Academic literature on the topic 'Of cashew nut, dry-consumption'

Cashew nuts are the second most popular tree nut in the US with sales growing at a rate of 7% per annum. The highest quality cashew nuts are traditionally whole, oil-roasted, and devoid of skins. The development of a technique to remove the caustic cashew nut shell liquid from cashews and leave the skins intact allows for the production of novel cashew products including skin-on or “wrapped” in addition to raw and dry roasted products. This study investigated the nutritional characteristics of these newer cashew products. These products were found to contain bioactive compounds including mono- and poly-unsaturated fatty acids, phytosterols, arginine, magnesium, tocopherols, and phenolic compounds. All the types of cashews exhibited higher levels of phytosterols than the amounts reported for other tree nuts. The skin-on cashews had higher levels of phenolic compounds compared to the other cashew varieties tested, indicating additional health benefits of consuming cashew nuts with skins.

The demand for cashew nuts is on the rise compared to other tree nuts due to the increase in consumption and utilization of cashew nut products and by-products, respectively. Data from FAO and Review of past literatures was used and this study evaluated the Nigerian cashew value chain as product moves along the stages. It gives information to intending individuals along the value chain. The activities of the actors in the cashew nut value chain are expected to generate employment opportunities for teeming Nigerian youth.

The steaming of raw cashew seeds prior to shelling is adopted widely in small-scale cashew nut processing mills with the help of baby boiler. The wide variations in energy intensity of these mills reveal the scope for energy conservation. The baby boiler coupled with cooker commonly used for steaming of raw seeds was evaluated. The variation in steam pressure, temperature and operating time with respect to fuel was observed along with thermal efficiency of a boiler. The energy intensity to produce the steam using different fuel sources determined. The study revealed that the thermal efficiency of boiler using electricity as a fuel was higher (69.31%) as compared to 4.66% (Wood) and 4.47% (Cashew nut shell). It was observed that, the energy consumed per kg of cashew nut steaming using electricity (248.99 kJ/kg) was minimum followed by wood (3829.96 kJ/kg) and cashew nut shell (3835.64 kJ/kg). The variation of energy consumption for cashew nut steaming revealed the scope for energy conservation in biomass combustion system. The improvement in the biomass combustion efficiency for steam generation could results in less fuel consumption and shorter period.

ABSTRACT Background The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a qualified health claim for tree nuts and reduction of cardiovascular disease. However, cashews are excluded from that claim due to their content of saturated fats, which is predominantly stearic acid. Because stearic acid is neutral with respect to blood lipids, several studies have been conducted to test the effect of cashew nuts on blood lipids, and these studies have produced conflicting results. Objectives The aim of this study was to conduct a highly controlled intervention to determine the effect of cashews fed at the amount specified in the health claim on risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Methods A total of 42 adults participated in a controlled-feeding study conducted as a randomized crossover trial with 2 treatment phases. The volunteers were provided the same base diet in both treatment phases, with no additions during the control phase and with the addition of 1.5 servings (42 g) of cashews/d for the cashew nut phase. During the cashew nut phase, the amount of all foods was decreased proportionally to achieve isocaloric overall diets in the 2 phases. After 4 wk of intervention, assessments included blood lipids, blood pressure, central (aortic) pressure, augmentation index, blood glucose, endothelin, proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9), adhesion molecules, and clotting and inflammatory factors. Results There were no significant differences in blood lipids, blood pressure, augmentation index, blood glucose, endothelin, adhesion molecules, or clotting factors in this weight-stable cohort. PCSK9 was significantly decreased after cashew consumption, although there was no change in LDL cholesterol. Conclusions Consumption of 1.5 servings of cashew nuts/d, the amount associated with the FDA qualified health claim for tree nuts and cardiovascular disease, did not positively or adversely affect any of the primary risk factors for cardiovascular disease. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02628171.

SUMMARYThe centre of origin of cashew is believed to be Brazil, from where it has spread since the 16th century throughout the tropics. In recent years, Vietnam has surpassed India to become the world's largest producer of cashew nut. Most of the research on the water relations of cashew has been done in Brazil, where it is both a large-scale commercial and a smallholder crop, and in Australia, where cashew is a possible emerging new crop. There are two ‘types’ of cashew: ‘talls’ and ‘dwarfs’. Both are evergreen trees in which vegetative growth occurs in a series of flushes. Flowers form annually on the end of branches in the dry season, and flowering continues for two to four months. It then takes about two months from pollination for the nut to mature. Roots can extend to great depths (>5 m), while cashew's wide-spreading rooting habit is critical to its successful adaptation to semi-arid/dry conditions. The optimum temperature for CO2 assimilation is in the range 25–35 °C. Progressive closure of the stomata occurs at saturation deficits of the air >1.5 kPa. In the field, differences in rates of gas exchange between irrigated and unirrigated cashew trees only become apparent three or four months after the end of the rains, the stomata playing an important role in maintaining a favourable leaf water status in dry conditions. Sap flow measurements indicate transpiration rates of 20–28 L d−1 tree−1. Irrigation can be beneficial during the period from flowering to the start of harvest, but reliable estimates of water productivity have yet to be established. The best/only estimate is 0.26 kg (nut in shell) m−3 (irrigation water). There is a continuing need to develop a method to estimate the water requirements of cashew, to identify where and when irrigation of cashew is likely to be justified and to develop a practical irrigation schedule.

The energy and mass flow of the steam cooking operation of three readily defined small-scale cashew processing industries was studied to estimate the availability of cashew nut shell. The proximate analysis of cashew shell waste was carried out using ASTMD 73–75 method. The calorific value of the cashew shell was carried out using bomb calorimeter (ASTME 711). The thermogravimetric analysis of the cashew shell was carried out using TG-FTIR with 10∘C/minute heating rate. The study revealed that, the small-scale cashew processing industries followed steam-cooking process with average energy consumption accounted to be 2969.7 MJ per 1000 kg of raw cashew seed. The cashew shell waste generated in small-scale cashew processing industries was found to be 67.5% of total weight of cashew seed, which can be utilized as fuel for thermal energy supply. The average higher calorific value of the cashew nut shell was found to be 4890 kcal/kg. The thermogravimetric analysis revealed that 85% weight of cashew nut shell has been degraded at 500∘C and in 13 minutes. The availability and fuel analysis of the cashew shell as a fuel revealed its suitability as a supplementary fuel for thermal application through pyrolysis in the industry.

ABSTRACTObjective: Although studies suggest that nut consumption is associated with a variety of beneficial health outcomes, however, there is a dearth of datain the literature to document this effect for roasted cashew nut kernel (RCNK). Our objective was to determine whether dietary consumption of RCNKcould improve lipid profile, hepatic and renal status in rats.Methods: A total of 24 rats were randomly divided into four groups: A control and three experimental groups fed with roasted cashew nutsupplementeddietatdifferentconcentrationsfor28consecutivedays.Aftertheexperimentalperiod,ratswereanesthetized withether andretroorbitalbloodsampleswerewithdrawn.Serumsamples wereobtained toanalyzelipid profile,markersof oxidativestress,hepatic andrenalstatususingstandardmethods.Results: The supplemented diet significantly decreased the liver function parameters in rats. All the concentrations of RCNK in diets significantlyreduced serum creatinine and urea levels. However, total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) were significantly increased,whereas oxidative stress markers and malondialdehyde were improved by the supplemented diet, although insignificantly, as compared with thecontrol.Conclusions: These results suggest that RCNK may have beneficial health effects on the liver and kidney status although marked improvement wasnot demonstrated in oxidative stress markers. However, the significant increase in serum total and LDL-C indicates the need for further studies.Keywords: Roasted cashew nut, Anacardium occidentale, Lipid profile, Liver enzymes, Oxidative stress.

We study the heating energy of briquettes from cashew nut shell (CNS), cultivated in south Thailand. CNS briquettes (CNSB) were produced by mixing CNS powder with the cassava starch ratio 5:1w/w. A chemical component analysis of the CNSB was performed, and the heat utilization efficiency was compared with firewood charcoal. CNSB were found to have a fixed carbon content of 49.2%, ash content of 4.2% (750°C°C at 6 hours), and moisture content of 6.6% (105°C for 24 hours). It was observed that CNSB consists of energy consumption at 0.440-0.456 KW/kg and high compressive strength of 60.2 kg/cm2.The value of heat utilization efficiency obtained inside the fuel briquette of 18.01%, attributed to the burn rate average at 11.90 g/min. CNSB could be used to replace firewood and reduce cost for heating manufacturing processes.

Abstract Cashew nut farming in India is mostly carried out in small and marginal holdings. Energy consumption in the small scale cashew nut processing industry is very high and is mainly due to the high energy consumption of the drying process. The drying operation provides a lot of scope for energy saving and substitutions of other renewable energy sources. Renewable energy-based drying systems with loading capacity of 40 kg were proposed for application in small scale cashew nut processing industries. The main objective of this work is to perform economic feasibility of substituting solar, biomass and hybrid dryer in place of conventional steam drying for cashew drying. Four economic indicators were used to assess the feasibility of three renewable based drying technologies. The payback time was 1.58 yr. for solar, 1.32 for biomass and 1.99 for the hybrid drying system, whereas as the cost-benefit estimates were 5.23 for solar, 4.15 for biomass and 3.32 for the hybrid system. It was found that it is of paramount importance to develop solar biomass hybrid dryer for small scale processing industries.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior
Visando obter informaÃÃes sobre a influÃncia da inclusÃo do farelo da amÃndoa da castanha de caju (FACC) sobre o consumo de mateÃria seca e os parÃmetros seminais de ovinos em confinamento, dezesseis carneiros mestiÃos de Santa InÃs, com idade mÃdia de 24 meses, foram distribuidos ao acaso em dois lotes de oito animais cada e confinados individualmente. Os animais experimentais foram submetidos, inicialmente, a um perÃodo de adaptaÃÃo de 15 dias. ApÃs o perÃodo de adaptaÃÃo, foram iniciados os tratamentos T1 e T2, com duraÃÃo total de 85 dias. O T1 foi constituÃdo por uma alimentaÃÃo à base de concentrado isoprotÃico e isocalÃrico com 18% de FACC, que foi administrado numa proporÃÃo de 1,2% do peso vivo (P.V.), e volumoso (feno de capim Tifton) ad libitum. O T2 foi constituÃdo com o mesmo concentrado isoprotÃico e isocalÃrico com 0 % de FACC. As raÃÃes (concentrado) foram administradas uma vez ao dia em cochos individuais. A sobra de volumoso foi coletada e pesada durante todo o perÃodo experimental. Os valores mÃdios encontrados para as caracterÃsticas estudadas foram: ganho de peso diÃrio (T1) 0,068 g e (T2) 0,094 g; consumo total de matÃria seca (T1) 1,255 g + 0,23 e (T2) 1,302 g + 0,22; circunferÃncia escrotal (T1) 30,38 cm + 2,26 e (T2) 31,16 + 2,13 cm ; volume do ejaculado (T1) 0,9 ml + 0,38 e (T2) 1,0 ml + 0,46; concentraÃÃo espermÃtica (T1) 2,44 x 109 e (T2) 3,15 x 109 sptz / ml; motilidade massal (T1) 3,05 + 1,28 e (T2) 3,24 + 1,26; motilidade individual progressiva (T1) 3,56 + 0,68 e (T2) 3,58 + 0,72; percentagem de espermatozÃides mÃveis (T1) 69,16 e (T2) 70,31. NÃo houve diferenÃas significativas (P>0,05) para os diferentes parÃmetros entre os dois tratamentos. Desta forma, conclui-se que a inclusÃo de 18% de farelo de amÃndoa da castanha de caju (FACC) no concentrado, para suplementaÃÃo alimentar em reprodutores ovinos à viÃvel, tendo em vista que os parÃmetros estudados nos dois tratamentos nÃo foram afetados negativamente pela presenÃa do FACC.
Seeking to obtain information on the influence of the inclusion of the bran of the almond of the cashew nut (FACC) on the dry mater consumption and seminal parameters of sheeps under feedlot, sixteen Santa InÃs crossbred sheeps, with medium age of 24 months, were randomly distributed to two lots of eight animals each and confined individually. The experimental animals were submitted, initially, to a adaptation period of 15 days. After the adaptation period, the treatments T1 and T2 were initiated, with a total length of 85 (eighty five) days. The T1 was constituted by a feeding based on a isoproteic and isocaloric concentrate with 18% of FACC, that was administered in a proportion of 1,2% of live weight (P. V. ), and roughage (Tifton grass hay) âad libitumâ. The T2 was constituted with the same isoprotÃico and isocalÃrico concentrate with 0% of FACC. The rations (concentrated) were administered once a day in individual hods. The roughage surpluses were collected and weighted during the whole experimental period. The mean values found for the studied traits were: daily weight gain (T1) 0,068 g and (T2) 0,094 g; total dry mater consumption (T1) 1,255 g + 0,23 and (T2) 1,302 g + 0,22; scrotal circunference (T1) 30,38 cm + 2,26 and (T2) 31,16 + 2,13 cm ; ejaculated volume (T1) 0,9 ml + 0,38 and (T2) 1,0 ml + 0,46; spermatic concentration (T1) 2,44 x 109 and (T2) 3,15 x 109 sptz / ml; massal motility (T1) 3,05 and (T2) 3,24; progressive individual motility (T1) 3,56 + 0,68 and (T2) 3,58 + 0,72; percentage of movable spermatozoids (T1) 69,16 and (T2) 70,31. There were not significant differences (P>0,05) for the different parameters among the two treatments. In this way, it was concluded that the inclusion of 18% of bran of almond of the cashew nut (FACC) in the concentrate, for feed suplementation of sheep sires is viable, tends in view that the parameters studied in the two treatments they were not negatively affected by the presence of FACC.

MEDEIROS, Michael Nogueira de. Efeito de dietas com e sem inclusão de farelo de castanha de caju sobre o consumo de matéria seca e parâmetros seminais de ovinos adultos. 2005. 56 f. : Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Federal do Ceará, Centro de Ciências Agrárias, Fortaleza-CE, 2005
Submitted by Nádja Goes (nmoraissoares@gmail.com) on 2016-08-08T14:59:53Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2005_dis_mnmedeiros.pdf: 451272 bytes, checksum: b0648d1fb811254b790e9cf555dc0d3f (MD5)
Approved for entry into archive by Nádja Goes (nmoraissoares@gmail.com) on 2016-08-08T15:00:10Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2005_dis_mnmedeiros.pdf: 451272 bytes, checksum: b0648d1fb811254b790e9cf555dc0d3f (MD5)
Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-08T15:00:10Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2005_dis_mnmedeiros.pdf: 451272 bytes, checksum: b0648d1fb811254b790e9cf555dc0d3f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2005
Visando obter informações sobre a influência da inclusão do farelo da amêndoa da castanha de caju (FACC) sobre o consumo de mateéria seca e os parâmetros seminais de ovinos em confinamento, dezesseis carneiros mestiços de Santa Inês, com idade média de 24 meses, foram distribuidos ao acaso em dois lotes de oito animais cada e confinados individualmente. Os animais experimentais foram submetidos, inicialmente, a um período de adaptação de 15 dias. Após o período de adaptação, foram iniciados os tratamentos T1 e T2, com duração total de 85 dias. O T1 foi constituído por uma alimentação à base de concentrado isoprotéico e isocalórico com 18% de FACC, que foi administrado numa proporção de 1,2% do peso vivo (P.V.), e volumoso (feno de capim Tifton) ad libitum. O T2 foi constituído com o mesmo concentrado isoprotéico e isocalórico com 0 % de FACC. As rações (concentrado) foram administradas uma vez ao dia em cochos individuais. A sobra de volumoso foi coletada e pesada durante todo o período experimental. Os valores médios encontrados para as características estudadas foram: ganho de peso diário (T1) 0,068 g e (T2) 0,094 g; consumo total de matéria seca (T1) 1,255 g + 0,23 e (T2) 1,302 g + 0,22; circunferência escrotal (T1) 30,38 cm + 2,26 e (T2) 31,16 + 2,13 cm ; volume do ejaculado (T1) 0,9 ml + 0,38 e (T2) 1,0 ml + 0,46; concentração espermática (T1) 2,44 x 109 e (T2) 3,15 x 109 sptz / ml; motilidade massal (T1) 3,05 + 1,28 e (T2) 3,24 + 1,26; motilidade individual progressiva (T1) 3,56 + 0,68 e (T2) 3,58 + 0,72; percentagem de espermatozóides móveis (T1) 69,16 e (T2) 70,31. Não houve diferenças significativas (P>0,05) para os diferentes parâmetros entre os dois tratamentos. Desta forma, conclui-se que a inclusão de 18% de farelo de amêndoa da castanha de caju (FACC) no concentrado, para suplementação alimentar em reprodutores ovinos é viável, tendo em vista que os parâmetros estudados nos dois tratamentos não foram afetados negativamente pela presença do FACC.
Visando obter informações sobre a influência da inclusão do farelo da amêndoa da castanha de caju (FACC) sobre o consumo de mateéria seca e os parâmetros seminais de ovinos em confinamento, dezesseis carneiros mestiços de Santa Inês, com idade média de 24 meses, foram distribuidos ao acaso em dois lotes de oito animais cada e confinados individualmente. Os animais experimentais foram submetidos, inicialmente, a um período de adaptação de 15 dias. Após o período de adaptação, foram iniciados os tratamentos T1 e T2, com duração total de 85 dias. O T1 foi constituído por uma alimentação à base de concentrado isoprotéico e isocalórico com 18% de FACC, que foi administrado numa proporção de 1,2% do peso vivo (P.V.), e volumoso (feno de capim Tifton) ad libitum. O T2 foi constituído com o mesmo concentrado isoprotéico e isocalórico com 0 % de FACC. As rações (concentrado) foram administradas uma vez ao dia em cochos individuais. A sobra de volumoso foi coletada e pesada durante todo o período experimental. Os valores médios encontrados para as características estudadas foram: ganho de peso diário (T1) 0,068 g e (T2) 0,094 g; consumo total de matéria seca (T1) 1,255 g + 0,23 e (T2) 1,302 g + 0,22; circunferência escrotal (T1) 30,38 cm + 2,26 e (T2) 31,16 + 2,13 cm ; volume do ejaculado (T1) 0,9 ml + 0,38 e (T2) 1,0 ml + 0,46; concentração espermática (T1) 2,44 x 109 e (T2) 3,15 x 109 sptz / ml; motilidade massal (T1) 3,05 + 1,28 e (T2) 3,24 + 1,26; motilidade individual progressiva (T1) 3,56 + 0,68 e (T2) 3,58 + 0,72; percentagem de espermatozóides móveis (T1) 69,16 e (T2) 70,31. Não houve diferenças significativas (P>0,05) para os diferentes parâmetros entre os dois tratamentos. Desta forma, conclui-se que a inclusão de 18% de farelo de amêndoa da castanha de caju (FACC) no concentrado, para suplementação alimentar em reprodutores ovinos é viável, tendo em vista que os parâmetros estudados nos dois tratamentos não foram afetados negativamente pela presença do FACC.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior
O presente estudo foi conduzido com o objetivo de avaliar os efeitos da inclusÃo de 13% de farelo de castanha de caju na dieta de carneiros da raÃa Morada Nova sobre o ganho de peso, consumo de matÃria seca, rendimento de carcaÃa, pesos dos ÃrgÃos sexuais, qualidade seminal e proteÃnas seminais e membranares do espermatozoide. Para tanto, vinte carneiros foram divididos em dois grupos alimentados com dietas contendo 13% (GCA, n=10) ou 0% (GCO, n=10) de farelo de castanha de caju. As dietas foram isoproteicas e isoenergeticas, com uma relaÃÃo de 50/50 de concentrado/volumoso (feno de Tifton 85) e Ãgua e sal mineral à vontade. Durante noventa dias, os animais foram mantidos em baias individuais e avaliados quanto ao consumo de matÃria seca e ganho de peso. As coletas seminais por eletroejaculaÃÃo ocorreram semanalmente com a determinaÃÃo do volume ejaculado e, concentraÃÃo, motilidade e morfologia espermÃtica. ApÃs os noventa dias, as proteÃnas seminais e espermÃticas foram analisadas por meio de eletroforese bidimensional em gel de poliacrilamida. Os mapas proteÃcos foram avaliados por meio do aplicativo PDQuest, version 8.0; Bio Rad, USA. Ao final do experimento, os carneiros foram abatidos e, o peso vivo, rendimento de carcaÃa e peso dos ÃrgÃos sexuais foram mensurados. O consumo de matÃria seca total permaneceu sem alteraÃÃes nos dois grupos experimentais durante os primeiros 60 dias do estudo. PorÃm, apÃs 60 dias, houve e reduÃÃo no consumo de matÃria seca no grupo alimentado com castanha (P < 0,05). NÃo houve efeito da inclusÃo do farelo de castanha sobre o ganho de peso, rendimento de carcaÃa, desenvolvimento dos ÃrgÃos sexuais e parÃmetros seminais dos animais. No entanto, a inclusÃo do farelo de castanha de caju esteve associada à expressÃo de proteÃnas seminais e espermÃticas. Sete spots proteicos presentes nos mapas de plasma seminal foram expressos diferencialmente entre os grupos castanha e controle (P < 0,05) e um spot proteico (21,8 kDa; pI: 5) correlacionou-se negativamente com o vigor espermÃtico (r = -0,49; P<0,05). Adicionalmente, sete spots proteicos dos gÃis com proteinas da membrana dos espermatozoides tambÃm diferiram entre os carneiros alimentados com e sem farelo de castanha de caju (P < 0,05). Conclui-se, portanto, que a inclusÃo de 13% de farelo de castanha de caju na dieta altera a expressÃo de proteÃnas seminais e espermÃticas em ovinos.
The cashew nut meal is alternative food for ruminant nutrition which is rich in lipids, proteins and minerals. However, its nutrition influences on male development and reproduction are still unknown. In this context, seminal and sperm protein analysis can show metabolic consequences from cashew nut meal on sheep reproductive efficiency. Therefore, the current dissertation aims evaluate the effects of 13% of cashew nut meal in the ration on the weight gain, food intake, carcass yield, weight of sexual organs, sperm quality and, seminal and sperm membrane proteins of Morada Nova Rams. Twenty rams were divided in two groups: cashew nut and control, which received 13% or 0% of cashew nut meal in the diet, respectively. During ninety days, the animals were kept in individual boxes and evaluated for ration consumption and weight gain. The sperm collections by eletroejaculation were made by weekly and, the volume, sperm concentration and motility were analyzed. After ninety days, the seminal and sperm membrane proteins were analyzed by two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The gels were digitalized, and their images were evaluated by computer software. At the end of the experiment, the rams were slaughtered and, the weight gain, carcass yield and weight of sexual organs were measured. There was not effect of cashew nut meal addition in the diet on the weight gain, carcass yield and weight of sexual organs. But, after sixty days, there was a reduction on food intake in the cashew nut group (P < 0,05). The sperm quality was not influenced by the diet. We observed an effect of cashew nut diet on the expression of seminal and sperm proteins. Seven spots from seminal plasma were expressed differently between cashew nut and control groups (P < 0,05). The spot 2206 (21,82 kDa; pI: 5,04) was negatively correlated with the individual motility score (r = -0,49). Additionally, seven spots from sperm membrane protein also differ between rams from cashew nut and control groups (P < 0,05). In conclusion, the addition of 13% of cashew nut meal in the diet alters the expression of sheep seminal plasma and sperm membrane proteins.

A computerized dairy herd simulation was developed to evaluate the economic impact of changing length of lactation relative to length of dry period in a dairy herd. It created weekly production for individual cows in a typical herd. Cows were dried off early if they were producing below a designated daily milk yield. They were replaced with fresh cows to produce more daily milk and increase profit while maintaining a constant number of cows in milk (98 to 102). A two by four factorial of dry off strategies was designed using rates of lactation decline of 6% and 8% and early dry off at 8, 13, 18, and 23 kg. Cows producing less than this for 2 wk consecutively were dried off. There were 100 cows in each herd and each of the eight scenarios was run 10 times (10 herds) for 80 herds total. Dry cow groups at 8, 13, 18, and 23 kg dry off were 14, 17, 23, and 32% of total herds, respectively. Average daily milk (kg) increased for the four dry kg: 30.4, 31.2, 32.3, and 33.7 kg/d per milking cow, whereas RHA decreased. Three different milk-feed income scenarios, (+20%, average, -20%) were combined with three dry cow costs, (+20%, average, and -20%). Nine combinations were analyzed statistically at each rate of decline. Net cash income changed $3561, $1571, and $-3051 from 8 to 13 to 18 to 23 kg dry kg under a normal economic situation. Net farm income under the same scenario changed $3170, $2945, and $-1154. Under the best economic situation, net cash income increased with each successive dry kg, $5086, $4248, and $921. Net farm income also increased by $4695, $5621, and $2819. Net cash income and net farm income were largest at 13 and 18 kg when milk-feed income was low and dry cow cost was high, the worst economy scenario. Only in the most optimistic economic situations does it appear practical for a dairy business to adopt early dry off beyond 13 kg/d per cow given the small gains and the yearly variability. Strategies of dry off at larger dry kg, although not greatly profitable, nevertheless were not extremely unprofitable either.
Master of Science

The chapter starts with a brief overview of the study of political personalization online, then focuses on its claims concerning the influence of online platforms on political personalization. It then analyses online personalization by comparing the online presence and activity of parties, party leaders, and prominent politicians from twenty-five democracies, and also the consumption rate of their Facebook pages. High variance at the national levels of personalization online demonstrates that personalization is not a necessary development of politics in the age of online social networks. Levels of online controlled media personalization do not seem to be generally high. Parties are present online more than individual politicians, and in most cases the amount of their output is higher. Online personalization in voters’ behavior—the consumption side—is, however, prevalent. Such personalization is evident in the amounts of the consumption of the outputs of party leaders, but not of other prominent politicians.

This chapter discusses critical issues surrounding the economics of the environment in Brazil. A general framework for analyzing the state of the environment in a developing country is first presented and is used as a departure point for the study of the recent Brazilian case. High marginal utility of consumption, high marginal cost of abatement, imperfect representation of citizens by politicians, and market failures are put forth as candidate explanations for poor environmental quality and low willingness to pay for environmental improvements in developing countries, even when large gains to health and income could result. These arguments are applicable in several contexts in Brazil, but not universally. The chapter presents a critical and selective literature review on key topics including deforestation in the Amazon region, aspects of ethanol production and consumption, and climate change.

In this chapter I will address the issue that whilst mathematics is vital to all of our lives, playing a vital role in modern technology and even helping us to understand the brain, it is often perceived to be a dry, boring, and useless subject. The chapter will explore various ways that mathematics can be presented to the general public in a way that makes it seem to be exciting and relevant, and captures its essence without dumbing it down. In particular it will look at strategies that have been shown to work well with the public including the use of careful real life examples and relating maths to people, hands on maths at science fairs, and maths in the media and on the Internet. The chapter includes some case studies of what does and does not work in the field of maths communication.

The performance index for an optimal spacecraft trajectory is typically minimum propellant consumption, not because of the monetary cost of the propellant, but because for each kilogram of propellant saved an additional kilogram of payload is delivered to the final destination. The term “minimum fuel” is often used in place of “minimum propellant”, even for chemical rockets in which the propellant is composed of both fuel and oxidizer. As is often the case, the term “fuel” is used rather than “propellant” because it’s shorter – having one syllable instead of three. In some applications other performance indices are used, such as minimum time, maximum range, etc....

Research suggests that punishing drug users has some limitations as a major component of drug policy. An increasing number of countries and sub-national jurisdictions have therefore been reducing or eliminating criminal penalties for possession of small amounts of drugs for personal use, on grounds both of proportionality and effectiveness-oriented policy. Most decriminalization or depenalization programmes involve the substitution of civil penalties for criminal penalties for possession offences, while retaining full formal prohibition. The balance of the available evidence is that removing or reducing criminal penalties on possession does not lead to substantial increases in use. In particular, for cannabis, there are a number of cases where there was no measurable change in consumption from such a policy change.

In the Soviet Union and Maoist China several deadly famines occurred. The article argues that there is no necessary relation between collectivization of agriculture and famine. In many cases in Eastern Europe, collective agriculture was introduced and established for decades without causing mass starvation, especially when communist governments were willing to accept a mixed economy in the countryside. In the Soviet Union in 1931 and in China in 1959, however, collectivization did produce famines on a mammoth scale. These resulted directly from government decisions to launch overambitious industrial programmes to escape backwardness. Rapid urbanization and the resulting increase of millions of eaters in the urban rationing system, together with grain exports, overburdened the peasants. Rural consumption was curbed to a point that tens of millions could not survive.

The global transition towards sustainable, secure, and affordable electricity supply is driving changes in the consumption, production, and transportation of electricity. This chapter provides an overview of three main causes of political–economic tensions with smart grids in the United States, Europe, and China, namely industry structure, regulatory models, and the impact of energy policy. In all cases, the developments are motivated by the possible improvements in reliability and affordability yielded by smart grids, while sustainability of the electricity sector is not a central motivation. A holistic smart grid vision would open up possibilities for better integration of distributed energy resources. The authors recommend that smart grid investments should remain outside of the regulatory framework for utilities and distribution service operators in order to allow for such developments.

This chapter explores identity issues in commercial streaming services, which have grown steadily in the 2010s to become the dominant form of music consumption in the Nordic countries, with about 60% of all Internet users in 2015. The chapter offers an alternative to the dominant trend in music industry studies by focusing not on the industry’s interests but instead on broader cultural issues. The chapter presents case studies of two female Sámi artists and their representations on Spotify, YouTube, MySpace, and artists’ websites, taking various aspects of the services into account, including the interface and the algorithm-based recommendations. Informed by feminist cultural studies, the argument is that the industry continues a history of reinforcing stereotypes of ethnicity, indigeneity, and femininity. Thus, commercial streaming is not only making music available to global audiences, it is also selling images of Otherness within an unequal capitalist global media system.

This chapter focuses on food-related advertising. In the case of food advertising, the absence of local products is a direct consequence of the fact that the country is not able to produce its own food and water. For many postcolonial societies, buying local goods was a way to express a fledgling national identity and support the economy. Given the impossibility of doing so and the geographical limitations of Singapore, an alternative form of economic nationalism was instituted. It was, then, the consumption of foreign goods that formed the basis of nationalism. Food advertising is thus intimately bound with foreignness. The obvious foreignness of the foods purchased and the preparation techniques used have continued from the colonial period to the contemporary, made possible—and upheld—by Singapore's status as a port city.

AbstractThis research focuses on the energy performance of office building in Wuhan. The research explored and predicted the optimal solution of design variables by Multi-Island Genetic Algorithm (MIGA) and RBF Artificial neural networks (RBF-ANNs). Research analyzed the cluster centers of design variable by K-means cluster method. In the study, the RBF-ANNs model was established by 1,000 simulation cases. The RMSE (root mean square error) of the RBF-ANNs model in different energy aspects does not exceed 15%. Comparing to the reference case (the largest energy consumption case in the optimization), the 214 elite cases in RBF-ANNs model save at least 37.5% energy. By the cluster centers of the design variables in the elite cases, the study summarized the benchmark of 14 design variables and also suggested a building energy guidance for Wuhan office building design.

AbstractSome music genres have traditionally and mainly been consumed by men. This is the case of rap/hip-hop. However, data on the consumption of this genre in recent years shows a relevant increase in the number of women interested in this type of music. It would therefore seem to be pertinent to analyse this new trend, not only as a question linked to gender studies but also to marketing decision-making for the music industry, which is struggling to attract new audiences, a factor compounded in the pandemic. To frame this analysis, literature on music consumption, specifically in relation to gender and rap as an alternative music genre, has been reviewed from different approaches. An exploratory survey was conducted to obtain an insight into rap/hip-hop consumption and appreciation by gender. Results show that rap concert attendees’ satisfaction and interest in this kind of music are high, irrespective of gender. Only knowledge, which has not been as extensively studied, seems to be different between men and women, with this factor being slightly higher for the former. In addition, the identification of three clusters (involved, apathetic and hedonists), including both women and men, leads us to suggest that the gender gap in rap/hip-hop consumption is closing.

Abstract Restrictive policies that limit antimicrobial consumption, including therapeutically justified use, might be necessary to tackle the problem of antimicrobial resistance. We argue that such policies would be ethically justified when forgoing antimicrobials constitutes a form of easy rescue for an individual. These are cases of mild and self-limiting infections in otherwise healthy patients whose overall health is not significantly compromised by the infection. In such cases, restrictive policies would be ethically justified because they would coerce individuals into fulfilling a moral obligation they independently have. However, to ensure that such justification is the strongest possible, states also have the responsibility to ensure that forgoing antimicrobials is as easy as possible for patients by implementing adequate compensation measures.

Nuts are a combination of prebiotic fiber and phytonutrients and have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory effects. According to 2005 “My Pyramid” it has been grouped with the meat and bean group. Bioactive compounds of nuts such as resveratrol, phytosterols, phenolic acids, flavonoids, and carotenoids display synergistic effects on preventing many age related pathologies. Resveratrol has been reported to extend the lifespan in model organisms such as yeast, Drosophila and mouse. Reports propose nuts as the best substitute for red meat to reduce mortality risk. Macadamia nuts with a rich source of monounsaturated fats (oleic and palmitoleic acids) imparts cholesterol lowering effects thereby preventing coronary artery disease. Anacardic acid, a phenolic lipid found in cashew nut shells, is specifically enriched in metastatic melanoma patients in response to immunotherapy. The non-bio-accessible materials of nuts serve as a substrate for human gut microbiota. Regular Walnut enriched diet improves lipid content and enhances probiotic and butyrate producing bacteria composition in healthy individuals. This also reduces cardiovascular risk factors by promoting beneficial bacteria. Gut microbiota diversity studies report an enrichment with genera capable of producing short chain fatty acids (SCFA) following consumption of nuts. The prebiotic effect of nuts can be partly from refining butyrate producing bacteria composition. Hence an optimized diet rich with nuts can be an intervention for promoting a healthy microbiota population and thereby improving overall physiology.

Indonesia is the largest archipelago in the world and comprises 5 main islands and about 30 smaller archipelagos. In total, there are 13,667 islands and islets, of which approximately 6,000 are inhabited. The estimated area of the Republic of Indonesia is 5,193,250 km2, which consists of a land territory of slightly more than 2,000,000 km2 and a sea territory of slightly more than 3,150,000 km2. Indonesia’s five main islands are Sumatra (473,606 km2); Java and Madura (132,187 km2), the most fertile and densely populated islands; Kalimantan or two-thirds of the island of Borneo (539,460 km2); Sulawesi (189,216 km2); and Irian Jaya (421,981 km2), the least densely populated island, which forms part of the world’s second largest island of New Guinea. Of about 200 million ha of land territory, about 50 million ha area is devoted to various agricultural activities. There is nearly 20 million ha of arable land, of which about 40% is wetland (rice fields), 40% is dryland, and 15% is shifting cultivation. In the early 1970s, agriculture contributed about 33% to the gross domestic product. Its share decreased to 23% by the early 1980s and to 16.3% in 1996. However, agriculture is the most important sector in the national economy due to its capacity to employ 41% of the labor force (MoE, 1999). Agriculture is vulnerable to drought. Ditjenbun (1995) reported that in 1994 many seedlings and young plants died due to a long dry season: about 22% of tea plants at age of 0–2 years, 4–9% of rubber plants at age of 0–1 year, 4% of cacao plants at age of 0–2 years, 1.5–11% of cashew nut plants at age of 0–2 years, 4% of coffee plants at age of 0–2 years, and 5–30% of coconut plants at age of 0–2 years. The impact of a long dry season on yields of plantation crops becomes known only a few months later. For example, oil palm production is known 6–12 months after a long dry season (Hasan et al., 1998). Rice is the main food crop severely affected by drought.

This chapter demonstrates that, while scholars have long focused on the economic origins of the middle class, it is crucial to understand the ways in which it fashioned itself. Although the universe of the Indian middle class revolved around contesting colonial categories, the chapter shows that the project of self-fashioning of the Indian middle class was not an instance of alternative modernity, nor did the locality of the middle class in colonial India result in producing some sort of indigenism. This middle class borrowed, adapted, and appropriated the pleasures of modernity and tweaked and subverted it to suit their project of self-fashioning. An area in which such cosmopolitan domesticity can be observed was the culinary culture of colonial Bengal, which utilized both vernacular ingredients and British modes of cooking in order to establish a Bengali bourgeois cuisine. This process of indigenization was an aesthetic choice that was imbricated in the upper caste and in the patriarchal agenda of middle-class social reform, and it developed certain social practices, including imagining the act of cooking as a classic feminine practice and the domestic kitchen as a sacred space. It was often this hybrid culture that marked the colonial middle classes.

All true histories contain instruction; though, in some, the treasure may be hard to find, and when found, so trivial in quantity that the dry, shrivelled kernel scarcely compensates for the trouble of cracking the nut. Whether this be the case with my history...

The Introduction starts with a brief review of the main social-economic characteristics of the ways that opportunity and income are shared and the welfare of the population is protected. It identifies the growing interest among policymakers in Europe and elsewhere in the economic effects of inequality. This explains the structure of this book and the questions the different chapters address. This is followed by a short summary of European integration. It discussed the concept and the elements of the European Social Model. This is followed by a summary of the analysis provided in the volume’s other chapters. The final section highlights the key issues confronting European policymakers seeking to safeguard income, wealth, and well-being. It concludes that European Union integration has broadly benefitted the social welfare of many people in Europe but that this is not unambiguously the case. The benefits from integration were expected to be shared widely, almost automatically, but in reality they have not reached all population groups, regions, and sometimes countries, and integration can have adverse effects.

The consumption of nuts as part of a healthy diet and active lifestyle has long been associated with chronic disease prevention. Nuts and their coproducts such as oil, cake, plant-based milk substitutes, flour, and shell are rich in lipids, proteins, phenolics, and other bioactive compounds. Nut flour also presents interesting physical properties, such as water or oil holding capacity, foam properties, emulsifying activity, and emulsion stability. These biological and physical properties make these products commercially attractive as organic ingredients in several foods such as spreads, bakery products, and cereal bars. In this chapter, the nutritional and bioactive profiles, as well as the evidenced health-promoting effects of nuts originating from Brazil, will be discussed. The focus will be on commercial nuts such as cashews, pecan, and Brazil nuts, along with some underexplored and relatively unknown indigenous species, such as sapucaia, chichá, monguba, and pracaxi. The knowledge of these Brazilian native nuts and their coproducts is important for stimulating their consumption among the population and their large-scale commercialization.

My first main theme is consumption, which is the focus of this chapter and the next. However, since consumer culture also has a clear imprint on the other themes covered in this book—education, working life, and organizations— consumption orientations and logics make themselves felt throughout. Consumption development is strongly characterized by zero-sum games and the cultivation of grandiose notions and illusion tricks. And maybe such features are typically most marked in the consumption area (in its more restricted, traditional sense). Consumption is about the satisfaction of needs, desires, and wishes, but of course also about the generation of those orientations. All this involves complicated construction processes. Given the enormous increase in consumption, at least in economically advanced countries, one would expect people to have become more and more satisfied. And perhaps feel saturation. But this is simply not the case. An interesting question is whether economic growth and increased consumption are satisfaction-creating projects? If they are not, and many indicators suggest they are only marginally so, the meaning of increased consumption in the world’s most affluent societies and groups deserves exploration. I start with a discussion of consumer culture, the increasing scope of consumption, and the apparently insatiable demand for additional goods and services, even in the richest countries. Subsequently, I examine some common views about consumption and consumers. The consumer may be regarded as everything from a heroic political figure to an undiscerning fool, from an active creator of meaning to a passive victim of market ideologies, fashion trends, and consumer manipulation. Next, I demonstrate that a massive increase in consumption is paralleled by a continual growth in demand, without any corresponding increase in satisfaction. The question then arises as to whether consumerism can be viewed as a major failure or at least a somewhat unsuccessful political and individual project. This chapter also addresses the significance and effectiveness of efforts to control consumers and consumption. The analysis of consumption continues in Chapter 3, addressing how consumption involves so many aspects and logics other than meeting needs, demands, and wishes, and can only, to a limited degree, be viewed as an ultimately satisfaction-raising enterprise.

Laser assisted manufacturing (LAM) processes, when compared with traditional manufacturing processes, have the potential to reduce cost, increase surface finish, extend part/tool life, and expand the range of manufacturable materials. However, very limited research has been done to evaluate the environmental performance of laser assisted processes and it is generally not clear how LAM processes compare with traditional methods. This paper conducts case studies on two representative laser based processes, i.e. laser shock peening of 7065 T7351 Aluminum and laser assisted turning of compacted graphite iron. Life cycle assessment is used to benchmark the environmental performance of these two processes to conventional processes, i.e. shot peening and dry turning, respectively. The life cycle inventory of both the laser based processes and conventional processes are developed using SimaPro v7.1 and Ecoinvent 2.0 and life cycle impact assessment is performed using US EPA TRACI. It is found that environmental performance of laser based processes varies significantly from process to process due to materials and energy consumption. Laser shock peening of aluminum has much better performance when over all environmental impact categories considered. Contribution analysis indicates that this is mainly due to the fact that laser shock peening does not need shot medium and at the same time significantly extends fatigue life of the workpiece. However, due to high electricity consumption and use of absorptive paint, laser assisted turning of compacted graphite iron has much higher environmental impacts than traditional dry turning, even after extending the tool life significantly.

The article is concentrated on the energy storage problems arising from microgeneration in private households. The case study involves a small-scale wind and solar electricity production set in a net zero-energy building. Both the net zero-energy building and the microgeneration units are connected to an utility grid. The current article serves to confirm the hypothesis, that the self consumption is at its maximum with the annual 70/30 wind and solar energy mix of in favour of the wind. The maximal self consumption at no additional energy storage in a net zero-energy building is studied as well. Produced and consumed energies are equal, which satisfies the requirements for a net zero-energy building with the utility grid acting as an energy buffer. The consumed energy is used to operate a heat pump, heat up ventilation supply air, run ventilation fans, supplying non-shiftable loads (white goods, TV, lighting etc), heat up domestic hot water via heat pump. To express self consumption, we use the term of supply cover factor, which describes optimally the directly consumed energy in relationship to net consumption or production. In annual scale, the cover factors for a net zero-energy building are equal as the production and consumption are equal as well. Also, seasonal variations in self consumption are studied. According to study results, the annual maximal supply cover factor in a net zero-energy building is 0.375 with 70/30 wind/solar mix. Seasonally, the self consumption is at its maximum in summer when the supply cover factor equals to 0.49.

In this paper, a thorough flow simulation of a small turbojet engine has been carried out to predict the engine performance as a result of water injected at the compressor inlet. Wet compression will not only change compressor performance characteristic map, but also has effects on both the combustor and the turbine sections. The match between the turbojet engine components, that is the compressor, combustor and turbine, will shift to a new operating point. In this paper, we present a steady-state numerical simulation of the entire gas turbine with wet compression in order to evaluate the effects on the gas turbine performance. Compared with the dry case, the results of wet cases show increased values of compressor compression ratios, turbine expansion ratios, intake mass flowrates and engine thrusts including decreased amount of specific fuel consumption. The wet compression reduces NOx production in the combustor, which is also simulated and results presented. The study also indicates that the water mass flowrate and droplet diameter are key factors impacting the engine performance.

Recent deep water field developments have made increasing use of dry tree completions from floating production units, principally spars and TLPs. There are a number of development efforts underway to include dry tree semi-submersibles in deep water. The use of dry tree semis requires some form of heave suppression as well as a means for limiting pitch motions. Two concepts using this principle include the DPS 2001 and the TPG 3300. Both of these concepts consist of a deck supported on columns and, in the case of the DPS-2001, pontoons. In each case there is a submerged heave plate to trap mass and to dampen the heave motions. Risers must pass through this heave plate. This paper will present the results of study of options supporting top tensioned risers from these platforms, with a focus on the DPS-2001. Air Cans and tensioners have both been investigated. Air cans have been used on all spar platforms to date, but in this case the cans are shielded by the spar hull and are not exposed to wave kinematics or current loads. Tensioners have been used on all the TLPs, but their stroke is less than would be required for a semi-submersible, even one that is heave compensated. The tensioners used in this study had a relatively high stiffness in order to reduce stroke. This results in a coupling of the motions of the hull with the risers and results in some increase in the peak tensions. It also results in a lower heave period and higher heave motions. The paper will discuss the technical and economic tradeoffs for these options.

Abstract The method of direct separation of motions and the general approach, called by the author “vibrational mechanics”, is developed so as to fit the problems of the effect of vibration on systems with dry friction and shock. The main idea of this approach lies in the transfer from the initial system of differential equations to the system, describing only the slow components of motion, most interesting for applications. It is these equations that are called the equations of vibrational mechanics. The advantages of this approach are especially significant in the case of systems with dry friction (Coulomb friction) and with unilateral constraints whose presence in case of vibration leads to multiple collisions of the system bodies. Instead of the not smooth system or with the discontinuous right sides there is a “smooth” system often of a lower order; an essentially non-potential system may be answered by a potential system. Methods and approaches presented in the report are illustrated by the solution of two applied problems — a simplest problem of the transportation of a body along a rough vibrating surface and a problem on the motion of a body in space between the vibrating surfaces under periodic impacts. A short reference of investigations is given where the proposed approach is used or can be used quite effectively. In conclusion the main regularity is formulated which characterizes the action of vibration on systems with dry friction and impacts.

Consumption is defined as the use of goods and services produced in order to meet the needs and demands. However, the goods and services consumed are not only indicator of purchase power but also social status. At this point, the aim of conspicuous consumption comes to the fore. Conspicuous consumption for social status was first discussed by Thorstein Veblen in his book, The Theory of The Leisure Class, in 1899. According to Veblen, this kind of consumption is carried out in order to raise the social status by the upper social class and other classes trying to be similar to them rather than to the need. The views of Veblen are important when considered today's consumer society and constitute an important point of reference for gaining an insight into the world of over-consumption, especially for the younger generations. For this reason, in our study, we aim to conduct a questionnaire for Kırklareli University students in order to understand how the concept of conspicuous consumption has acquired dimension for university students. As a result of the study, it will be tried to determine whether the students have conspicuous consumption; which factors are affected if the students turn to conspicuous consumption and whether the students have loaded symbolic meanings to the commodities they purchased.

Active use of dry gas seals for gas turbine engines is constrained by several important factors. One of them is a significant deformation of the sealing rings. This paper is dedicated to the creation of a technique of designing of a dry gas seal with spiral grooves with a consideration of arbitrary gap shape. A large number of studies for this type of seal have been conducted. But the technique of the seal designing which combines sealing leakage calculation with the calculation of the actual rings deformation has not been implemented. This article proposes a solution for this significant problem. Indeed, the increase in temperature and pressure drop results in a deformation of the rings surfaces. For the small gap, the impact of force and thermal deformation is critical. The seal designing without consideration of the surfaces deformation can lead to significant errors, but also to the failure of the seal in operation in the worst case. An improved mathematical model for calculating the leakage is proposed. On its basis, the designing technique has been developed. This technique combines the analytical calculation and calculation of deformation by finite element method. Implementation of this technique has a good practical result. The seal was created for a gas pumping unit. Experimental results have confirmed the computational results.

A stage-by-stage wet-compression theory and algorithm have been developed for overspray and interstage fogging in the compressor. This theory and algorithm are used to calculate the performance of an 8-stage compressor under both dry and wet compressions. A 2D compressor airfoil geometry and stage setting at the mean radius are employed. Six different cases with and without overspray have been investigated and compared. The stage pressure ratio enhances during all fogging cases as does the overall pressure ratio, with saturated fogging (no overspray) achieving the highest pressure ratio. Saturated fogging reduces specific compressor work, but increases the total compressor power due to increased mass flow rate. The results of overspray and interstage spray unexpectedly show that both the specific and overall compressor power do not reduce but actually increase. Analysis shows this increased power is contributed by increased pressure ratio and, for interstage overspray, “recompression” contributes to more power consumption. Also it is unexpected to see that air density actually decreases, instead of increases, inside the compressor with overspray. Analysis shows that overspray induces an excessive reduction of temperature that leads to an appreciable reduction of pressure, so the increment of density due to reduced temperature is less than decrement of air density affected by reduced pressure as air follows the polytropic relationship. In contrast, saturated fogging results in increased density as expected. After the interstage spray, the local blade loading immediately showed a significantly increase. Fogging increases axial velocity, flow coefficient, blade inlet velocity, incidence angle, and tangential component of velocity. The analysis also assesses the use of an average shape factor in the generalized compressor stage performance curve when the compressor stage information and performance map are not available. The result indicates that using a constant shape factor might not be adequate because the compressor performance map may have changed with wet compression. The results of non-stage-stacking simulation are shown to underpredict the compressor power by about 6% and net GT output by about 2% in the studied cases.

We trace the effects of a devastating earthquake that occurred in Northern Pakistan in 2005. Using a new dataset from a survey conducted four years after the earthquake, we first show that the distance of the household from the fault line was not correlated with pre-existing household characteristics, while it was strongly predictive of earthquake-related damage and mortality. Through emergency relief aid, households living close to the fault line reported receiving substantial cash compensation that amounted to as much as 150% of their annual household consumption expenditure. Four years after the earthquake, there were no differences in public infrastructure, household or adult outcomes between areas close to and far from the fault line. However, children in their critical first thousand days at the time of the earthquake accumulated large height deficits, with the youngest the most affected. Children aged 3 through 15 at the time of the earthquake did not suffer growth shortfalls, but scored significantly worse on academic tests if they lived close to the fault line. Finally, children whose mothers completed primary education were fully protected against the emergence of a test score gap. We estimate that if these deficits continue to adult life, the affected children could stand to lose 15% of their lifetime earnings. Even when disasters are heavily compensated, human capital accumulation can be critically interrupted, with greater losses for already disadvantaged populations.

This human campylobacteriosis sentinel surveillance project was based at two sites in Oxfordshire and North East England chosen (i) to be representative of the English population on the Office for National Statistics urban-rural classification and (ii) to provide continuity with genetic surveillance started in Oxfordshire in October 2003. Between October 2015 and September 2018 epidemiological questionnaires and genome sequencing of isolates from human cases was accompanied by sampling and genome sequencing of isolates from possible food animal sources. The principal aim was to estimate the contributions of the main sources of human infection and to identify any changes over time. An extension to the project focussed on antimicrobial resistance in study isolates and older archived isolates. These older isolates were from earlier years at the Oxfordshire site and the earliest available coherent set of isolates from the national archive at Public Health England (1997/8). The aim of this additional work was to analyse the emergence of the antimicrobial resistance that is now present among human isolates and to describe and compare antimicrobial resistance in recent food animal isolates. Having identified the presence of bias in population genetic attribution, and that this was not addressed in the published literature, this study developed an approach to adjust for bias in population genetic attribution, and an alternative approach to attribution using sentinel types. Using these approaches the study estimated that approximately 70% of Campylobacter jejuni and just under 50% of C. coli infection in our sample was linked to the chicken source and that this was relatively stable over time. Ruminants were identified as the second most common source for C. jejuni and the most common for C. coli where there was also some evidence for pig as a source although less common than ruminant or chicken. These genomic attributions of themselves make no inference on routes of transmission. However, those infected with isolates genetically typical of chicken origin were substantially more likely to have eaten chicken than those infected with ruminant types. Consumption of lamb’s liver was very strongly associated with infection by a strain genetically typical of a ruminant source. These findings support consumption of these foods as being important in the transmission of these infections and highlight a potentially important role for lamb’s liver consumption as a source of Campylobacter infection. Antimicrobial resistance was predicted from genomic data using a pipeline validated by Public Health England and using BIGSdb software. In C. jejuni this showed a nine-fold increase in resistance to fluoroquinolones from 1997 to 2018. Tetracycline resistance was also common, with higher initial resistance (1997) and less substantial change over time. Resistance to aminoglycosides or macrolides remained low in human cases across all time periods. Among C. jejuni food animal isolates, fluoroquinolone resistance was common among isolates from chicken and substantially less common among ruminants, ducks or pigs. Tetracycline resistance was common across chicken, duck and pig but lower among ruminant origin isolates. In C. coli resistance to all four antimicrobial classes rose from low levels in 1997. The fluoroquinolone rise appears to have levelled off earlier and among animals, levels are high in duck as well as chicken isolates, although based on small sample sizes, macrolide and aminoglycoside resistance, was substantially higher than for C. jejuni among humans and highest among pig origin isolates. Tetracycline resistance is high in isolates from pigs and the very small sample from ducks. Antibiotic use following diagnosis was relatively high (43.4%) among respondents in the human surveillance study. Moreover, it varied substantially across sites and was highest among non-elderly adults compared to older adults or children suggesting opportunities for improved antimicrobial stewardship. The study also found evidence for stable lineages over time across human and source animal species as well as some tighter genomic clusters that may represent outbreaks. The genomic dataset will allow extensive further work beyond the specific goals of the study. This has been made accessible on the web, with access supported by data visualisation tools.

1.1 Macroeconomic summary Economic recovery has consistently outperformed the technical staff’s expectations following a steep decline in activity in the second quarter of 2020. At the same time, total and core inflation rates have fallen and remain at low levels, suggesting that a significant element of the reactivation of Colombia’s economy has been related to recovery in potential GDP. This would support the technical staff’s diagnosis of weak aggregate demand and ample excess capacity. The most recently available data on 2020 growth suggests a contraction in economic activity of 6.8%, lower than estimates from January’s Monetary Policy Report (-7.2%). High-frequency indicators suggest that economic performance was significantly more dynamic than expected in January, despite mobility restrictions and quarantine measures. This has also come amid declines in total and core inflation, the latter of which was below January projections if controlling for certain relative price changes. This suggests that the unexpected strength of recent growth contains elements of demand, and that excess capacity, while significant, could be lower than previously estimated. Nevertheless, uncertainty over the measurement of excess capacity continues to be unusually high and marked both by variations in the way different economic sectors and spending components have been affected by the pandemic, and by uneven price behavior. The size of excess capacity, and in particular the evolution of the pandemic in forthcoming quarters, constitute substantial risks to the macroeconomic forecast presented in this report. Despite the unexpected strength of the recovery, the technical staff continues to project ample excess capacity that is expected to remain on the forecast horizon, alongside core inflation that will likely remain below the target. Domestic demand remains below 2019 levels amid unusually significant uncertainty over the size of excess capacity in the economy. High national unemployment (14.6% for February 2021) reflects a loose labor market, while observed total and core inflation continue to be below 2%. Inflationary pressures from the exchange rate are expected to continue to be low, with relatively little pass-through on inflation. This would be compatible with a negative output gap. Excess productive capacity and the expectation of core inflation below the 3% target on the forecast horizon provide a basis for an expansive monetary policy posture. The technical staff’s assessment of certain shocks and their expected effects on the economy, as well as the presence of several sources of uncertainty and related assumptions about their potential macroeconomic impacts, remain a feature of this report. The coronavirus pandemic, in particular, continues to affect the public health environment, and the reopening of Colombia’s economy remains incomplete. The technical staff’s assessment is that the COVID-19 shock has affected both aggregate demand and supply, but that the impact on demand has been deeper and more persistent. Given this persistence, the central forecast accounts for a gradual tightening of the output gap in the absence of new waves of contagion, and as vaccination campaigns progress. The central forecast continues to include an expected increase of total and core inflation rates in the second quarter of 2021, alongside the lapse of the temporary price relief measures put in place in 2020. Additional COVID-19 outbreaks (of uncertain duration and intensity) represent a significant risk factor that could affect these projections. Additionally, the forecast continues to include an upward trend in sovereign risk premiums, reflected by higher levels of public debt that in the wake of the pandemic are likely to persist on the forecast horizon, even in the context of a fiscal adjustment. At the same time, the projection accounts for the shortterm effects on private domestic demand from a fiscal adjustment along the lines of the one currently being proposed by the national government. This would be compatible with a gradual recovery of private domestic demand in 2022. The size and characteristics of the fiscal adjustment that is ultimately implemented, as well as the corresponding market response, represent another source of forecast uncertainty. Newly available information offers evidence of the potential for significant changes to the macroeconomic scenario, though without altering the general diagnosis described above. The most recent data on inflation, growth, fiscal policy, and international financial conditions suggests a more dynamic economy than previously expected. However, a third wave of the pandemic has delayed the re-opening of Colombia’s economy and brought with it a deceleration in economic activity. Detailed descriptions of these considerations and subsequent changes to the macroeconomic forecast are presented below. The expected annual decline in GDP (-0.3%) in the first quarter of 2021 appears to have been less pronounced than projected in January (-4.8%). Partial closures in January to address a second wave of COVID-19 appear to have had a less significant negative impact on the economy than previously estimated. This is reflected in figures related to mobility, energy demand, industry and retail sales, foreign trade, commercial transactions from selected banks, and the national statistics agency’s (DANE) economic tracking indicator (ISE). Output is now expected to have declined annually in the first quarter by 0.3%. Private consumption likely continued to recover, registering levels somewhat above those from the previous year, while public consumption likely increased significantly. While a recovery in investment in both housing and in other buildings and structures is expected, overall investment levels in this case likely continued to be low, and gross fixed capital formation is expected to continue to show significant annual declines. Imports likely recovered to again outpace exports, though both are expected to register significant annual declines. Economic activity that outpaced projections, an increase in oil prices and other export products, and an expected increase in public spending this year account for the upward revision to the 2021 growth forecast (from 4.6% with a range between 2% and 6% in January, to 6.0% with a range between 3% and 7% in April). As a result, the output gap is expected to be smaller and to tighten more rapidly than projected in the previous report, though it is still expected to remain in negative territory on the forecast horizon. Wide forecast intervals reflect the fact that the future evolution of the COVID-19 pandemic remains a significant source of uncertainty on these projections. The delay in the recovery of economic activity as a result of the resurgence of COVID-19 in the first quarter appears to have been less significant than projected in the January report. The central forecast scenario expects this improved performance to continue in 2021 alongside increased consumer and business confidence. Low real interest rates and an active credit supply would also support this dynamic, and the overall conditions would be expected to spur a recovery in consumption and investment. Increased growth in public spending and public works based on the national government’s spending plan (Plan Financiero del Gobierno) are other factors to consider. Additionally, an expected recovery in global demand and higher projected prices for oil and coffee would further contribute to improved external revenues and would favor investment, in particular in the oil sector. Given the above, the technical staff’s 2021 growth forecast has been revised upward from 4.6% in January (range from 2% to 6%) to 6.0% in April (range from 3% to 7%). These projections account for the potential for the third wave of COVID-19 to have a larger and more persistent effect on the economy than the previous wave, while also supposing that there will not be any additional significant waves of the pandemic and that mobility restrictions will be relaxed as a result. Economic growth in 2022 is expected to be 3%, with a range between 1% and 5%. This figure would be lower than projected in the January report (3.6% with a range between 2% and 6%), due to a higher base of comparison given the upward revision to expected GDP in 2021. This forecast also takes into account the likely effects on private demand of a fiscal adjustment of the size currently being proposed by the national government, and which would come into effect in 2022. Excess in productive capacity is now expected to be lower than estimated in January but continues to be significant and affected by high levels of uncertainty, as reflected in the wide forecast intervals. The possibility of new waves of the virus (of uncertain intensity and duration) represents a significant downward risk to projected GDP growth, and is signaled by the lower limits of the ranges provided in this report. Inflation (1.51%) and inflation excluding food and regulated items (0.94%) declined in March compared to December, continuing below the 3% target. The decline in inflation in this period was below projections, explained in large part by unanticipated increases in the costs of certain foods (3.92%) and regulated items (1.52%). An increase in international food and shipping prices, increased foreign demand for beef, and specific upward pressures on perishable food supplies appear to explain a lower-than-expected deceleration in the consumer price index (CPI) for foods. An unexpected increase in regulated items prices came amid unanticipated increases in international fuel prices, on some utilities rates, and for regulated education prices. The decline in annual inflation excluding food and regulated items between December and March was in line with projections from January, though this included downward pressure from a significant reduction in telecommunications rates due to the imminent entry of a new operator. When controlling for the effects of this relative price change, inflation excluding food and regulated items exceeds levels forecast in the previous report. Within this indicator of core inflation, the CPI for goods (1.05%) accelerated due to a reversion of the effects of the VAT-free day in November, which was largely accounted for in February, and possibly by the transmission of a recent depreciation of the peso on domestic prices for certain items (electric and household appliances). For their part, services prices decelerated and showed the lowest rate of annual growth (0.89%) among the large consumer baskets in the CPI. Within the services basket, the annual change in rental prices continued to decline, while those services that continue to experience the most significant restrictions on returning to normal operations (tourism, cinemas, nightlife, etc.) continued to register significant price declines. As previously mentioned, telephone rates also fell significantly due to increased competition in the market. Total inflation is expected to continue to be affected by ample excesses in productive capacity for the remainder of 2021 and 2022, though less so than projected in January. As a result, convergence to the inflation target is now expected to be somewhat faster than estimated in the previous report, assuming the absence of significant additional outbreaks of COVID-19. The technical staff’s year-end inflation projections for 2021 and 2022 have increased, suggesting figures around 3% due largely to variation in food and regulated items prices. The projection for inflation excluding food and regulated items also increased, but remains below 3%. Price relief measures on indirect taxes implemented in 2020 are expected to lapse in the second quarter of 2021, generating a one-off effect on prices and temporarily affecting inflation excluding food and regulated items. However, indexation to low levels of past inflation, weak demand, and ample excess productive capacity are expected to keep core inflation below the target, near 2.3% at the end of 2021 (previously 2.1%). The reversion in 2021 of the effects of some price relief measures on utility rates from 2020 should lead to an increase in the CPI for regulated items in the second half of this year. Annual price changes are now expected to be higher than estimated in the January report due to an increased expected path for fuel prices and unanticipated increases in regulated education prices. The projection for the CPI for foods has increased compared to the previous report, taking into account certain factors that were not anticipated in January (a less favorable agricultural cycle, increased pressure from international prices, and transport costs). Given the above, year-end annual inflation for 2021 and 2022 is now expected to be 3% and 2.8%, respectively, which would be above projections from January (2.3% and 2,7%). For its part, expected inflation based on analyst surveys suggests year-end inflation in 2021 and 2022 of 2.8% and 3.1%, respectively. There remains significant uncertainty surrounding the inflation forecasts included in this report due to several factors: 1) the evolution of the pandemic; 2) the difficulty in evaluating the size and persistence of excess productive capacity; 3) the timing and manner in which price relief measures will lapse; and 4) the future behavior of food prices. Projected 2021 growth in foreign demand (4.4% to 5.2%) and the supposed average oil price (USD 53 to USD 61 per Brent benchmark barrel) were both revised upward. An increase in long-term international interest rates has been reflected in a depreciation of the peso and could result in relatively tighter external financial conditions for emerging market economies, including Colombia. Average growth among Colombia’s trade partners was greater than expected in the fourth quarter of 2020. This, together with a sizable fiscal stimulus approved in the United States and the onset of a massive global vaccination campaign, largely explains the projected increase in foreign demand growth in 2021. The resilience of the goods market in the face of global crisis and an expected normalization in international trade are additional factors. These considerations and the expected continuation of a gradual reduction of mobility restrictions abroad suggest that Colombia’s trade partners could grow on average by 5.2% in 2021 and around 3.4% in 2022. The improved prospects for global economic growth have led to an increase in current and expected oil prices. Production interruptions due to a heavy winter, reduced inventories, and increased supply restrictions instituted by producing countries have also contributed to the increase. Meanwhile, market forecasts and recent Federal Reserve pronouncements suggest that the benchmark interest rate in the U.S. will remain stable for the next two years. Nevertheless, a significant increase in public spending in the country has fostered expectations for greater growth and inflation, as well as increased uncertainty over the moment in which a normalization of monetary policy might begin. This has been reflected in an increase in long-term interest rates. In this context, emerging market economies in the region, including Colombia, have registered increases in sovereign risk premiums and long-term domestic interest rates, and a depreciation of local currencies against the dollar. Recent outbreaks of COVID-19 in several of these economies; limits on vaccine supply and the slow pace of immunization campaigns in some countries; a significant increase in public debt; and tensions between the United States and China, among other factors, all add to a high level of uncertainty surrounding interest rate spreads, external financing conditions, and the future performance of risk premiums. The impact that this environment could have on the exchange rate and on domestic financing conditions represent risks to the macroeconomic and monetary policy forecasts. Domestic financial conditions continue to favor recovery in economic activity. The transmission of reductions to the policy interest rate on credit rates has been significant. The banking portfolio continues to recover amid circumstances that have affected both the supply and demand for loans, and in which some credit risks have materialized. Preferential and ordinary commercial interest rates have fallen to a similar degree as the benchmark interest rate. As is generally the case, this transmission has come at a slower pace for consumer credit rates, and has been further delayed in the case of mortgage rates. Commercial credit levels stabilized above pre-pandemic levels in March, following an increase resulting from significant liquidity requirements for businesses in the second quarter of 2020. The consumer credit portfolio continued to recover and has now surpassed February 2020 levels, though overall growth in the portfolio remains low. At the same time, portfolio projections and default indicators have increased, and credit establishment earnings have come down. Despite this, credit disbursements continue to recover and solvency indicators remain well above regulatory minimums. 1.2 Monetary policy decision In its meetings in March and April the BDBR left the benchmark interest rate unchanged at 1.75%.

After a natural disaster, it is often the case that the water is not suitable for consumption. Please How to Disinfect Water After a Disaster check with your local authorities to find out whether your water is safe.