification from strangers. Furthermore, Study 3 provides preliminary evidence that self-objectification may be a precursor to this mediation in that self-objectification was associated with higher enjoyment of sexualization, which was associated with higher partner-objectification, which in turn was associated with lower relationship satisfaction. This research sheds light on how the objectification of women operates within the context of a heterosexual romantic relationship.
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Grabe, Shelly, Clay Routledge, Alison Cook, Christie Andersen, and Jamie Arndt. "In Defense of the Body: The Effect of Mortality Salience on Female Body Objectification." Psychology of Women Quarterly 29, no. 1 (March 2005): 33–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2005.00165.x.
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Previous research has illustrated the negative psychological consequences of female body objectification. The present study explores how female body objectification may serve as a defense against unconscious existential fears. Drawing from terror management theory, an experiment was designed to test the potential functionality of female body objectification. Men and women were primed to think about either their own mortality or an aversive control topic, and levels of body objectification were then assessed for both self- and other (women)-objectification. Findings supported the hypothesis that priming mortality would increase both self- and other-objectification among women, and self-objectification among those who derive self-esteem from their body. Implications for this research are discussed.
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Tiggemann, Marika, and Michelle Boundy. "Effect of Environment and Appearance Compliment on College Women's Self-Objectification, Mood, Body Shame, and Cognitive Performance." Psychology of Women Quarterly 32, no. 4 (December 2008): 399–405. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00453.x.
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Objectification theory contends that women self-objectify as a result of internalizing an external observer's perspective of their physical selves. Self-objectification has been examined as both a stable enduring trait and as a context dependant state. The present study attempted to trigger state self-objectification by relatively subtle manipulation of the immediate physical and social environment. Participants were 96 female undergraduate students who completed questionnaire measures and cognitive tasks in a 2 (a subtle objectifying environment versus a standard environment) x 2 (an appearance compliment versus no comment) x 2 (high versus low trait self-objectification) design. It was found that, for women high on trait self-objectification, the objectifying physical environment enhanced state self-objectification, and the appearance compliment enhanced body shame. The findings demonstrate that subtle situational factors not requiring women to explicitly focus attention on their own bodies can elicit self-objectification and its proposed consequences, particularly among women high in trait self-objectification.
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Moradi, Bonnie, and Yu-Ping Huang. "Objectification Theory and Psychology of Women: A Decade of Advances and Future Directions." Psychology of Women Quarterly 32, no. 4 (December 2008): 377–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00452.x.
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Fredrickson and Roberts (1997) proposed objectification theory as an integrative framework for understanding how women's socialization and experiences of sexual objectification are translated into mental health problems. This article reviews the past decade of research grounded in objectification theory and highlights needed directions for future scholarship in this area. Specifically, this article reviews research organized according to the following themes: (a) self-objectification and its proposed consequences, (b) sexual objectification experiences as a proposed precursor, and (c) disconnections from bodily functions. An overview of emerging objectification theory research with men is also provided. The review concludes with needed directions for future theoretical and research efforts aimed to advance the psychology of women.
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Grey, Melissa J., Terrence G. Horgan, Tiffany A. Long, Noelle K. Herzog, and James R. Lindemulder. "Contrasting Objectification and Competence." Journal of Media Psychology 28, no. 2 (April 2016): 88–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000159.
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Abstract. Research on priming self-objectification in women frequently implements product-only control groups or nonhuman control images. This study aimed to clarify whether there was a difference in levels of self-objectification among female participants who viewed objectifying images of women, body-competent images of women, or product-only images. A sample of undergraduate females was primed with one of the above image types, after which they completed the Twenty Statements Test (TST) to examine their preoccupation with their own appearance. Results revealed that those who were primed with objectifying images of women exhibited more self-objectification than women who were primed with either body-competent images of women or product-only images. There was also no significant difference between those who only viewed products and those who viewed body-competent images of women. Results are discussed in the context of self-objectification research methods and implications for visual media artists.
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Poon, Stephen T. F. "Objectification and Sensibility: A Critical Look at Sexism as Subtext in Postfeminist Advertising." Asian Social Science 17, no. 2 (January 22, 2021): 17. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ass.v17n2p17.
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This paper explores the phenomenon of sex in advertising to understand the relationship between objectification of gender, sex, sexuality and representations of femininity through advertising subtexts, processes and discourses. Literature shows the usage of sexism in advertising and marketing veers in extreme scopes between blatant explicitness and stylish subtlety, depending on the cultural contexts and norms of the target market. Using qualitative case examples, advertising campaigns highlight objectification of sexual desires as an antithesis of postfeminist thought. Rhetorical analysis was performed on advertisement samples, building from postfeminist perspectives in marketing theories. Examples of visual rhetoric in beer, feminine product commercials and social cause campaigns are discussed. Findings demonstrate cultural expressions of postfeminist sensibility adapted for specific femininity contexts. Overall, sexism subtexts are shown to be a continued challenge in developing persuasive advertising rhetoric for the postfeminist era. Non-translatability and cultural adaptations to consumer segments suggests that the use of sex to visually communicate marketing information to an increasingly diverse marketplace face much social pressure today than in the past. Femininity themes in postfeminist advertising could be more effectively portrayed through subtle techniques such as irony and sarcasm, and in more inclusive, diverse, pragmatic and respectful femininity representations.
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Rollero, Chiara, and Stefano Tartaglia. "The effects of objectification on stereotypical perception and attractiveness of women and men." Psihologija 49, no. 3 (2016): 231–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/psi1603231r.
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Objectification has been found to have negative consequences on how women are perceived by others. However in an even more sexualized world being a sexual object has become a standard of physical attractiveness for women and objectification could foster a positive evaluation increasing attractiveness. Although Objectification Theory was originally grounded in women?s experiences, some research points to the promise of Objectification Theory for understanding men?s experiences as well. The aim of the paper was investigating the effects of objectification on gender stereotypes and perceived attractiveness. Two experimental studies were conducted. Study 1 (N=139) investigated the effects of objectification on female targets. Study 2 (N=146) investigated the effects on male targets. In both studies three dependent variables were considered: communality, agency, and attractiveness. Results of Study 1 revealed that objectified women were considered less communal and more attractive. Moreover, men perceived objectified women less agentic than the non-objectified ones, whereas women showed the opposite perception. Concerning men, objectification has a limited impact, as it interacted with participants? gender only on communality: men considered objectified males more communal than the non-objectified ones, while women revealed the opposite perception.
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Greenleaf, Christy. "Self-Objectification Among Physically Active Women." Sex Roles 52, no. 1-2 (January 2005): 51–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-1193-8.
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Szymanski, Dawn M. "Sexual Objectification, Internalization, and College Women’s Depression: The Role of Shame." Counseling Psychologist 48, no. 1 (October 29, 2019): 135–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0011000019878847.
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This study examined potential mediators, a moderator, and a moderated mediation of the link between sexual objectification experiences and depression among 489 young adult college women. Findings from the mediation analyses revealed that sexual objectification was directly and indirectly related to depression via greater body surveillance and self-blame. Shame moderated the direct effect of sexual objectification on body surveillance. Sexual objectification predicted body surveillance for women with low but not high or moderate levels of shame. Shame also moderated the direct effect of sexual objectification on self-blame and provided support for moderated mediation via conditional process analyses. Sexual objectification predicted self-blame for women with high and moderate but not low levels of shame. The findings underscore the importance of attending to experiences of objectification when working with women clients presenting with depression and to help them lessen habitual body monitoring, blaming themselves for being sexually objectified, and feelings of shame.
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Beech, Olivia Donati, Leah Kaufmann, and Joel Anderson. "A Systematic Literature Review Exploring Objectification and Motherhood." Psychology of Women Quarterly 44, no. 4 (August 27, 2020): 521–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0361684320949810.
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Objectification theory provides a theoretical framework for understanding how socialization and experiences of objectification can lead women to place excessive value on their appearance—a process known as self-objectification. Despite the number of women that are mothers, the application of objectification theory to motherhood has been relatively limited. This review synthesizes the available research exploring objectification during motherhood. We conducted a systematic search for published and unpublished articles that quantitatively examined the objectification of, or self-objectification during, motherhood across five databases in March 2019. The search yielded 23 studies across 20 articles, which in combination revealed strong evidence of societal objectification of mothers and self-objectification by mothers. Effects were found for pregnant and postpartum women, in both community and university samples of mothers. Outcomes included more body shame, concerns about the negative impact of breastfeeding, barriers to breastfeeding, fear of childbirth, disordered eating, and greater appearance concerns in mothers, and sexualized behaviors and body surveillance for their children. Some evidence indicated that self-objectifying may be protective for mothers in certain situations, but it was mostly associated with harmful consequences. Finally, some evidence suggested that there may be age and generational effects of objectification, which may impact all women, including mothers. We hope these findings highlight the benefits for women to engage in healthy relationships with their bodies and to consider the functionality of their body as it changes in preparation for entering motherhood.
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Prichard, Ivanka, and Marika Tiggemann. "Predictors of Self-Objectification in New Female Fitness Center Members." Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal 21, no. 1 (April 2012): 24–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/wspaj.21.1.24.
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This study aimed to identify predictors of self-objectification among exercising women. A brief questionnaire incorporating demographic questions and measures of self-objectification was completed by 133 new female fitness center members (aged 16 to 68 years) upon joining a fitness center and 12 months later. Results demonstrated that young women who remained fitness center members had greater self-objectification at 12 months than women who ceased their memberships. Furthermore, both initial age and reasons for exercise predicted subsequent increases in self-objectification. Specifically, being younger, as well as being more motivated by appearance-related reasons to exercise, predicted self-objectification at 12 months. These findings suggest that young women exercising within the fitness center environment may be at an increased risk of developing self-objectification, one of the predictors of negative body image and disordered eating.
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Cheeseborough, Thekia, Nicole Overstreet, and L. Monique Ward. "Interpersonal Sexual Objectification, Jezebel Stereotype Endorsement, and Justification of Intimate Partner Violence Toward Women." Psychology of Women Quarterly 44, no. 2 (January 6, 2020): 203–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0361684319896345.
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Sexual objectification and Jezebel stereotype endorsement, a racialized characterization of Black women as promiscuous, have been linked to harmful violence attitudes toward women. Although Black women’s experiences of sexual objectification may be compounded by racialized stereotypes, research has yet to examine how these processes intersect to influence justification of intimate partner violence toward women. This study fills this gap in the objectification literature by examining associations between interpersonal sexual objectification, endorsement of racialized stereotypes, and justification of violence toward women in a sample of Black men and women. Participants were 432 Black Americans who completed an online survey. Among Black men, we found that greater objectifying behaviors and greater endorsement of the Jezebel stereotype were associated with greater justification of violence toward women. We did not find evidence of an interaction between these two processes. Among Black women, we found an interaction between objectification experiences and stereotype endorsement, such that justification of violence was highest for Black women who endorsed the Jezebel stereotype and had more frequent experiences of sexual objectification. Violence prevention work, such as perpetrator rehabilitation programs and victim support groups, should explicitly address how stereotypical images of Black women impact their experiences of violence.
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Al-Mutawa, Naif, Susannah-Joy Schuilenberg, Rumia Justine, and Sarah Kulsoom Taher. "Modesty, Objectification, and Disordered Eating Patterns: A Comparative Study between Veiled and Unveiled Muslim Women Residing in Kuwait." Medical Principles and Practice 28, no. 1 (November 19, 2018): 41–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000495567.
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Background: The common thread running through all forms of sexual objectification is the experience of being treated as a body (or collection of body parts) valued predominantly for its use to (or consumption by) others. If girls and women adopt a peculiar view of the self, an effect called self-objectification, this may contribute to depression, sexual dysfunction, and eating disorders. The objective of this study is to investigate the impact of modesty (in terms of veiling, i.e., hijab) on objectification, by others and by the self, body image, and behaviors indicative of eating disturbance in veiled and unveiled Muslim women in Kuwait. Methods: This is a community-based, cross-sectional study conducted through an online survey. The respondents were females living in Kuwait. Results: Unveiled women experienced more objectification by others than veiled women. There were no significant differences found between veiled and unveiled women in self-objectification and eating disorder symptomatology. There is a significant negative relationship between modesty of clothing and objectification by others. No significant relationship was found between modesty of clothing and the self-objectification and eating disorder scales. For the objectification by others scale, data show that there is a positive relationship between this scale and eating disorders. Eating disorders were found to have a negative relationship with self-objectification. Conclusion: The results of the study are significant as they clearly demonstrate a weak negative relationship between clothing preferences/affiliations and eating disorders.
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Pratiwi, Titis. "Woman as A Dirty Machine: A Question Of Objectification On E.E. Cummings." Paradigma, Jurnal Kajian Budaya 5, no. 2 (April 6, 2016): 235. http://dx.doi.org/10.17510/paradigma.v5i2.57.
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<p>The pervasiveness of female objectification in the treatment of women by men has been called out as a manifestation of gender hierarchy and domination. This research analyzed the figurative languages used in E.E. Cummings’ poem first she like a piece of ill-oiled to identify his treatment of women seen through the illustration of the persona’s actions, thoughts and feelings. Dynamics of the personas’ sexual relationships are then identified to analyze how aspects of objectification appear in the relation between men and women. In order to reinforce the notion of objectification, dehumanization as its extension is utilized as a supporting theory. It is found that practices of female objectification occur in the poem with varying degrees of intensity and ways that it is conducted. However, the objectification is concealed by the poem’s presentation of women as a sexually liberated being, yet in practice, her sexuality is still being objectified. The objectification extends up to the conduct of dehumanization which reduces the women into a dirty mechanical object.</p>
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Sáez, Gemma, Inmaculada Valor-Segura, and Francisca Expósito. "Interpersonal Sexual Objectification Experiences: Psychological and Social Well-Being Consequences for Women." Journal of Interpersonal Violence 34, no. 4 (April 27, 2016): 741–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0886260516645813.
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Sexual objectification as a form of sexist discrimination accounts for the higher prevalence of psychological problems among women. More specifically, sexual objectification manifests itself in different ways with different intensities, in turn affecting women’s psychological well-being differently. On one hand, experiences of body evaluation are more subtle and work by perpetuating sexist attitudes among women themselves. On the other hand, more explicit forms of sexual objectification (unwanted explicit sexual advances) are linked to higher levels of anxiety and lower levels of self-esteem. The first study, on a sample of 343 Spanish women, aims to analyze the consequences of different forms of sexual objectification on women’s psychological well-being and the effect of sexism and enjoyment of objectification on these consequences. The second study, on a sample of 144 Spanish women, focuses on analyzing the ideological variables that have an effect on response to acts of sexist discrimination. Both studies reveal the significance of the more subtle experiences of sexual objectification as a mechanism that plays a part in keeping women in a subordinate position, where they end up feeling that this process is positive or pleasing.
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Windiyarti, Dara. "Novel Gadis Pantai Karya Pramoedya Ananta Toer." SEMIOTIKA: Jurnal Ilmu Sastra dan Linguistik 18, no. 1 (August 21, 2017): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.19184/semiotika.v18i1.5180.
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The purpose of this study was to describe the objectification of women in the Gadis Pantai novel work Pramoedya Ananta Toer, published in 2007. The theory used in this research is feminist about gender differences. The data collection was done by using literature. The method used to analyze data is descriptive analysis.This discussion resulted in the following points. First, the social stratification of society that social class of the nobility (flag) and grassroots groups (the majority), creates the relation between women as objects and men as subjects. Second, the weak role of women in society and the family, facilitate the ongoing objectification of women. Third, the objectification of women has always led to the violence that makes women find it difficult to rise..
Keywords: gender, women, objectification
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Buchanan, Taneisha S., Ann R. Fischer, David M. Tokar, and Janice D. Yoder. "Testing a Culture-Specific Extension of Objectification Theory Regarding African American Women's Body Image." Counseling Psychologist 36, no. 5 (July 2008): 697–718. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0011000008316322.
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Objectification theory has emphasized objectification in terms of body shape and size. African American women may expect to be evaluated on additional physical attributes such as skin tone. Therefore, we extended previous research on objectification theory by adding separate measures of skin-tone concerns in a survey of 117 African American women. Results from a series of path analyses revealed that as hypothesized, habitual body monitoring of skin tone predicted specific skin-tone dissatisfaction as well as general shame regarding body shape and size. Contrary to theoretical predictions, self-objectification did not mediate links between habitual monitoring (of skin tone or of body size and shape) and body dissatisfaction. In terms of objectification theory, results suggest that skin tone is a relevant dimension of habitual body monitoring and dissatisfaction for some African American women.
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Welsh, Talia. "Unfit Women." Janus Head 13, no. 1 (2013): 58–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/jh20141314.
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Feminist phenomenology has contributed significantly to understanding the negative impact of the objectification of women’s bodies. The celebration of thin bodies as beautiful and the demonization of fat bodies as unattractive is a common component of that discussion. However, when one turns toward the correlation of fat and poor health, a feminist phenomenological approach is less obvious. In this paper, previous phenomenological work on the objectification of women is paralleled to the contemporary encouragement to discipline one’s body in order to pursue better health. Similar ideologies of free choice in the face of bodily habits run through discussions of health and beauty. The paper uses the work of Merleau-Ponty and Beauvoir as well as the contemporary feminist phenomenologists Diaprose, Bartky, Bordo, Young, Grosz, and Carel to explore how women are constrained by health testing and health normalization. It argues that despite the apparent benefits of a focus on modifying health habits, feminists have good reason to be wary of the good health imperative.
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Blose, Maud. "Pornographic objectification of women through Kwaito lyrics." Agenda 26, no. 3 (September 2012): 50–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10130950.2012.729384.
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Reichert, Tom, Michael S. Latour, Jacqueline J. Lambiase, and Mark Adkins. "A Test of Media Literacy Effects and Sexual Objectification in Advertising." Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising 29, no. 1 (March 2007): 81–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10641734.2007.10505210.
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Strelan, Peter, and Duane Hargreaves. "Women Who Objectify Other Women: The Vicious Circle of Objectification?" Sex Roles 52, no. 9-10 (May 2005): 707–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-3737-3.
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McLeod, Carolyn. "Mere and Partial Means: The Full Range of the Objectification of Women." Canadian Journal of Philosophy Supplementary Volume 28 (2002): 219–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00455091.2002.10717588.
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Kant discussed the moral wrong of treating people as mere means or as a means only. To treat people as means is to treat them as objects for our use. It is to objectify them. To treat people as a mere means is to treat them wholly as objects, rather than partially so. It is to have an objectifying manner that is absolute or unmitigated. Whether Kant meant to suggest that we commit a moral wrong only when we treat people as means absolutely, rather than partially, is debatable. My concern is with how feminist theorists writing on the objectification of women have followed Kant in emphasizing the extreme case of the mere means. These feminists have implied that the moral wrong of objectification occurs only with absolute objectification, as though between it and respecting someone's autonomy there were no degrees of objectification that are morally suspect.The relevant feminist work centres on such topics as women's reproductive freedom, their sexual freedom, and gender equity in employment.
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Karsay, Kathrin, and Jörg Matthes. "Sexually Objectifying Pop Music Videos, Young Women’s Self-Objectification, and Selective Exposure: A Moderated Mediation Model." Communication Research 47, no. 3 (July 28, 2016): 428–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093650216661434.
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There is intense discussion among experts about the potential negative impact of sexually objectifying media content on young women. This article presents an experimental study in which young women were either exposed to pop music videos high in sexual objectification or to pop music videos low in sexual objectification. Women’s self-objectification and their subsequent media selection behavior were measured. The results indicate that exposure to sexually objectifying media increased self-objectification, which in turn increased the preference for objectifying media content. Self-esteem, the internalization of appearance ideals, and body mass index (BMI) did not influence these relationships. Implications of these findings are discussed.
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Comiskey, Allison, Mike C. Parent, and Elliot A. Tebbe. "An Inhospitable World: Exploring a Model of Objectification Theory With Trans Women." Psychology of Women Quarterly 44, no. 1 (December 12, 2019): 105–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0361684319889595.
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In this study, we investigated key tenets of objectification theory, a prominent model of body image disturbance, as it relates to trans women’s disordered eating and intention to obtain silicone injections—a specific health risk for this population. We also incorporated appearance congruence, or the degree to which an individual personally feels that their gender expression matches their gender identity, into the objectification theory model. Results of a structural equation model using data from a sample of 173 trans women from the United States indicated that the basic objectification theory model held among this sample and that appearance congruence was associated negatively with body surveillance. However, appearance congruence did not have significant direct or indirect links (via body surveillance and body shame) with disordered eating or intention to obtain silicone injections. Thus, disordered eating and intention to obtain silicone injections are potential negative outcomes of the process of objectification among trans women, and appearance congruence does not appear to be uniquely linked to health risks associated with internalization of cultural standards of attractiveness, body surveillance, and body shame. Our findings support the application of the tenets of objectification theory with trans women as they apply to disordered eating and intention to obtain silicone injections and also indicate the need to identify other positive influences on trans women’s body image to counteract internalization of cultural standards of attractiveness.
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Roberts, Tomi-Ann, Jamie L. Goldenberg, Cathleen Power, and Tom Pyszczynski. "“Feminine Protection”: The Effects of Menstruation on Attitudes Towards Women." Psychology of Women Quarterly 26, no. 2 (June 2002): 131–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1471-6402.00051.
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An experiment tested the hypothesis that reminders of a woman's menstrual status lead to more negative reactions to her and increased objectification of women in general. Participants interacted with a female confederate who ostensibly accidentally dropped either a tampon or hair clip out of her handbag. Dropping the tampon led to lower evaluations of the confederate's competence, decreased liking for her, and a marginal tendency to avoid sitting close to her. Furthermore, gender schematic participants responded to the reminder of menstruation with increased objectification of women in general, an effect we view as an effort to “protect” culturally sanitized views of the feminine. These findings are discussed from the perspective of feminist theory and a terror management perspective on the role of ambivalence about the human body in the objectification of women.
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Aubrey, Jennifer Stevens, and Ashton Gerding. "The Cognitive Tax of Self-Objectification." Journal of Media Psychology 27, no. 1 (January 1, 2015): 22–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000128.
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Objectification theory ( Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997 , Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173–206) posits that a consequence of living in a sexually objectifying culture is self-objectification, a cognitively taxing preoccupation with one’s appearance. The present study investigated the effects of exposure to sexual objectification of female artists in music videos, on female emerging adults’ self-objectification and their ability to cognitively process subsequent television commercials. Results indicated that exposure to music videos high in sexual objectification induced self-objectification and hindered participants’ subsequent performance in encoding visual information from commercials, but did not diminish participants’ ability to allocate resources to, or to recall factual information from, the commercials.
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Zheng, Yong, and Qingqing Sun. "Testing objectification theory with Chinese undergraduate women and men." Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal 45, no. 4 (May 7, 2017): 629–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.2224/sbp.5892.
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We tested the applicability of objectification theory to the prediction of disordered eating and depressed mood among Chinese undergraduate students. Participants (N = 430) completed measures of body surveillance, body shame, appearance anxiety, level of internal awareness, flow, disordered eating, and depressed mood. Results of structural equation modeling revealed the model of objectification theory provided a poor fit to the data for both genders, but 2 exploratory models with good fit were generated after subsequent modification to the model. For women, body shame and appearance anxiety mediated the relationships among body surveillance, disordered eating, and depressed mood. Furthermore, body surveillance indirectly influenced women's level of internal awareness and flow via body shame and appearance anxiety, which led to disordered eating and depressed mood. This pattern of relationships was similar for men, except for flow, which was not related to the outcome variables. We concluded that objectification theory is applicable to women and men in China.
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Grabe, Shelly, Janet Shibley Hyde, and Sara M. Lindberg. "Body Objectification and Depression in Adolescents: The Role of Gender, Shame, and Rumination." Psychology of Women Quarterly 31, no. 2 (June 2007): 164–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00350.x.
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Objectification theory posits that the tendency to view oneself as an object to be looked at and evaluated by others negatively affects girls', but not boys', subjective well-being. Although it has been established that women self-objectify more than men, research in this area has been limited to the study of adult college women. The aim in the current longitudinal study was to investigate the role of body shame and rumination in the link between self-objectification and depression among a community sample of girls and boys at ages 11 and 13. Results indicated that adolescent girls reported higher levels of self-objectification, body shame, rumination, and depression than boys. The findings support a model in which body shame and rumination mediate a direct relation between self-objectification and depression among girls; developmentally, the gender difference in self-objectification appears before the gender differences in rumination and depression.
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Kashirsky, Dmitry V., and O. V. Myasnikova. "Phenomenon of Self-Objectification in Women: Analysis of foreign Studies and a View through the Prism of Russian Psychology." National Psychological Journal 40, no. 4 (2020): 61–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.11621/npj.2020.0405.
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Background. At present, self-objectification of females is a very common phenomenon, reflecting the desire of women to meet the standards accepted in the society and manifested in excessive (even pathological) care of achieving the “ideal” appearance. This phenomenon was under study in various foreign psychological concepts and approaches, and especially in the theory of B. Fredrickson and T.E. Roberts. However, despite similar research in Russian psychology, the phenomenon has not been disclosed within Russian psychological methodology. In this regard, it is very important to analyze foreign publications for the subsequent development of an integrative approach to the study of self-objectification in females in the context of Russian psychology. Looking into this phenomenon from the standpoint of Russian psychological methodology would be useful for developing methods of assessment, intervention, and psychotherapeutic assistance for Russian girls and women experiencing psychological problems due to negative self-objectification. The Objective is to conduct a theoretical analysis of the phenomenon of women’s self-objectification in line with the national cultural-historical and activity methodology. Design. The paper provides a review of the publications on self-objectification in females which is analytical in its nature. In the paper, the basic approaches to the study of the phenomenon of self-objectification in females in foreign psychology are determined, and also the ways to understand the phenomenon in the context of the Russian psychological tradition proposed in the works of L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, S.L. Rubinstein developed by their students and the followers are shown. Results. The phenomenon of self-objectification in females is considered within the context of fundamental issues of psychology — the relationship of ‘outer’ and ‘inner’ contents, and particularly, within the framework of the subject-activity approach of S.L. Rubinstein and the activity theory of A.N. Leontiev. The role of the “social situation of the development” (L.S. Vygotsky) in the development self-objectification in females is shown. The mechanism of interiorization as a female’s adoption of the social ideas and attitudes is described. The process of interiorization is considered through three facets: individualization, intimization, and production of consciousness. The phenomenon of self-objectification was interpreted through the lenses of L.S. Vygotsky ideas about the intertwining of two domains of mental development in ontogenesis, i.e. the biological maturation of a person and the processes of mastering culture, and also within the notions of cultural-historical defectology. Conclusion. The research results contribute to expanding the scientific theoretical views of psychologists working within the national methodology to shape the phenomenon of self-objectification in females, which could facilitate further understanding of this theoretical construct and increase the number of empirical works in the research area. Female self-objectification through the prism of the Russian research methodology will contribute to the methodological status of this issue, enriching the idea of female self-objectification primarily at the philosophical (worldview) level and at the general scientific level of methodology (E.G. Yudin). All these will increase the interpretative capabilities of the concept. The materials of the paper can contribute to developing an integrative approach for understanding female self-objectification. The findings can be sufficient for creating methods of psychodiagnostics and psychotherapy for girls and women experiencing psychological problems due to the negative impact of self-objectification.
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Barbosa, Aline dos Santos, Marcello Romani-Dias, and Tânia Modesto Veludo-de-Oliveira. "The Facets of Women Commodification: Violence in the University Context in Administration." Revista de Administração Contemporânea 24, no. 6 (December 2020): 582–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1982-7849rac2020190378.
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ABSTRACT Context: violence against women is present in the most diverse social groups, especially in Latin America, as it is one of the most violent regions against women, with high numbers of rapes, harassments, and murders because of gender. Objective: the objective of this study is to deepen the understanding of the way in which violent situations against women occurs in the Brazilian university context and its different facets of objectification and commodification. Methods: we undertook in-depth interviews with 15 female and 5 male university students from business courses. Results: our findings suggest the female ample objectification and commodification in the university context and their negative consequences, such as self-objectification in its personal and professional aspects demonstrated by reports of uncertainty regarding their bodies, in exercising the activities of leadership, and their choice of profession. There happens to be commodification of: (a) the women’s body; (b) their sexuality; (c) their morality; and finally (d) their feelings. Conclusion: we contribute theoretically to expand the knowledge about the relation between objectification and commodification. In empirical and managerial terms, we present insights for educational institutions to combat discrimination against women.
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Cohen, Rachel, Toby Newton-John, and Amy Slater. "‘Selfie’-objectification: The role of selfies in self-objectification and disordered eating in young women." Computers in Human Behavior 79 (February 2018): 68–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.10.027.
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Gervais, Sarah J., Jill Allen, Abigail R. Riemer, and Marco Gullickson. "The Balanced Objectification Hypothesis: The Effects of Objectification Valence and Body Sentiment on Source Sentiment." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 45, no. 4 (August 21, 2018): 571–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167218789625.
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In this work, we introduced and tested the balanced objectification hypothesis (BOH). Derived from an integration of balance theory and objectification research, the BOH suggests that people seek psychological balance during objectifying interactions with others. Corresponding with the BOH, men and women perceived objectification sources as higher in warmth and intended to approach the objectification source more when they experienced complimentary objectification in conjunction with positive body sentiment (vs. negative body sentiment) and critical objectification in conjunction with negative body sentiment (vs. positive body sentiment) across four experiments. Self–other congruency emerged as a mediator and inconsistency between the content of the objectification experience and body sentiment (whether they were both focused on weight or sex appeal or not) emerged as a boundary condition, in line with the BOH. Theoretical implications and critical next steps for testing the BOH are discussed.