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Journal articles on the topic 'Octane rating'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 9 February 2022

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1

Demirbas, A., M. A. Balubaid, A. M. Basahel, W. Ahmad, and M. H. Sheikh. "Octane Rating of Gasoline and Octane Booster Additives." Petroleum Science and Technology 33, no. 11 (2015): 1190–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10916466.2015.1050506.

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2

Rodríguez-Fernández, José, Ángel Ramos, Javier Barba, Dolores Cárdenas, and Jesús Delgado. "Improving Fuel Economy and Engine Performance through Gasoline Fuel Octane Rating." Energies 13, no. 13 (2020): 3499. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en13133499.

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The octane number is a measure of the resistance of gasoline fuels to auto-ignition. Therefore, high octane numbers reduce the engine knocking risk, leading to higher compression threshold and, consequently, higher engine efficiencies. This allows higher compression ratios to be considered during the engine design stage. Current spark-ignited (SI) engines use knock sensors to protect the engine from knocking, usually adapting the operation parameters (boost pressure, spark timing, lambda). Moreover, some engines can move the settings towards optimized parameters if knock is not detected, leading to higher performance and fuel economy. In this work, three gasolines with different octane ratings (95, 98 and 100 RON (research octane number)) were fueled in a high-performance vehicle. Tests were performed in a chassis dyno at controlled ambient conditions, including a driving sequence composed of full-load accelerations and two steady-state modes. Vehicle power significantly increased with the octane rating of the fuel, thus decreasing the time needed for acceleration. Moreover, the specific fuel consumption decreased as the octane rating increased, proving that the fuel can take an active part in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The boost pressure, which increased with the octane number, was identified as the main factor, whereas the ignition advance was the second relevant factor.

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3

Rohrback, Brian G. "Computer-assisted rating of gasoline octane." TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry 10, no. 9 (1991): 269–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0165-9936(91)85003-a.

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4

Turner, Malcolm M. "Review and Outlook for U.S. Refiners." Energy Exploration & Exploitation 6, no. 4-5 (1988): 309–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/014459878800600403.

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As government control has lessened, refiners are dealing with a market driven industry which will result in refineries offering gasoline of a higher octane rating. 89 octane was regarded as a target for 1992, but that level might prove non-competitive because some majors are already marketing 93 octane premium gasoline. (It is reasonable to expect that automobile manufacturers will react by offering higher perfomance engines). On a basis of a 1% annual growth rate in gasoline demand for the higher octane fuels, US refiners surplus gasoline supply capability will be exhausted in 1990. This projected shortfall is not likely to be alleviated through imports. US refiners should have good opportunity to plan for changes in an orderly manner and for stable profits.

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5

Genchi, Giuseppe, and Emiliano Pipitone. "Octane Rating of Natural Gas-Gasoline Mixtures on CFR Engine." SAE International Journal of Fuels and Lubricants 7, no. 3 (2014): 1041–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.4271/2014-01-9081.

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6

Zenkevich, I. G., and A. N. Marinichev. "Estimation of octane rating of hydrocarbon homologs using logistic regression." Russian Journal of General Chemistry 84, no. 11 (2014): 2066–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s1070363214110024.

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7

Saeed, Shahad Mahdi, and Husham AL.Tameemi. "Improve the Octane Number of Gasoline and Studying the effect of Reid vapor pressure and Calorific Value by using Environmental additives." Al-Qadisiyah Journal for Engineering Sciences 12, no. 2 (2019): 112–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.30772/qjes.v12i2.599.

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An assessment was made for the impact resulted by the addition of (DO) and (DOA) on the octane number and Reid vapor pressure (RVP) of gasoline with different chemical compositions. The locally produced gasoline had been blended with three different ratios (v/v) of the additives, i.e. 8, 10 and 15%. The octane rating of gasoline was observed to continuous increased and linearly with the addition of (DO and DOA). The DOA-gasoline blends produced higher octane number. The two additives observed that decreased signiﬁcantly the RVP and CV of the original fractions when blended with gasoline. However, additives were add in (8, 10, 15%vol) to gasoline blend, increasing RON was (0.9-23.9).

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8

Koledin, Oleg S., Ella A. Kovaleva, Mikhail Yu Dolomatov, and Svetlana A. Arslanbekova. "Prediction of octane numbers of substituted alkanes according to the topological characteristics of the molecules." Butlerov Communications 59, no. 7 (2019): 69–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.37952/roi-jbc-01/19-59-7-69.

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There may occur a special mode of combustion of the fuel-air mixture called detonation, when using motor fuel with a low octane rating. Methods of mathematical modeling are currently used to quickly determine octane numbers without using of expensive equipment. A nonlinear multidimensional QSPR regression model is proposed to predict the octane number of normal and substituted alkanes-gasoline components. The model associates octane numbers with a set of descriptors (topological characteristics of molecular graphs): the Randic index, the Wiener index, and the functions of the eigenvalues of the topological matrix of the molecule, reflecting the main structural and chemical factors, such as branching, the length of the carbon structure and the energy parameters of the molecules, for example perturbation of Hückel spectrum of molecules, as well as affecting octane numbers. The substituted alkanes were used as research objects. A studied sample included 36 hydrocarbons from the homolologus serious of substituted alkanes. The proposed model adequately describes the octane number of alkanes. The coefficient of determination of the model is 0.972. The model was tested on 19 substances which were not included in the base series. The average, absolute and relative error for the test sample of octane numbers were 1.5 units and 2.7% respectively. The model is applicable for engineering and scientific forecasts of octane numbers of various alkanes in motor fuel.

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9

Kalghatgi, Gautam, and Richard Stone. "Fuel requirements of spark ignition engines." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering 232, no. 1 (2017): 22–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0954407016684741.

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This paper reviews the fundamental requirements of liquid hydrocarbon fuels for spark ignition engines, namely that the fuel should vaporise satisfactorily and burn in a controlled manner. The phenomenon of knock and the development of the octane scale are discussed. The variation in the pressure–time histories for different engines is discussed, together with the reason why this leads to different fuel requirements. The difference in the octane rating tests and the way in which engine downsizing exacerbates these differences in the pressure–time histories are discussed. The applicability of the research octane number and the motor octane number to modern engines is reviewed, together with the phenomena of low-speed pre-ignition and superknock. The effects of the hydrocarbon fuel distillation characteristics on the driveability and the emissions are reviewed and discussed with respect to the historical context and the current legislative requirements. Brief mention is made of other fuel requirements such as the density, the gum content and the aromatic content.

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10

Cavalcante da Silva, Neirivaldo, Ana Rosa Caribé de Góes Massa, Daniela Domingos, et al. "NIR-based octane rating simulator for use in gasoline compounding processes." Fuel 243 (May 2019): 381–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2019.01.145.

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11

KOLODZIEJ, Christopher, and Thomas WALLNER. "Combustion characteristics of various fuels during research octane number testing on an instrumented CFR F1/F2 engine." Combustion Engines 171, no. 4 (2017): 164–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.19206/ce-2017-427.

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The Cooperative Fuels Research (CFR) engine is the long-established standard for characterization of fuel knock resistance in spark-ignition internal combustion engines. Despite its measurements of RON and MON being widely used, there is little understanding of what governs the CFR octane rating for fuels of various chemical compositions compared to primary reference fuels (iso-octane and n-heptane). Detailed combustion characteristics were measured on a highly instrumented CFR F1/F2 engine during RON testing of fuels with significantly different chemical composition. The results revealed differences in the cylinder pressure and temperature conditions, as well as knocking characteristics.

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12

Hudson, C., X. Gao, and R. Stone. "Comparison of audible and digital techniques for the determination of gasoline octane rating in production engines." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering 215, no. 3 (2001): 419–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1243/0954407011525746.

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A microprocessor-based knock measuring system has been developed and tested for use in fuel rating and octane rating increase tests. Tests have been conducted with eight knock raters, and this has shown inter-rater and intra-rater variability. It has also been shown that there is no absolute standard by which knock can be measured. However, it has been argued that, as long as a consistent measuring system is used, comparative fuel testing can be undertaken with greater repeatability by using the microprocessor-based knock detector.

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13

Meusinger, Reinhard, and Ralf Moros. "Determination of quantitative structure–octane rating relationships of hydrocarbons by genetic algorithms." Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems 46, no. 1 (1999): 67–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0169-7439(98)00148-8.

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14

Chen, Zhongyuan, Hao Yuan, Tien Mun Foong, Yi Yang, and Michael Brear. "The impact of nitric oxide on knock in the octane rating engine." Fuel 235 (January 2019): 495–503. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2018.08.039.

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15

Rashid, Adnan Kadhim, Mohd Radzi Abu Mansor, Alexandru Racovitza, and Radu Chiriac. "Combustion Characteristics of Various Octane Rating Fuels for Automotive Thermal Engines Efficiency Requirements." Energy Procedia 157 (January 2019): 763–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2018.11.242.

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16

Fang, Xiao Min, Yuan Qing Xu, and Tao Ding. "Synthesis and Characterization of Caged Phosphate Microparticles Coated with Melamine Resin Based on Composite Properties of Materials." Advanced Materials Research 583 (October 2012): 236–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.583.236.

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In order to develop efficient “three in one” intumesent flame retardants, a novel caged bicyclic phosphate, tris(1-oxo-2,6,7-trioxa-1-phosphorbicyclo[2.2.2]octane methylene-4)phosphate (trimer) as the core material was encapsulated by melamine resin and etherified melamine resin as nitrogen resource respectively via in situ polymerization. The two microencapsulations were characterized by SEM, XPS and thermal gravimetric analysis. When they were used as intumesent flame retardant in epoxy they all exhibit good properties. With 20wt% loading amount the flame-retarded epoxy all can pass UL94 V-0 rating.

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17

Tao, Mingyuan, Tong Wu, Haiwen Ge, Dan DelVescovo, and Peng Zhao. "A kinetic modeling study on octane rating and fuel sensitivity in advanced compression ignition engines." Combustion and Flame 185 (November 2017): 234–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2017.07.020.

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18

Huang, Siwen, Jiayou Xu, Haiming Deng, Jie Liu, and Yuanfang Xiao. "Comparison of Pentaerythrotol and Its Derivatives as Intumescent Flame Retardants for Polypropylene." Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 2018 (August 28, 2018): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/6153252.

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Hydroquinol bis[di(2,6,7-trioxa-phosphabicyclo[2.2.2]-octane-1-oxo-4-hydroxylmethyl)]phosphate (PBPP), which contains caged phosphates and benzene groups, was synthesized. The caged phosphate structure of PBPP was characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), hydrogen nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-NMR), and phosphorus nuclear magnetic resonance (31P-NMR). The experimental results showed that PBPP had better performance than 1-oxo-4-hydroxymethy1-2,6,7-trioxa-1-phosphabicyclo[2.2.2]-octane (PEPA) and pentaerythritol (PER) in water resistance, compatibility with polypropylene (PP), thermal stability, and flame retardancy of intumescent flame retardant PP (IFR-PP) systems. It was attributed to the symmetrical structure and stereohindrance effect of PBPP. The IFR-PP systems reached UL94 V-0 flammability rating when the minimal addition of IFR with PBPP, PEPA, or PER was 25%, 23%, and 28%, respectively. The flame retardant mechanisms of IFR containing PBPP, PEPA, and PER were investigated by FT-IR and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). PBPP formed a perfect charring layer, with the high carbon content of PBPP helping it form the charring layer more quickly.

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19

Azubuike, Jerry O., Onwuzuruigbo Martin I. Nwafor, Johnson O. Igbokwe, and D. O. Isiohia. "Evaluation of Spark Ignition Engine Performance Using Ethanol as Doping Agent on Constant Speed Test." International Journal of Engineering and Technologies 19 (December 2020): 33–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.18052/www.scipress.com/ijet.19.33.

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Engine knock is a critical phenomenon engine designers strive to minimize in the world today. Before now, this has made tetra ethyl lead (TEL) an option for minimizing knock. The basic essence of tetra ethyl lead is to enhance octane rating of petrol which is a vital factor to knocking ability. However, the health and environmental challenges associated with the use of tetra ethyl lead propel the desire to replace it with a better environmental and health friendly substance that will at the same time boost octane rating and give a smoother engine operation. Hence, ethanol was considered in this work at a constant speed test of 2000 rpm and compared to leaded petrol as baseline petrol. BSFC of 0.703 kg\kWhr was obtained with 20/80 compared to 0.709 kg\kWhr obtained with 0/100 as baseline fuel. Maximum brake power of 0.74 kW occurred at a bmep of 1.235 bar with 15/85 ethanol/petrol. Similarly, maximum brake thermal efficiency of 13.44% was obtained with 20/80 ethanol/petrol compared to 11.49% obtained with leaded petrol as baseline petrol. It is indicated that maximum power output, low BSFC and low petrol consumption was obtained with 20/80 ethanol/petrol blend. It is convincible that 20/80 blend ratio offer good alternative to other antiknock agents which are associated with harmful consequences to man and environment. The implication of this work is that a definite blend for optimum performance and more environmentally friendly antiknock agent is established.

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20

Wibowo, Fogot Endro, and Rahmasari Fauzhia. "Pengaruh Rasio Campuran Napthalene pada Premium terhadap Efisiensi Bahan Bakar dan Kinerja Mesin Sepeda Motor 4tak." Jurnal Rekayasa Hijau 5, no. 2 (2021): 114–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.26760/jrh.v5i2.114-124.

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ABSTRAKPemerintah Indonesia berharap kualitas baik dari gas buang kendaraan khususnya sepeda motor, diperlukan bahan bakar kualitas tinggi yaitu bahan bakar dengan nilai oktan tinggi. Napthalene adalah senyawa hidrokarbon dengan rumus kimia C10H16O. Struktur kimia yang mirip bensin, memiliki rantai lebih panjang membuat Napthalene diduga dapat meningkatkan nilai oktan bensin. Tujuan penelitian yaitu menganalisis pengaruh rasio pencampuran Napthalene pada premium terhadap konsumsi bahan bakar (km/l) dan peningkatan kinerja pada mesin sepeda motor bebek jenis manual 110 cc dan 115 cc. Metodenya adalah eksperimen. Parameternya yaitu tingkat efisiensi konsumsi premium (km/l), peningkatan kinerja meliputi torsi dan daya (Horse Power) pada motor jenis tersebut.Rasio perbandingan Napthalene dan premium yaitu 3 gram/l, 6 gram/l dan 9 gram/l. Hasil uji menunjukkan rasio pencampuran Napthalene pada premium sebanyak 9 gram/l merupakan yang paling berpengaruh terhadap tingkat efisiensi konsumsi premium dan kinerja mesin pada kedua jenis motor tersebut. Aplikasi tersebut tentunya akan memperbaiki kualitas gas buang.Kata kunci : efisiensi, premium, naphthalene, nilai oktan ABSTRACTThe Indonesian government hopes that the good quality of vehicle exhaust gases, especially motorcycles, requires high quality fuel, namely fuel with a high octane rating. Napthalene is a hydrocarbon compound with the chemical formula C10H16O. The chemical structure is similar to gasoline, having a longer chain makes Napthalene allegedly able to increase the octane value of gasoline. The purpose of the study was to analyze the effect of the Napthalene mixing ratio at premium on fuel consumption (km/l) and performance improvement on the 110 cc and 115 cc manual motorcycle engines. The method is experimental. The parameters are the level of premium consumption efficiency (km/l), increased performance including torque and power (Horse Power) on this type of motorcycles. The ratio of Napthalene and premium is 3 grams/l, 6 grams/l and 9 grams/l. The test results show that the Napthalene mixing ratio at premium as much as 9 grams/l is the most influential on the level of premium consumption efficiency and engine performance on both types of motorcycles. The application will certainly improve the quality of exhaust gas.Keywords: efficiency, premium, naphthalene, octane rating

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21

Leone, Thomas G., James E. Anderson, Richard S. Davis, et al. "The Effect of Compression Ratio, Fuel Octane Rating, and Ethanol Content on Spark-Ignition Engine Efficiency." Environmental Science & Technology 49, no. 18 (2015): 10778–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b01420.

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22

Amine, Manal, Magdy A. H. Zahran, Ezis N. Awad, S. M. El-Zein, and Y. Barakat. "Influence of ethyl acetate addition on volatility, octane rating, and phase stability of methanol–gasoline blends." Petroleum Science and Technology 35, no. 6 (2017): 601–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10916466.2016.1271809.

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23

Brandão, Luiz Filipe Paiva, Jez Willian Batista Braga, and Paulo Anselmo Ziani Suarez. "Alternative butanol/gasoline and butanol/diesel fuel blends: An analysis of the interdependence between physical-chemical properties by a multivariate principal component analysis model." Energy & Environment 31, no. 5 (2018): 733–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0958305x18776539.

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The use of butanol as an oxygenated component in blends with fossil fuels has recently been recognized by the industry as a promising and green alternative for automotive use, being subject of several recent studies. In this work, the interdependence between important physical-chemical properties of butanol/gasoline and butanol/diesel fuel blends was investigated using a multivariate principal component analysis model. The model dataset was based on laboratorial results of density, kinematic viscosity, distillation, vapor pressure, octane rating, anti-knock index, flash point and cetane number in a total of 48 blends, the variables of which were transformed to principal component analysis matrix representations, pre-processed and then analyzed. A good coherence was observed between the experimental results in laboratory and those derived from the principal component analysis models, evidencing important physical-chemical changes in blends’ properties due to the butanol addition. Principal component analysis scores and loadings plots could provide an intuitive and comprehensive data visualization. Butanol/gasoline fuel blends showed an overall increase in density, octane rating and higher distillation temperatures from the initial boiling point to T60 (temperature of the 60% distilled volume) and reduction of the distillation temperatures from T70 to the final boiling point. An absolute reduction in values of all properties was observed for butanol/diesel fuel blends, especially for initial distillation temperatures from initial boiling point to T35, T98, final boiling point and flash point, whereas the reductions for density, kinematic viscosity and cetane number were less intense. Total variances of up to 92.50% and 94.14% were explained by the proposed principal component analysis model, depending on the blends matrix and butanol isomer composition.

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24

Morganti, Kai, Tien Mun Foong, Michael Brear, Gabriel Da Silva, Yi Yang, and Frederick Dryer. "Design and Analysis of a Modified CFR Engine for the Octane Rating of Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG)." SAE International Journal of Fuels and Lubricants 7, no. 1 (2014): 283–300. http://dx.doi.org/10.4271/2014-01-1474.

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25

Tao, Mingyuan, Peng Zhao, Dan DelVescovo, and Haiwen Ge. "Manifestation of octane rating, fuel sensitivity, and composition effects for gasoline surrogates under advanced compression ignition conditions." Combustion and Flame 192 (June 2018): 238–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2018.02.015.

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26

Leone, Thomas G., James E. Anderson, Richard S. Davis, et al. "Correction to The Effect of Compression Ratio, Fuel Octane Rating, and Ethanol Content on Spark-Ignition Engine Efficiency." Environmental Science & Technology 51, no. 18 (2017): 10923. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b03991.

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27

Schmidt, Gene W., Dennis D. Beckmann, and Bruce E. Torkelson. "Gas Chromatography Technique for Estimating the Octane Rating of Fresh and Weathered Gasolines Released to Soils and Groundwater." Environmental Forensics 4, no. 1 (2003): 75–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15275920303484.

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28

Butkus, Algis, and Saugirdas Pukalskas. "THE RESEARCH INTO THE INFLUENCE OF ECOLOGICAL PETROL ADDITIVES IN THE AUTOMOBILE LABORATORY." TRANSPORT 19, no. 1 (2004): 24–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.3846/16484142.2004.9637948.

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Looking forward to Lithuania becoming a member of the EU it is very important to use a larger amount of renewing fuel. Based on economic and environmental considerations in Lithuania, we are interested in studying the effects of ethanol contents in the blended ethanol‐petrol fuel on the engine performance and pollutant emission of SI engine. Therefore, we used engine test facilities to investigate the effects on the engine performance and pollutant emission of 3,5 % and 7,0 % ethanol in the fuel blend and special additives, which reduce emissions and increase octane rating. The tests were carried out in the laboratory on a chassis dynamometer with two different cars. The experiment results showed that ethanol used in a fuel blend with petrol had a positive influence on engine performance and exhaust emission.

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29

Leone, Thomas G., Edward D. Olin, James E. Anderson, Hosuk H. Jung, Michael H. Shelby, and Robert A. Stein. "Effects of Fuel Octane Rating and Ethanol Content on Knock, Fuel Economy, and CO2 for a Turbocharged DI Engine." SAE International Journal of Fuels and Lubricants 7, no. 1 (2014): 9–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.4271/2014-01-1228.

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30

Otaraku, I. J., and I. L. Egun. "Comparative Study On The Effect Of Temperature On Octane Number Rating Of Reformate From Nigerian Heavy Treated Naphtha Samples." IOSR Journal of Engineering 07, no. 05 (2017): 36–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/3021-0705013641.

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31

Short, Daniel Z., Diep Vu, Thomas D. Durbin, Georgios Karavalakis, and Akua Asa-Awuku. "Components of Particle Emissions from Light-Duty Spark-Ignition Vehicles with Varying Aromatic Content and Octane Rating in Gasoline." Environmental Science & Technology 49, no. 17 (2015): 10682–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b03138.

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32

George Done, Bogdan, and Ion Copae. "Performances of a Research CFR Octane Rating Unit Engine and Dacia Single Cylinder SI Engine Ignited by a LASER System." E3S Web of Conferences 112 (2019): 01009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/201911201009.

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At this time, the severe legislation regarding the level limits of the waste and exhaust gases released by thermal engines and also the necessity of engines efficiency improvement boost the engine research domain to bring in front the use of new technologies that can be used to control the in-cylinder combustion process. Now, the new technologies is represented by LASER spark plug systems which can be successfully used at petrol engines. LASER spark plug technology can have many advantages for engine operation control, an ignition system that could provide improved combustion is the one using plasma generation and a Q-switched LASER that results in pulses with high MW power. The LASER spark plug device used in the current research was a LASER medium Nd:YAG/Cr4+:YAG ceramic structure made up of a 8.0-mm long, 1.0-at.% Nd:YAG ceramic, optically-bonded to a Cr4+:YAG c. It was developed and constructed similar to classical spark plug and could be assembled on a CFR Octane Rating Unit Engine as well as on a Dacia Single Cylinder SI Engine which led to several results among which: influences on in-cylinder pressure, combustion and pollutant emissions.

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33

Zhao, Wei, and Ji Ping Liu. "Synergistic Effect of Nano Fe₂O₃ on Intumescent Flame Retardant Polypropylene Systems." Advanced Materials Research 669 (March 2013): 233–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.669.233.

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Nano Fe2O3 were added into polypropylene (PP) / ammonium polyphosphate (APP) / melamine phosphate (MPOP) / 1-oxo-4-hydroxymethyl-2,6,7-trioxal-phosphabicyclo-[2.2.2]octane (PEPA) to prepare intumescent flame-retarded nanocomposites. The flame retardance and thermal stabilization and intumescent char layer have been investigated by UL-94 test, TGA and SEM. Result showed that the behavior of this intumescent system can be enhanced significantly by the addition of small amounts of nano Fe2O3. TGA results present higher thermal stability of the PP-IFR-Fe2O3 in high temperature when compared with the PP-IFR. SEM indicated the char layer from the PP-IFR-Fe2O3 system has a compact and tough char structure compared with the PP-IFR. Adding 0.3 wt% and 27 wt% IFR into PP, the PP-IFR-Fe2O3 system provided good fire retardant behavior, mechanical properties and achieved UL94 V-0 rating.

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34

Gudde, Nicholas J. "Adaptation of oil refineries to make modern fuels." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering 232, no. 1 (2017): 5–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0954407016680522.

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The drive to improve efficiency and to reduce emissions (including greenhouse gases) from internal-combustion engines has significant ramifications for fuel properties. Deployment of improved engines is aided by the wide availability of well-defined fuels, sometimes with more stringent specification of properties such as the sulphur content and the vaporisation and combustion characteristics (e.g. the octane rating). Fuel regulation has also led to the inclusion of low-carbon fuel components such as ethanol and biodiesel in mainstream road fuels. These trends will probably continue over the next few decades, and so it is important to understand their implications for commercial-scale fuel production and distribution. This paper provides a technical explanation of the linkages between the properties of commercial-scale fuels, the technologies used to make them and the ‘landscape’ of the fuels industry (e.g. the distribution systems and the interlinked markets for non-fuel products and energy). Industrially relevant examples are used to explain how the refining industry has adapted, and is still adapting, to the changes in the sulphur and volatility specifications, the mandated biocontent and the changes in engine technology. This paper is not intended to make a case for any specific type of fuel but does aim to explain the principles by which refined fuels can be adapted to meet future specifications or to work in conjunction with alternative fuel components. It covers current issues such as the lower sulphur content, the increased biocontent and the emerging theme of higher-octane-number gasoline as a route to a higher engine efficiency.

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35

Done, Bogdan George, Laszlo Barothi, and Ion Copae. "CFR Octane Rating Unit Engine and Dacia Single Cylinder SI Engine with Classical Spark Plug and Laser Ignition: Comparative Findings." Journal of Military Technology 2, no. 2 (2019): 39–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.32754/jmt.2019.2.06.

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36

Kwasniewski, Vincent, John Blieszner, and Richard Nelson. "Petroleum refinery greenhouse gas emission variations related to higher ethanol blends at different gasoline octane rating and pool volume levels." Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining 10, no. 1 (2015): 36–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bbb.1612.

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Qian, Yong, Hua Li, Dong Han, Libin Ji, Zhen Huang, and Xingcai Lu. "Octane rating effects of direct injection fuels on dual fuel HCCI-DI stratified combustion mode with port injection of n-heptane." Energy 111 (September 2016): 1003–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2016.06.044.

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Sremec, Mario, Mladen Bozic, Ante Vucetic, and Darko Kozarac. "Influence of high compression ratio and excess air ratio on performance and emissions of natural gas fuelled spark ignition engine." Thermal Science 22, no. 5 (2018): 2013–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/tsci171222219s.

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Compressed natural gas is in automotive industry recognized as one of the ?cleanest? fossil fuels which can be used in internal combustion engines with a number of benefits. Since natural gas has much higher octane rating than gasoline it is expected that higher compression ratios can be used. The goal of the research is to determine the change of performance of spark ignited engine with the increase of compression ratio to values similar to compression ignited engine while keeping the exhaust emissions on the acceptable level and avoiding knock combustion. Measurements are performed at compression ratios 12, 16, and 18 at three different values of air excess ratio. Methane with known composition from a pressure cylinder is used instead of natural gas and the results are comprised of indicating results (in-cylinder and intake pressure in a crank angle space), emissions, temperatures, and mass-flows on various intake and exhaust positions. Analysis of results shows high influence of compression ratio and excess air ratio on combustion, performance, and exhaust gas emissions.

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Sridhar, G., H. V. Sridhar, S. Dasappa, P. J. Paul, N. K. S. Rajan, and H. S. Mukunda. "Development of producer gas engines." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering 219, no. 3 (2005): 423–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1243/095440705x6596.

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This paper summarizes the findings involved in the development of producer gas fuelled reciprocating engines over a time frame of six years. The high octane rating, ultra clean, and low-energy density producer gas derived from biomass has been examined. Development efforts are aimed at a fundamental level, wherein the parametric effects of the compression ratio and ignition timing on the power output are studied. These findings are subsequently applied in the adaptation of commercially available gas engines at two different power levels and make. Design of a producer gas carburettor also formed a part of this developmental activity. The successful operations with producer gas fuel have opened possibilities for adapting a commercially available gas engine for large-scale power generation application, albeit with a loss of power to an extent of 20–30 per cent. This loss in power is compensated to a much larger extent by the way toxic emissions are reduced; these technologies generate smaller amounts of toxic gases (low NOx and almost zero SOx), being zero for greenhouse gas (GHG).

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Done, B. G., and I. Copae. "Comparative research results of CFR Octane Rating Unit Engine and Dacia Single Cylinder SI Engine equipped with classical Spark Plug and LASER Ignition." IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 568 (September 17, 2019): 012112. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/568/1/012112.

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Mannaa, Ossama A., Morkous S. Mansour, William L. Roberts, and Suk Ho Chung. "Laminar Burning Velocities of Fuels for Advanced Combustion Engines (FACE) Gasoline and Gasoline Surrogates with and without Ethanol Blending Associated with Octane Rating." Combustion Science and Technology 188, no. 4-5 (2016): 692–706. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00102202.2016.1138812.

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42

Alshawabkeh, Akram N., Elif Ozsu-Acar, Robert J. Gale, and Susheel K. Puppal. "Remediation of Soils Contaminated with Tetraethyl Lead by Electric Fields." Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 1615, no. 1 (1998): 79–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.3141/1615-11.

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Four tests were conducted to investigate potential uses of electric fields for remediation of high buffering capacity soils contaminated with high lead concentrations (11 percent by dry weight). The soil samples were collected from a site in Louisiana where tetraethyl lead was used extensively for increasing the octane rating of leaded gasoline. Calcium was present at relatively high concentrations (9 percent by dry weight). Initial soil pH was basic (about 8.5). Two enhancement procedures were used: acetic acid for neutralizing the cathode and membranes to prevent migration of hydroxyl ions from the cathode. Current densities applied were in the order of 5 A/m2 to 10 A/m2. Tests were processed for up to 3,220 hours. Lead extraction rates were significantly affected by high calcium concentration. Energy expenditure was very high (up to 20 667 kWh/m3 in the unenhanced test). The study showed that the soil buffering capacity significantly affected energy requirements, cost-effectiveness, and success of the process. Efficient extraction of lead in soils will be controlled by the presence of high concentrations of soluble ions (such as calcium) in the soil.

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Møller, Henrik. "Annoyance of Audible Infrasound." Journal of Low Frequency Noise, Vibration and Active Control 6, no. 1 (1987): 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026309238700600101.

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Contours of equal annoyance were determined for pure tones in the frequency range 4 – 31.5 Hz. The curves show a narrowing of the dynamic range of the ear at low frequencies. The same pattern is seen for equal loudness curves, and the results support the theory that the annoyance of infrasound is closely related to the loudness sensation. Annoyance ratings of 1/3 octave noise did not deviate from ratings of pure tones with the same sound pressure level. Combinations of audio and infrasonic noise were in general given a rating close to or slightly above the rating of the most annoying of the individual noise conditions. For infrasound the proposed G1-weighting curve is shown to give values that correlate well with subjective annoyance rating. Values obtained with the G2-curve do not correlate as well. Low audio frequencies are not covered by the G-curves, and it is shown that these are insufficiently covered by the A-curve. Further research is needed in this area.

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HANZIUK, A., O. STREMETSKYI, А. BLAGODIR, O. SHELESTIUK, and O. MISHSHUK. "THE INVESTIGATION OF SORPTION CAPACITY OF SAPONITE GRANULATE IN RELATION TO HYDROCARBON MIXTURE IN THE DYNAMIC MODE." HERALD OF KHMELNYTSKYI NATIONAL UNIVERSITY 297, no. 3 (2021): 186–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.31891/2307-5732-2021-297-3-186-192.

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Their drawback can be explained by the high cost and regeneration complexity. That is why the usage of natural sorbents (Tashkiv saponite deposits, Khmelnitsky region). They are able to clean contaminated water from colloidal, molecular and ionic substances. Exploring the specified topic, physicochemical properties of various forms of saponites are studied; the area of their usage is defined. The paste for cleaning contaminated surfaces is developed on their basis. The research results have shown that the most effective method is to use natural saponite. The author of the article advises to conduct preliminary acid activation of clay minerals and modification of its surface multivalent metal salts. Saponite clay granulate is obtained with different time and sintering temperature. Granulation is shown to improve the strength and filtration characteristics of natural sorbents, increasing the filtration rate and the duration of the filter cycle. The influence of the granulation process on the sorption properties of the obtained granulated aluminasilicates is investigated. A detailed hydrocarbon analysis of the A-92 starting gasoline is carried out. The composition of the purified samples of the hydrocarbon mixture is evaluated with gas chromatography using saponite granulate (Octane rating = 94,013 according to the method of research) under static conditions. The structure changes of raw and acid activated saponite clay has been investigated by nitrogen adsorption method and scanning electron microscopy. Established that the porous structure of saponite clay mineral represented by micro-meso porous system with domination of micropores. Acid modification promotes the development of specific surface area (from 47,7 m2/g to 177,9 m2/g) and increase the total volume of pores (from 0,134 cm3/g to 0,201 cm3/g).

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Metwally, Manal Mahmoud. "Approach to Accurate Octane Number Calculation for Gasoline Blending." Academic Research Community publication 2, no. 4 (2019): 506. http://dx.doi.org/10.21625/archive.v2i4.395.

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The octane number of gasoline is one of the most important measures of gasoline quality to predict accurately the octane ratings of blending gasolines. This measured on a scale that ranges from that equivalent to isooctane (octane number of 100) to that of n-heptane (octane number of zero) octane no is effected by the saturates, aromatics, and olefins contents of gasoline. We take it as a standard and measure octane number by comparison with this standard. The accurate octane blending method will optimize the blending of gasoline components, when gasoline components are blended together, we will calculate the octane number of the blend with different octane number of the component or if the four components are of equal octane number. The blend octane number may be greater than, equal to or less than that calculated from the volumetric average of the octane numbers of the blend components, which indicates nonlinear blending. Blending would be linear if octane number of a blend was equal to that predicted by summing the octane numbers of the components in proportion to their concentrations. In practices, the discrepancies between the octane numbers of blends and the linearly predicted values have been correlated by specific empirical equations and these have been used to correct the linear predictions.

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Warguła, Łukasz, Mateusz Kukla, Piotr Lijewski, Michał Dobrzyński, and Filip Markiewicz. "Influence of the Use of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) Systems in Woodchippers Powered by Small Engines on Exhaust Emissions and Operating Costs." Energies 13, no. 21 (2020): 5773. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en13215773.

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The use of alternative fuels is a contemporary trend in science aimed at the protection of non-renewable resources, reducing the negative impact on people and reducing the negative impact on the natural environment. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is an alternative fuel within the meaning of the European Union Directive (2014/94/UE), as it is an alternative for energy sources derived from crude oil. The use of LPG fuel in low-power internal combustion engines is one of the currently developed scientific research directions. It results from the possibility of limiting air pollutant emissions compared to the commonly used gasoline and the lower cost of this fuel in many countries. By “gasoline 95” the Authors mean non-lead petrol as a flammable liquid that is used primarily as a fuel in most spark-ignited internal combustion engines, whereas 95 is an octane rating (octane number). This article presents the results of research on fuel consumption, toxic exhaust gas emission, and operating costs of a woodchipper used for shredding branches with a diameter of up to 100 mm in real working conditions. The woodchipper, powered by a 9.5 kW internal combustion engine, fueled by gasoline and LPG was tested. Liberal regulations of the European Union (Regulation 2016/1628/EU) on the emission of harmful exhaust compounds from small spark-ignition engines (up to 19 kW) and non-road applications contribute to the low technical advancement level of these engines. The authors researched a relatively simple and cheap LPG fueling system, as in their opinion, such a system has the best chance of being implemented for use. In the study, the branches of cherry plum were shredded (Prunus cerasiferaEhrh. Beitr. Naturk. 4:17. 1789 (Gartenkalender4:189-204. 1784)). Their diameter was ca. 80 mm, length 3 m, and moisture content ca. 25%. The system was tested during the shredding of the branches in real working conditions (the frequency of supplying the branches about 4 min−1 and the mass productivity of about 0.73 t/h). Based on the recorded results, it was found that the LPG fueled engine was characterized by higher carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions by 22% and 27%, respectively. A positive effect of using LPG was the reduction of fuel consumption by 28% and carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrocarbons (HC) emissions by 37% and 83%, respectively. The results of the research show that the use of alternative fuels can bring benefits in terms of CO2 and HC emissions, but at the same time be characterized by an increase in CO and NOx emissions. Further research should be conducted on innovative alternative fuel supply systems, such as in the automotive industry. At the same time, legislators should limit the use of low-quality fuel supply systems with the limits of pollutant emissions in exhaust gases, contributing to the development and economic competitiveness of new fuel injection systems.

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Inukai, Yukio, Hideto Taya, Neiichi Nagamura, and Hiroshi Kuriyama. "An Evaluation Method of Combined Effects of Infrasound and Audible Noise." Journal of Low Frequency Noise, Vibration and Active Control 6, no. 3 (1987): 119–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026309238700600304.

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A psychophysical experiment was conducted to investigate an evaluation method for the combined effects of infrasound and audible noise. In the experiment, subjective rating of 80 mixed noise stimuli were obtained from 15 subjects on 22 semantic-differential-type scales. The stimulus noise conditions were mixtures of one of eight pure tones at 5, 10, 20, and 40 Hz and one of eight 1/3 octave band noises with centre frequencies 63, 125, 250, and 500 Hz. The rating data were subjected to a principal component analysis and yielded two principal components, these were interpreted as the perceptual components of infrasound and audible noise respectively. On the basis of this result, a psychophysical model was proposed to make two-dimensional predictions of subjective ratings from the physical variables of the noise stimuli. Following this model, a best weighting curve, in combination with the A-weighting curve and their regression weights, were estimated. The results showed that the psychological model successfully described the rating data.

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Hirshfeld, David S., Jeffrey A. Kolb, James E. Anderson, William Studzinski, and James Frusti. "Refining Economics of U.S. Gasoline: Octane Ratings and Ethanol Content." Environmental Science & Technology 48, no. 19 (2014): 11064–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es5021668.

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Hall, Carrie M., Gregory M. Shaver, Jonathan Chauvin, and Nicolas Petit. "Control-oriented modelling of combustion phasing for a fuel-flexible spark-ignited engine with variable valve timing." International Journal of Engine Research 13, no. 5 (2012): 448–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1468087412439019.

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In an effort to reduce dependence on petroleum-based fuels and increase engine efficiency, fuel-flexible engines with advanced technologies, including variable valve timing, are being developed. Fuel-flexible spark-ignition engines permit the increased use of ethanol–gasoline blends. Ethanol, an alternative to petroleum-based gasoline, is a renewable fuel, which has the added advantage of improving performance in operating regions that are typically knock limited due to the higher octane rating of ethanol. Furthermore, many modern engines are also being equipped with variable valve timing, a technology that can increase engine efficiency by reducing pumping losses. Through control of valve timings, particularly the amount of positive valve overlap, the quantity of burned gas in the engine cylinder can be altered, eliminating the need for intake throttling at many operating points. However, the presence of elevated levels of in-cylinder burned gas and ethanol fuel can have a significant impact on the combustion timing, such that capturing these effects is essential if the combustion phasing is to be properly controlled. This paper outlines a physically based model capable of capturing the impact of the ethanol blend ratio, burned gas fraction, spark timing and operating conditions on combustion timing. Since efficiency is typically tied to an optimal CA50 (crank angle when 50% of fuel is burned), this model is designed to provide accurate estimates of CA50 that can be used for real-time control efforts – allowing the CA50 to be adjusted to its optimal value despite changes in ethanol blend and burned gas fraction, as well as the variations in engine thermodynamic conditions that may occur during transients. The proposed control-oriented model was extensively validated at over 500 points across the engine operating range for four blends of gasoline and ethanol. Furthermore, the model was utilized to determine the impact of ethanol blend and burned gas fraction on the CA50, as well as their impact on the optimal spark timing. This study indicated that the burned gas fraction could change the optimal spark timing by over 20° at some operating conditions and that ethanol content could further affect the optimal spark timing by up to 6°. Leveraging the model in this manner provides direct evidence that accounting for the impact of these two inputs is critical for proper spark-ignition timing control.

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Sadler, Pamela, Ashley P. Howard, Ivana Lizdek, and Erik Woody. "The Interpersonal Transaction Scales–8 (ITS-8): A Circumplex-Based, Behaviorally Anchored Instrument Based on the CLOIT-R." Assessment 27, no. 4 (2019): 675–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1073191119851565.

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Using the Checklist of Interpersonal Transactions–Revised (CLOIT-R; Kiesler, 2004) as a basis, a new behaviorally anchored instrument was developed with a graded-response scale, simplified item wording, substantially fewer items, and improved consistency with the interpersonal circumplex. In a community sample (Study 1), the graded response format with simplified items showed improved octant-scale reliabilities, as well as circular structure and convergent validity comparable to the CLOIT-R. Items that performed consistently across community and undergraduate samples (Study 2) were then selected to produce an inventory with half as many items as the CLOIT-R, but with good octant-scale reliabilities and excellent circular structure. Finally, in a therapy context (Study 3), the new inventory showed excellent reliability and validity for ratings of both clients and therapists. This 48-item inventory, the Interpersonal Transaction Scales–8 (ITS-8), may be used for both self- and other-ratings in everyday interactions, as well as for observer ratings of therapeutic interactions.

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