Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Oil processing'

Energy based on non-renewable resources such as gas, oil, coal and nuclear fission, even with their serious problems of pollution, contributes to 86% of the global energy consumption. Oil will remain the dominant transport fuel: about 87% of transport fuel in 2030 will still be petroleum-based. Discoveries of conventional sources of light easy-to-access crude oil are becoming less common and current oil production levels are struggling to match demand, it is necessary to develop new non-conventional sources of oil in order to supplement conventional oil supply, whose demand is increasing continuously. A possible clue to solve this situation could be to take advantage of the extensive reserves of heavy crude oils existing in different places around the world, which could be an excellent source of more valuable hydrocarbons. In this context, some facilities called upgraders are used to process theses heavy crude oils to both increase the hydrogen-carbon ratio and improve their quality, reducing their density and decreasing their viscosity, sulphur, nitrogen and metals. The main objective in this work is to study the heavy crude oil upgrading processes in order to identify new operation schemes which explore different opportunities of integration between the upgraders and other processes or new schemes for upgraders that can sustain on its own through the production of a wide range of products. Each design alternative has been modelled with state-of-the-art commercial software packages. The crude oil dilution process was evaluated using naphtha and a light crude oil as diluents. Sensitivity analyses were done with the purpose of selecting the type and flow rate of diluent. Once the best diluent was selected, the integration of an upgrader to a refinery was studied. Heavy ends from both the upgrader and the refinery were taken as feedstocks to an integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC). The best operation schemes for IGCC, in order to achieve the requirements of power and hydrogen for the upgrader and the refinery was determined. Different schemes for heavy crude oil processing to produce transportation fuel instead of syncrude were proposed, too. Finally, economic evaluation of all the schemes was performed to find the best solution for heavy crude oils. The best results for the dilution process of heavy crude oils were obtained when naphtha was used as diluent. The configuration proposed for the upgrader allows producing a synthetic crude oil with 35.5 °API. The integration of the upgrader to a refinery allows the treatment of the heavy streams of the refinery and transforms them into products of higher qualities. The integration of the IGCC to the upgrader and the refinery permits a complete elimination of the heavy residues produced in these units and produces hydrogen and power to be used in the site or to export. Economic evaluation shows that all the proposed processing schemes studied are economically attractive. The proposed processing schemes chosen include the integration between upgrader refinery and IGCC unit with CCS.

Easily accessible oil reserves are currently decreasing, leading to an increase in more complex offshore deep-sea drilling programs, which require increasingly greater depths to be drilled. Such wells are commonly drilled using oil based muds, which leads to the production of drilled rock fragments, drill cuttings, which are contaminated with the base oil present in the mud. It is a legal requirement to reduce oil content to below 1 wt% in order to dispose of these drill cuttings in the North Sea and microwave processing is suggested as a feasible method of achieving the desired oil removal. However, there are currently gaps in our understanding of the mechanisms behind, and variables affecting, the microwave treatment of oil contaminated drill cuttings. The work described in this thesis seeks to address some of these gaps in knowledge. There were three main objectives for this thesis: (1) quantification, for the first time in the literature, of the main mechanisms driving oil and water removal during microwave processing of oil contaminated drill cuttings, (2) determination of key variables affecting performance during pilot scale continuous processing of oil contaminated drill cuttings and, for the first time, (3) treatment of drill cuttings with microwaves continuously at 896 MHz. Bench scale experiments carried out in a single mode applicator were used to quantify the mechanisms involved in oil and water removal from drill cuttings. It was found that both vaporisation and entrainment mechanisms play a role in oil and water removal. Vaporisation was the main mechanism of water and oil removal, and typically accounted for >80-90% of the water and oil removed. For oil removal, vaporisation of the oil phase accounted for 70-100% of the overall removal. The absolute amount of water entrained and vaporised was found to increase with increasing energy input and power density. However, as a percentage of the overall amount removed, entrainment was found to increase with increasing energy input. This was mainly due to higher heating rates at higher energy inputs, leading to pressurised, high velocity steam, which increased liquid carry-over (entrainment). Both the drill cuttings sample composition and applicator type were found to have an effect on the extent of entrainment/vaporisation. Samples consisting of a higher overall liquid content, tended to have a greater amount of surface liquid content. This led to a greater potential of carry over when steam generated internally left the sample. Increasing the power again led an increase in entrainment in this case. Different applicators were found to impact the electric field strength and power density within the water phase of the sample. Oil removal in multimode applicators progressed mainly through vaporisation (steam distillation) until the water content was sufficiently low to generate steam at a velocity high enough to entrain liquid droplets. When treatment was changed to single mode operation, entrainment occurred at an earlier stage, probably due to higher electric field strengths and power densities. It was also noted that the vaporisation mechanism of oil was more efficient at higher field strengths and powers, which could again be attributed to superheating and higher velocity steam, which enabled better mixing and heat transfer. Experiments were also run to determine the main variables affecting the performance of continuous processing of cuttings. Overall continuous processing showed a substantial improvement in the energy required, 150 kWh/t vs. >250 kWh/t, to reduce the oil content of a drill cuttings sample to 1 wt%. It was found that the initial water and oil content of the sample, as well as the sample particle size distribution, had the greatest effect on the efficiency of continuous processing. The effect of initial water and oil content on residual oil content was investigated methodically for the first time for continuous microwave processing of oil contaminated drill cuttings. An increase in initial oil content was found to have a significant impact on the energy input required to treat the sample to 1 wt% oil content. As the oil content increased, the energy input required increased exponentially, mainly as a result of the change in the physical structure of the sample. An increase in the water content led to an increase in energy input without any additional benefit to oil removal. However, as the water content was increased it was noticed that the theoretical energy input required to heat the entire sample approached the actual value measured for the energy input. This occurs as a result of the increasingly greater bulk dielectric properties of the sample as a result of higher levels of water content, which in turn leads to a higher efficiency in the conversion of microwave energy to heat in the sample. The effect of particle size on oil content distribution and removal was investigated. Oil content was found to be substantially higher in particles of size <1.0 mm, with removal also being significantly higher in this particle size range. However, as the majority of the samples tested, >80%, consisted of particles >1.0 mm, this improved removal is diluted by the performance of the coarser particles. The improved removal in finer particles is likely to be due to larger surface area, reduced path length within the particles and potentially higher electric field strength. Finally, samples processed continuously using a continuous microwave setup at 896 MHz showed improvements over both continuous microwave treatment at 2.45 GHz and bench scale setups. Increasing the f10wrate of the system at 896 MHz was also found to improve oil removal efficiency, which can be explained by the higher power requirements that would be required to maintain the energy inputs observed at the lower flowrate. Increasing the power leads to improved heating rates and thus increased removal rates through entrainment and vaporisation.

Oil and gas extraction have been responsible for 25—28% of the total greenhouse gas emissions in Norway the last 10 years. The part from offshore oil and gas processing, including power production, flaring, and cold ventilation on production platforms, accounted for 20—22%. Exergy analysis is a method for systematic assessment of potential to perform work. It gives the possibility to identify where in a process inefficiencies occur: both losses to the surroundings and internal irreversibilities, and can be used as a tool for pinpointing improvement potential and for evaluation of industrial processes. When used in the petroleum sector, this can motivate more efficient oil and gas extraction, leading to a better utilisation of the resources and less greenhouse gas emissions. The objectives of this thesis were to: (i) establish exergy analyses of the oil and gas processing plants on different types of North Sea platforms; (ii) identify and discuss improvement potentials for each case, compare them and draw general conclusions if possible; and (iii) define meaningful thermodynamic performance parameters for evaluation of the platforms. Four real platforms (Platforms A—D) and one generic platform of the North Sea type were simulated with the process simulators Aspen HYSYS and Aspen Plus. The real platforms were simulated using process data provided by the oil companies. The generic platform was simulated based on literature data, with six different feed compositions (Cases 1—6). These five platforms presented different process conditions; they differed for instance by their exported products, gas-to-oil ratios, reservoir characteristics and recovery strategies. Exergy analyses were carried out, and it was shown that for the cases studied in this work, the power consumption was in the range of 5.5—30 MW, or 20—660 MJ/Sm3 o.e. exported. The heat demand was very small and covered by electric heating for two of the platforms, and higher, but low enough to be covered by waste heat recovery from the power turbines and by heat integration between process streams, for the other three platforms. The main part of the power was consumed by compressors in the gas treatment section for all cases, except Platform B and Case 4 of the generic model. Platform B had lower pressures in the products than in the feeds, resulting in a low compression demand. Case 4 of the generic model had a high content of heavy hydrocarbons in the feed, resulting in large power demand in the oil export pumping section. The recompression and oil pumping sections appeared to be the other major power consumers, together with the seawater injection system, if installed. The total exergy destruction was in the range of 12—32 MW, or 43—517 MJ/Sm3 o.e. exported. Most exergy destruction was related to pressure increase or decrease. Exergy destruction in the gas treatment section made up 8—57% of the total amount, destruction in the recompression section accounted for 11—29%, while 10—28% took place in the production manifolds. Exergy losses due to flaring varied in the range of 0—13 MW. Platforms with high gas-to-oil ratios and high pressures required in the gas product presented the highest power consumption and exergy destruction. Several measures were proposed for reduction of exergy destruction and losses. Two alternatives included use of mature technologies with potential to increase efficiency significantly: (i) limit flaring by installation of gas recovery systems, and (ii) improve gas compression performance by updating/exchanging the compressors. Several thermodynamic performance indicators were discussed, with Platforms A—D as case studies. None of the indicators could at the same time evaluate (i) utilisation of technical achievable potential, (ii) utilisation of theoretical achievable potential and (iii) total use of energy resources. It was concluded that a set of indicators had to be used to evaluate the thermodynamic performance. The following indicators were suggested: BAT efficiency on exergy basis, exergy efficiency, and specific exergy destruction. The formulation of exergy efficiency for offshore processing plants is difficult because of (i) the high throughput of chemical exergy, (ii) the large variety of chemical components in the process streams and (iii) the differences in operating conditions. Approaches found in the literature for similar processes were applied to Platforms A—D. These approaches had several drawbacks when applied to offshore processing plants; they showed low sensitivity to performance improvements, gave inconsistent results, or favoured platforms operating under certain conditions. A new exergy efficiency, called the component-by-component efficiency, was proposed. This efficiency could successfully evaluate the theoretical improvement potential. Eksergianalyse av offshore olje- og gassprosessering Olje- og gassutvinning har vært kilde til 25—28% av de totale klimagassutslippene i Norge de siste 10 årene. Den delen som stammer fra offshore olje- og gassprosessering (kraftproduksjon, fakling og kaldventilering på produksjonsplattformer) stod for 20—22%. Eksergianalyse er en metode for systematisk bestemmelse av potensiale til å utføre arbeid. Det gir mulighet til å identifisere hvor i en prosess ineffektiviteter oppstår: både i form av tap til omgivelsene og i form av interne irreversibiliteter. Det kan brukes som et verktøy for å finne forbedringsmuligheter og for evaluering av industrielle prosesser. Ved bruk innen petroleumssektoren kan dette motivere for mer effektiv olje- og gassutvinning, noe som gir bedre utnyttelse av ressursene og mindre utslipp av klimagasser. Formålet med denne avhandlingen er å: (i) etablere eksergianalyser av olje- og gassprosessering på ulike typer Nordsjø-plattformer; (ii) identifisere og diskutere forbedringspotensialer for hvert tilfelle, sammenligne dem og trekke generelle konklusjoner om mulig; og (iii) definere meningsfulle termodynamiske ytelsesindikatorer for evaluering av plattformene. Fire virkelige plattformer (Plattform A—D) og en generisk Nordsjø-type plattform er simulert med prosessimulatorene Aspen HYSYS og Aspen Plus. De virkelige plattformene er simulert ved å bruke prosessdata stilt til rådighet av operatørene av plattformene. Den generiske plattformen er simulert basert på litteraturdata, med seks ulike fødesammensetninger (Case 1—6). Disse fem plattformene har ulike prosessbetingelser; de har for eksempel ulike eksporterte produkter, gass/olje-forhold, reservoaregenskaper og utvinningsstrategier. Eksergianalyser viser at for tilfellene studert i dette arbeidet er kraftforbruket i størrelsesorden 5,5—30 MW, eller 20—660 MJ/Sm3 o.e. eksportert. Varmebehovet er svært lite og blir dekket med elektrisitet for to av plattformene, og noe høyere men lavt nok til å bli dekket med varmegjenvinning fra kraftturbinene og ved varmeveksling mellom prosesstrømmer for de tre andre plattformene. Hoveddelen av kraften blir konsumert av kompressorene i gassbehandlingsseksjonen for alle tilfellene bortsett fra Plattform B og Case 4 i den generiske modellen. Plattform B har lavere trykk i produktstrømmene enn i fødestrømmene, noe som resulterer i lavt behov for kompresjon. Case 4 i den generiske modellen har et høyt innhold av tunge hydrokarboner i føden, noe som resulterer i høyt kraftbehov i seksjonen for eksportpumping. Seksjonene for rekompresjon og eksportpumping viser seg å være de andre viktigste kraftforbrukerene, sammen med systemet for sjøvannsinjeksjon hvis dette er installert. Den totale ekserginedbrytingen er 12—32 MW, eller 43—517 MJ/Sm3 o.e. eksportert. Mest ekserginedbryting er relatert til trykkøking eller trykkreduksjon. Ekserginedbryting i gassbehandlingsdelen utgjør 8—57% av den totale mengden, nedbryting i rekompresjonsseksjonen utgjør 11-29%, mens nedbryting i produksjonsmanifoldene utgjør 10—28%. Eksergitap på grunn av fakling varierer mellom 0—13 MW. Plattformene med høye gass/olje-forhold og behov for høyt trykk i gassproduktene har høyest kraftforbruk og ekserginedbryting. Ulike tiltak for reduksjon av ekserginedbryting og eksergitap er foreslått. To alternativer inkluderer bruk av modne teknologier og har potensiale til å øke effektiviteten betydelig: (i) begrensning av fakling av gass ved installasjon av gassgjenvinningssystemer, og (ii) forbedring av gasskompresjonen ved å oppdatere/bytte ut kompressorer. Flere termodynamiske ytelsesindikatorer er diskutert med utgangspunkt i Plattform A—D. Ingen av indikatorene kan på samme tid evaluere (i) utnyttelse av teknisk oppnåelig potensiale, (ii) utnyttelse av teoretisk potensiale og (iii) total bruk av energiressurser. Det konkluderes med at et sett med indikatorer må brukes for å evaluere termodynamisk ytelse. De følgende indikatorene foreslås: BAT (best tilgjengelig teknologi) effektivitet på eksergibasis, eksergieffektivitet og spesifikk ekserginedbryting. Formuleringen av eksergieffektivitet for offshore olje- og gassprosessering er utfordrende på grunn av (i) den høye gjennomgangen av kjemisk eksergi, (ii) den store variasjonen av kjemiske komponenter i prosesstrømmene og (iii) de store forskjellene i driftsbetingelser. En ny type eksergieffektivitet foreslås. Denne effektiviteten kan evaluere utnyttelsen av det teoretiske potensialet på tross av punktene nevnt ovenfor.

Rice bran, a by-product from rice milling, is an excellent source of natural antioxidants. Lipids in rice bran appear as small spherical droplets called oil bodies. This work attempted to recover the oil bodies from rice bran (fresh, stored and heat-treated) and to determine their chemical, biochemical and physical properties ex vivo. As revealed by transmission electron microscopy, oil bodies were observed mainly in the sub-aleurone and aleurone layer of brown rice. Oil bodies were successfully recovered from rice bran and were enriched in tocochromanols and oryzanol (656 - 1,006 mg/kg lipid and 8,880 - 9,692 mg/kg lipid respectively). Further washing to remove extraneous protein and non-associated compounds, effective lipid concentration increased while protein concentration decreased. The washed oil body preparation contained approximately 35 - 68 % tocochromanols and 60 - 62 % oryzanol of the parent rice bran oil. Therefore, the majority of tocochromanols and oryzanol molecules appeared to be intrinsically associated with rice bran oil bodies ex vivo. Fatty acid composition of rice bran oil bodies was similar to that of parent rice bran. SDS-PAGE of proteins present in differentially washed oil body preparations revealed similar protein profiles; however, there was a relative enrichment of the bands at 16 - 18 kDa (typical molecular weight of oleosins). Rice bran oil bodies possessed negatively charged surface (-30 mV) at neutral pH. As the pH of the oil body suspension was lowered to the pH near pI (about pH 4 - 5), zeta potential of the oil bodies approached zero and the suspension had the least physical stability; aggregation and the least relative turbidity. The biochemical instability of rice occurs immediately after milling, which leads to the limited use of rice bran for human consumption. Free fatty acids and lipid hydroperoxides in rice bran and corresponding oil bodies increased significantly (P<0.05) during storage. Oil bodies recovered from stored rice bran aggregated and coalesced. 41% of tocochromanols in the oil bodies had decomposed while the concentration of oryzanol was relatively stable during the storage. Rice bran heat treatments (pan roasting and extrusion) caused the coalescence of oil bodies in vivo and the instability of an oil body suspension ex vivo. The main findings of this study were that rice bran oil bodies were enriched in phytochemicals including tocochromanols and oryzanol and were resistant to oxidation providing that the oil bodies were still intact. The oil bodies could delay the onset of lipid oxidation of stored lipids inside the oil bodies. This may be explained by the physical barrier of surface membrane protein (oleosin) against pro-oxidants and the intrinsic association between the oil bodies and phytochemicals in rice bran.

Throughout the hydrocarbon supply chain, process optimisation is driven by the desire to maximise profit margins. In the global refining marketplace, the biggest cost is crude oil and to improve margins increasing use of non-conventional crude oils (also called opportunity crudes) lowers the cost of the crude blend. Opportunity crudes are selected based on market forces, for example in North America, the production booms in shale oil and tar sands have provided ample amounts of new low-cost oils which refineries are buying and processing. However, as these oils are new to the marketplace many refineries have never processed them before which brings about challenges. These are mainly a lack of understanding of the quality of the crude oil being processed (shale oils for example can come from many thousands of wells) and how these oils interact with the more conventional refinery feedstocks (such as Brent or West Texas Intermediate). The Eng.D project was carried out in collaboration with Intertek Group plc, a multinational corporate organisation consisting of more than 42,000 employees in over 1,000 locations in over 100 countries across the globe, and was aimed at developing solutions to address crude oil processing problems. The issues covered over the course of the project fall into the areas of: enhancing understanding of crude oil quality, addressing issues of hydrocarbon blend stability because of blending and better utilisation of process data to promote efficiency and facilitate process troubleshooting. As such, the Eng.D project was firstly concerned with developing a robust chemometric model, based on Near Infrared spectra, for use in a major Asian refinery. Once built and tuned this model was ultimately used to predict physical properties (such as density, sulphur content and distillation properties) of every crude oil delivery and also online in the refinery for frequent prediction of crude oil blend properties. The second project was then aimed at solving refinery issues of the deposition of undesirable material (such as wax and asphaltenes) in pipes and process units. The research carried out during the course of the Eng.D project resulted in a patented approach to characterise these issues and provide refineries strategies to mitigate the problems. This approach is not just limited to crude oils but can be applied to any blended hydrocarbon streams and detects the precipitation of undesirable material using Near Infrared spectroscopy and microscopy. This ii approach has now been applied to solving problems of blending crude oils in refineries and offshore, heavy fuel oils, shale oils and marine fuels. Finally, the application of smart data analytics in an upstream installation was investigated. The objective of this application was to provide a customer with process troubleshooting for a historical recurring pump failure issue. To achieve this, the root cause of the issue first needed to be identified and then a solution developed.

A amÃndoa de castanha de caju (ACC) à um dos principais produtos do agronegÃcio cearense, mas tambÃm à fonte de renda para pequenos produtores rurais, principalmente nos perÃodos de estiagem. A amÃndoa de castanha de caju de maior valor para comercializaÃÃo à que aquela se classifica como inteira de primeira qualidade. As amÃndoas de castanha de caju de qualidade inferior, por cor ou quebradas durante o processamento, chegam a perder 80% do seu valor comercial. Desta forma, este trabalho teve como objetivo o desenvolvimento de um Ãleo a partir da amÃndoa de castanha de caju de classes inferiores, avaliando os mÃtodos de extraÃÃo a frio (extra virgem - OEV) e com aquecimento prÃvio em micro-ondas (virgem - OV), sua composiÃÃo e caracterÃsticas quÃmicas e fÃsicas, sua estabilidade, caracterÃsticas sensoriais e bioatividade. Na seleÃÃo das amÃndoas para extraÃÃo, considerou-se as caracterÃsticas fÃsico-quÃmicas e de qualidade oxidativa, utilizaram-se seis classes inferiores: B1, S1, W4, SP1, SP2, P1 e uma classe de amÃndoa inteira de primeira qualidade (W240) como referÃncia. Considerando os parÃmetros avaliados, optou-se pelo uso das amÃndoas SP2, de menor preÃo de mercado, visto que todas as classes avaliadas apresentaram boa qualidade fÃsico-quÃmica e oxidativa, com potencial para extraÃÃo do Ãleo (lipÃdios totais superiores a 50%). Na avaliaÃÃo dos processos de extraÃÃo, observou-se maior rendimento da amostra com aquecimento prÃvio em micro-ondas. A amostra OV tambÃm apresentou maior estabilidade oxidativa com tempo de induÃÃo mÃdio de 46,25 horas, contra 39,03 horas da amostra OEV. Possivelmente a maior estabilidade se deu pela maior presenÃa de fenÃlicos totais na amostra OV (316,4 mg/100g) do que na amostra OEV (202,17 mg/100g). Ambos os Ãleos apresentaram aÃÃo antioxidante, possivelmente pela presenÃa de compostos como tocoferÃis, Ãcidos graxos mono e poli-insaturados, fitosterÃis e fenÃlicos identificados nas amostras. Na avaliaÃÃo antimicrobiana, o Ãleo OV possivelmente pelo maior teor de fenÃlicos, apresentou aÃÃo mais efetiva contra microrganismos patogÃnicos, em especial Listeria mocytogenes. Os Ãleos de amÃndoa de castanha de caju OV e OEV apresentaram aÃÃo antiproliferativa contra cÃlulas de cÃncer de mama (MCF7), pulmÃo (A549) e fÃgado (HepG2) somente em altas concentraÃÃes, superiores a 200 Âg/mL. Nos testes sensoriais com consumidores (grupos focais) e na AnÃlise Descritiva Quantitativa Otimizada percebeu-se interesse em consumir o produto caso estivesse disponÃvel no mercado, tanto por seus atributos sensoriais como pelo apelo regional do produto. Os principais atributos das amostras foram brilho, cor amarela, odor e sabor de castanha. Dentro dos aspectos avaliados, o aquecimento prÃvio com micro-ondas pode oferecer um maior rendimento de extraÃÃo, sem perdas significativas dos compostos bioativos ou diminuiÃÃo da aceitaÃÃo sensorial.
The cashew nut (CN) is a major agribusiness product of CearÃ, but it is also an income source for small farmers, especially in drought periods. The cashew nut with greater value to market is standardized as whole-grade. The cashew nut inferior grades by color or broken during processing, lose 80% of their market value. This study aimed to develop an oil from the inferior grades cashew nut, evaluating the cold extraction methods (extra virgin - EVCNO) and preheating in microwave (virgin - VCNO), its composition and chemical and physical characteristics, stability, sensory characteristics and bioactivity. In the selection of kernels for extraction, considered the physical and chemical characteristics and oxidative quality, we used lower six grades and qualities: B1, S1, W4, SP1, SP2, P1 and a whole nut-grade grade (W240) as reference. Considering the evaluated parameters, we opted for the use of SP2 kernel, due to the lower market price, since all grades and qualities evaluated showed good physical and chemical quality and oxidative, with potential for oil extraction (total lipids of over 50%). In the assessment of extraction processes, there was a higher yield of the sample with pre-heating in a microwave. The OV sample also showed greater oxidative stability with average induction time of 46.25 hours, 39.03 hours against the OEV sample, possibly given by the greater presence of phenolic compounds in sample VCNO (316.4 mg / 100g) than the sample EVCNO (202.17 mg / 100g). Both oils showed antioxidant activity, possibly due to the presence of compounds such as tocopherols, fatty acids mono and polyunsaturated, phytosterols and phenolic identified in the samples. In antimicrobial evaluation, the VCNO oil possibly due to increased phenolic content, made more effective action against pathogenic microorganisms especially Listeria mocytogenes. VCNO and EVCNO showed antiproliferative action against breast cancer cells (MCF7), lung cancer cells (A549) and liver cancer cells (HepG2) only at high concentrations greater than 200 mg/mL. In sensory tests with consumers (focus groups) and Optimized Descriptive Profile perceived interest in consuming the product if it was available in the market, both for their sensory attributes as the regional appeal of the product. The main attributes of the samples: shining, yellow color, odor and taste of nuts. Considering the evaluated aspects, preheating with microwave can offer a higher yield of extraction, without significant loss of bioactive compounds or decreased sensory acceptance.

FPSO (Floating, Production, Storage e Offloading) plants, similarly to other oil and gas offshore processing plants, are known to be an energy-intensive process. Thus, any energy consumption and production optimization procedures can be applied to find optimum operating conditions of the unit, saving money and CO2 emissions from oil and gas processing companies. A primary processing plant of a typical FPSO operating in a Brazilian deep-water oil field on pre-salt areas is modeled and simulated using its real operating data. Three operation conditions of the oil field are presented in this research: (i) Maximum oil/gas content (mode 1), (ii) 50% BSW oil content (mode 2) and (iii) high water/CO2 in oil content (mode 3). In addition, an aero-derivative gas turbine (RB211G62 DLE 60Hz) with offshore application is considered for the heat and generation unit using the real performance data. The impact of eight thermodynamic input parameters on fuel consumption and hydrocarbon liquids recovery of the FPSO unit are investigated by the Smoothing Spline ANOVA (SS-ANOVA) method. From SS-ANOVA, the input parameters that presented the highest impact on fuel consumption and hydrocarbon liquids recovery were selected for an optimization procedure. The software Aspen HYSYS is used as the process simulator for the screening analysis process and for the optimization procedure, that consisted of a Hybrid Algorithm (NSGA-II +SQP method). The objective functions used in the optimization were the minimization of fuel consumption of the processing and utility plants and the maximization of hydrocarbon liquids recovery. From SS-ANOVA, the statistical analysis revealed that the most important parameters affecting the fuel consumption of the plant are: (1) output pressure of the first control valve (P1); (2) output pressure of the second stage of the separation train before mixing with dilution water (P2); (3) input pressure of the third stage of separation train (P3); (4) input pressure of dilution water (P4); (5) output pressure of the main gas compressor (Pc); (6) output petroleum temperature in the first heat exchanger (T1); (7) output petroleum temperature in the second heat exchanger (T2); (8) and dilution water temperature (T3). Four input parameters (P1, P2, P3 and Pc), three input parameters (P3, Pc and T2) and three input parameters (P3, Pc and T2) correspond to 96%, 97% and 97% of the total contribution to fuel consumption for modes 1, 2 and 3, respectively. For hydrocarbon liquids recovery of the plant: Four input parameters (P1,P2,P3 and T2), three input parameters (P3, P2 and T2) and three input parameters (P3, P2 and T2) correspond to 95%, 97% and 98% of the total contribution to hydrocarbon liquids recovery for modes 1, 2 and 3, respectively. The results from the optimized case indicated that the minimization of fuel consumption is achieved by increasing the operating pressure in the third stage of the separation train and by decreasing the operating temperature in the second stage of the separation train for all operation modes. There were a reduction in power demand of 6.4% for mode 1, 10% for mode 2 and 2.9% for mode 3, in comparison to the baseline case. Consequently, the fuel consumption of the plant was decreased by 4.46% for mode 1, 8.34% for mode 2 and 2.43% for mode 3 , when compared to the baseline case. Moreover, the optimization found an improvement in the recovery of the volatile components, in comparison with the baseline cases. Furthermore, the optimum operating condition found by the optimization procedure of hydrocarbon liquids recovery presented an increase of 4.36% for mode 1, 3.79% for mode 2 and 1.75% for mode 3 in hydrocarbon liquids recovery (stabilization and saving), when compared to a conventional operating condition of their baseline.
As plantas FPSO (Floating, Production, Storage e Offloading) , assim como outras plataformas de processamento offshore de petróleo e gás, são conhecidas por terem processos com uso intensivo de energia. Portanto, qualquer aplicação de procedimentos de otimização para consumo de energia e/ou produção pode ser útil para encontrar as melhores condições de operação da unidade, reduzindo custos e emissões de CO2 de empresas que atuam na área de petróleo e gás. Uma planta de processamento primário de uma plataforma FPSO típica, operando em um campo de petróleo em águas profundas brasileiras e em áreas do pré-sal, é modelada e simulada usando seus dados operacionais reais: (i) Teor máximo de óleo / gás (modo 1), (ii) 50 % de teor de BSW no óleo (modo 2) e (iii) teor elevado de água / CO2 no óleo (modo 3). Além disso, uma turbina a gás aeroderivativa (RB211G62 DLE 60Hz) para aplicação offshore é considerada para a unidade de geração da potência eletrica e calor, através dos seus dados reais de desempenho. O impacto de oito parâmetros termodinâmicos de entrada no consumo de combustível e na recuperação de hidrocarbonetos líquidos da unidade FPSO são investigados pelo método SS-ANOVA (Smoothing Spline ANOVA). A partir do SS-ANOVA, os parâmetros de entrada que apresentaram o maior impacto no consumo de combustível e na recuperação de hidrocarbonetos líquidos foram selecionados para aplicação em um procedimento de otimização. Os processos de análise da triagem (usando SS-ANOVA) e de otimização, que consiste em um Algoritmo Híbrido (método NSGA-II + SQP), utilizaram o software Aspen HYSYS como simulador de processo. As funções objetivo utilizadas na otimização foram: minimização do consumo de combustível das plantas de processamento e utilidade e a maximização da recuperação de hidrocarbonetos líquidos. Ainda utilizando SS-ANOVA, a análise estatística realizada revelou que os parâmetros mais importantes que afetam o consumo de combustível da planta são: (1) pressão de saída da primeira válvula de controle (P1); (2) pressão de saída do segundo estágio do trem de separação (e antes da mistura com água de diluição) (P2); (3) pressão de entrada do terceiro estágio do trem de separação (P3); (4) pressão de entrada da água de diluição (P4); (5) pressão de saída do compressor principal de gás (Pc); temperatura de saída de petróleo no primeiro trocador de calor (T1); (7) temperatura de saída de petróleo no segundo trocador de calor (T2); e (8) temperatura da água de diluição. Os parâmetros de entrada de P1, P2, P3 e Pc correspondem a 95% da contribuição total para a recuperação de hidrocarbonetos líquidos da planta para os modos 1. Analogamente, os três parâmetros de entrada P3, Pc e T2 correspondem a 97% e 98% do contribuição total para o consumo de combustível para os modos 2 e 3, respectivamente. Para a recuperação de hidrocarbonetos líquidos da plant, os parâmetros de entrada de P1, P2, P3 e T2 correspondem a 96% da contribuição total para o consumo de combustível para o modo 1. Da mesma forma, os três parâmetros de entrada P3, P2 e T2 correspondem a 97% e 97% da contribuição total para a recuperação de hidrocarbonetos líquidos para os modos 2 e 3, respectivamente. Os resultados do caso otimizado indicaram que a minimização do consumo de combustível é obtida aumentando a pressão de operação no terceiro estágio do trem de separação e diminuindo a temperatura de operação no segundo estágio do trem de separação para todos os modos de operação. Houve uma redução na demanda de potência de 6,4% para o modo 1, 10% para o modo 2 e 2,9% para o modo 3, em comparação com o caso base. Consequentemente, o consumo de combustível da planta foi reduzido em 4,46% para o modo 1, 8,34% para o modo 2 e 2,43% para o modo 3, quando comparado com o caso base. Além disso, o procedimento de otimização identificou uma melhora na recuperação dos componentes voláteis, em comparação com os casos baseline. A condição ótima de operação encontrada pelo procedimento para otimização da recuperação de hidrocarbonetos líquidos apresentou um aumento de 4,36% para o modo 1, 3,79% para o modo 2 e 1,75% para modo 3, na recuperação líquida de hidrocarbonetos líquidos (e estabilização), quando comparado com as condições operacionais convencionais das suas baseline.

Thesis (M.S.)--West Virginia University, 2007.
Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains xii, 136 p. : ill. (some col.). Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 75-76).

The oil sands industry is a developing sector of Canada’s economy; one area of focus for oil sands companies is to improve plant maintenance and overall plant availability. Although considerable progress has been made in the improvement of plant maintenance in other industries, oil sands and mining companies in general do not significantly benefit from this due to variable feed supply that impacts plant performance. As well historically for mining maintenance has not been done well. The work presented in this thesis develops a framework for understanding oil sands processing plant key equipment failures by utilizing data collected over two years at Albian Sands Energy Inc, an operator of an oil sands mine in Alberta, Canada. The data is used to calculate mean time between maintenance for key pieces of oils sand processing equipment. As well various statistical techniques are applied to the data to identify the best maintenance strategies for the site. Finally the efficacy of advanced statistical techniques, such as Power Law modeling, for predicting time to next failure for equipment is demonstrated.

Abstract The objective of this thesis is process design to prepare a heat and mass balance and associated equipment list that will process untreated reservoir fluids to allow export of saleable gas and oil in an oil and gas processing plant. Gas will be exported to an existing pipeline, oil to a nearby shuttle tanker. By energy efficiency analysis, some energy saving opportunities has been found such as heat integration, replacing control valves with expanders and improving pumps and compressors adiabatic efficiency and then the amount of power recovered through these opportunities have been calculated. After that by considering water added to the feed stream, gas dehydration unit is needed for gas drying. In this reason, a design of TEG dehydration unit has been done and compared with the energy consumption by molecular sieve dehydration unit. Comparison shows that molecular sieve dehydration unit consumes energy about two times more than TEG dehydration unit does. Furthermore, by designing fractionation unit and introducing dividing wall column, consumption of energy decreased about 33% in comparison with conventional columns. In the final part, some energy efficiency opportunities of pumps and compressors, which are the most energy consuming equipment in the oil and gas industries have been introduced. Moreover, the means of power generation for oil and gas plants have been studied. Most plants use gas turbine for power generation and introduce means of increasing gas turbine efficiency and its performance. In the final part some methods for recovery the low-grade heat, variable speed drive which shows significant energy saving, power recovery turbines and reducing friction losses through pipes have been defined.

PONTIFÍCIA UNIVERSIDADE CATÓLICA DO RIO DE JANEIRO
O petróleo tem importância inegável nos tempos atuais. Junto com outros combustíveis fósseis, representa uma considerável parcela da matriz energética da sociedade. Porém esta é uma fonte de energia não renovável. Por isso a medida que o petróleo é produzido em regiões de fácil acesso, sua fonte vai se esgotando e criando a necessidade de se explorar em regiões cada vez mais inóspitas. Diante deste cenário o processamento submarino na produção de óleo e gás tem grande relevância ao permitir a produção de petróleo em regiões onde não seria possível a produção sem esta opção. O objetivo deste trabalho é comparar 2 sistemas de processamento submarino, um com bomba multifásica e outro com separador submarino, visando identificar as oportunidades de aplicação para cada sistema e o estado da arte atual de cada tecnologia. O grande salto do processamento submarino será um futuro de produção sem o uso de plataformas. Cenário este que já se observa nos dias de hoje em alguns campos de gás. O campo de gás foi o primeiro a apresentar a possibilidade de produção sem o uso de plataforma por possuir energia suficiente para escoar por distâncias maiores sem necessidade de incremento artificial de pressão. Porém com o avanço da tecnologia da bomba e dos separadores submarinos, o futuro indica a aplicação deste processo também em campos de óleo. Este trabalho disponibiliza uma ferramenta simplificada para análise de escoamento multifásico de fácil acesso que permite o cálculo sem a necessidade de softwares avançados e de difícil acesso. Apesar de ser uma ferramenta simplificada é de grande utilidade para cálculos rápidos sem necessidade de detalhamento.
Oil has undeniable importance in modern times. Along with other fossil fuels, represents a considerable portion of the energy matrix of society. However this is non-renewable energy source. As the oil is been produced in areas of easy access, its source is being exhausting and creating the need to explore in inhospitable regions. Looking to this scenario subsea processing of oil and gas has great importance to allow oil production in regions where the production would not be possible without this option. The objective of this study is to compare two subsea processing systems, one with a multiphase pump and other with a separator and a monophase pump, identify opportunities of each system and the current state of the art of each technology. The leap of subsea processing will be a future of production systems without the use of platforms. This scenario already being felt today in some gas fields. The gas field was the first to present the possibility of production without the use of the platform due to the fact that gas fields has enough energy to flow over large distances without the need of artificial lifting. However, with the advancement in pump technology and subsea separators, the future indicates the application of this procedure also in oil fields. This paper provides a simplified calculation tool for multiphase flow of easy access that allows the calculation without the need of advanced commercial software. Despite being a simplified tool is useful for quick calculations.

Moringa oleifera (MO) is a plant species of Indian subcontinent. Its pods contain kernels, which upon maturation consists of up to 35% protein and 41% oil (w/w). This oil is extractable using solvents such as hexane, but this is generally not looked upon favourably due to safety and environmental concerns. This thesis explores the use of aqueous enzymatic extraction (AEE) as an alternative, which involves incubating a mixture of MO kernels, water and enzymes under controlled conditions. Given that the oil globules are predominantly surrounded by proteins and cellulose, the enzymes used in this study were protease and cellulase. Centrifugation of the incubated mixture resulted in four distinct layers: free oil at the top, followed by an oil-in-water cream emulsion, an aqueous phase, and a residual solid meal at the bottom. The highest oil recovered in the free layer at the top following AEE was approximately 73% (w/w), measured in relation to the use of hexane. Another disadvantage of AEE in relation to organic solvent extraction is that a significant part of oil released from the cell ends up in the emulsified layer. Therefore, high pressure processing (HPP) pre-treatment was applied to the kernels prior to AEE, which resulted in increase in free oil quantity and a reduction in emulsion layer thickness. It is hypothesized that HPP modifies the MO protein structure into a form that lowers its emulsifying ability. The use of HPP considerably simplifies downstream oil separation steps. Storage tests showed that enzymatic extraction resulted in MO oil having better oxidative stability than the hexane-extracted oil. The MO oil also contained up to 75% oleic acid and high tocopherol contents, which contributed to its enhanced oxidative stability.

Cold pressed rapeseed oil is produced when the seeds from the Brassica napus crop are crushed at a low temperature. This research sought to investigate the extent seed pre-processing and cultivar could be used to alter the composition of cold pressed rapeseed oil in relation to bioactive compounds. It also aimed to characterise UK and Irish cold pressed rapeseed oils and compare them with other popular types of edible oils. Finally, a range of spectroscopic techniques and chemometric models were tested for their ability to detect the substitutional adulteration of cold pressed rapeseed oil with lesser value oils. With regards to cold pressed rapeseed oil pre-processing, microwaving and thermal roasting significantly increased the abundance of phenolic acids and the antioxidant activity of cold pressed rapeseed oil. The volatile composition was also significantly altered by these pre-processing techniques. Cultivar had little impact on chemical composition. Characterisation of a range of UK, Irish and French cold pressed rapeseed oils found that all oils adhered to quality parameters. French oils had significantly higher levels of antioxidant activity than UK or Irish. Cold pressed rapeseed oil had higher levels of phenolic acids than refined rapeseed oil and was also more stable under heat stress. Spectroscopic techniques (FT-IR, Raman, 400MHz NMR, 60 MHz NMR) were tested with chemometric models to see to what extent cold pressed rapeseed oil adulteration could be classified and quantified. Refined rapeseed oil adulteration in cold pressed rapeseed oil was best classified by the 400 MHz NMR, then Raman, FT-IR and 60 MHz NMR. Refined sunflower oil was best classified by the 400 MHz NMR, followed by FT-IR, then Raman and 60 MHz NMR. Levels of adulteration detection showed refined sunflower could be detected at lower levels than refined rapeseed oil.

Le monde fait face à des enjeux climatiques et énergétiques qui impliquent l’utilisation de biomasse, au même titre que d’autres énergies renouvelables, comme des moyens de production d’énergie. Parmi les voies envisagées, l’addition d’huile de pyrolyse au sein de procédés de raffinage déjà existants présenterait l’avantage d’une mise en place rapide et d’une modification structurelle limitée. L’unité de craquage catalytique en lit fluidisé (FCC), valorisant les fractions pétrolières les plus lourdes, est l’unité la plus à même de valoriser des charges biosourcées. Cependant, les premiers tests ont pu révéler la présence de certains freins, tels que l’immiscibilité des charges fossiles et biosourcées, impliquant la mise en place de deux systèmes d’injection indépendants, ou encore une plus forte désactivation des catalyseurs de craquage. Sur ce dernier point, la présence de larges fragments lignocellulosiques, volumineux et riches en oxygène, perturbe le fonctionnement des catalyseurs de FCC. Leur encombrement étant suspecté de limiter leur accès aux sites acides, responsables du craquage catalytique, l’addition de mésopores aux cristaux de zéolites microporeux est une voie de recherche intéressante. Parallèlement à cela, la préparation de matériaux à porosité hiérarchisée, c’est-à-dire alliant l’agencement de plusieurs niveaux de porosité, se développe depuis quelques années. Ces matériaux rentrent parfaitement dans le cadre de l’amélioration de l’accessibilité aux sites acides. Ces travaux de thèse visent ainsi à définir l’impact que peut avoir un processus de hiérarchisation de la porosité sur le craquage catalytique d’un mélange de charges pétrolières fossiles avec une huile de pyrolyse de biomasse. Dans cette optique, une zéolite Y - couramment utilisée pour le craquage catalytique - a été hiérarchisée conformément aux protocoles déjà disponibles dans la littérature. Les caractéristiques structurelles de quatre matériaux ont ensuite été définies, aidant ainsi à la compréhension d’études du transfert diffusionnel, du craquage de molécules modèles et du craquage de charges réelles réalisées par la suite et présentées dans ce manuscrit de thèse
Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC) gasoline represents one third of the global gasoline pool. In order to meet objectives regarding increased renewable share in transportation fuels, the production of a hybrid bio/fossil fuel by co-refining biomass pyrolysis liquids with crude oil fractions in an oil refinery is an achievable approach. Oxygenated molecules, typical of the bio-feedstock, are present in liquids produced from biomass pyrolysis. Because large lignocellulosic fragments could strongly adsorb on the FCC zeolite surface, they may not access catalytic sites or could diffuse very slowly in the microporous network. Hence, for high oxygenated molecule content, co-refining may lead to severe changes in product quality, such as a higher aromaticity, coke and residual oxygenates in the hybrid fuels that are produced. To adjust the reactivity of FCC catalysts towards bio-oil, four Y zeolites with well controlled hierarchical mesoporous – microporous network have been investigated. They mainly vary by the characteristics of the secondary mesoporous network (pore size, mesoporous volume) while their globally similar acidity displays some changes in nature (Lewis/Brønsted). The impact of hierarchical porous structures combined with changes in acidity is studied on catalytic activity and selectivity (e.g., coke formation). The issue of diffusion limitation in line with acidity changes are discussed based on Zero Length Column (ZLC) measurements, pyridine adsorption measurements, catalytic cracking of n-hexane and co-processing of vacuum gas oil and bio-oil in micro-activity test unit

Online Oil Debris Monitors (ODM) provide a direct, effective and reliable approach to machinery condition monitoring. ODM can be used to monitor the condition of complex machines, such as airplane engines, electric generators, wind turbines, or other machines with oil circulation systems. The principle of the sensor is to detect the quantity and the size of metal particles in the flowing oil. The current available ODM sensors suffer from sensitivity to vibrations, as their electromagnetic response is largely affected by interfering vibrations. This thesis presents a novel structure and algorithms to separate and eliminate the vibration interference. In the new structure, a dual channel system is designed as opposed to previous single channel systems. Three signal processing algorithms have been developed and tested using experimental data from a prototype. They have shown to be effective, as detailed in the thesis.

La thèse porte sur le développement et la caractérisation d’un additive pour l’alimentation du bétail contenant de l’huile essentielle. Dans cette formulation, un mélange d’huiles essentielles avec des effets anti-inflammatoires et antioxydants est encapsulaté dans une matrice d’huile de tournesol hydrogéné par spray cooling. Ces premières particules sont enrobées par une couche d’huiles essentielles dans un lit fluidisé. Du spray cooling conduit à la formation d’une poudre fluide avec une fluidité des microparticules qui décroit avec la concentration en huiles essentielles. A haute concentration en huiles essentielles, les particules maintiennent leur fluidité durant le stockage alors que sans ou avec de faibles concentrations en huiles essentielles, elles ont tendance à s’agglomérer.Cet effet dépend des conditions de stockage. Les études de la structure de la surface des microparticules révèlent qu’un effet d’efflorescence des matières grasses à la surface des particules est la cause de l’agglomération. L’analyse thermique différentielle et la spectrométrie aux rayons X démontrent une accélération de la transformation polymorphique des triglycérides de la matrice grasse en présence d’huile essentielle. L'utilisation d’un 'agent de fluidisation dans l'huile essentielle a permis l’application d’un enrobage contenant une huile essentielle et accroissant la palatabilité des particules
The thesis aimed at the development and the characterization of an essential oil containing feed additive formulation. In this formulation one essential oil mixture with anti-inflammatory and antioxidative properties shall be imbedded into a hydrogenated sunflower oil-based matrix via spray cooling and the resulting microparticles shall be furnished with a coating comprising a second essential oil in a fluidized bed process. Spray cooling resulted in the formation of freeflowing powders with the flowability of the microparticles decreasing with increasing essential oil concentration. High-concentrated microparticles maintained their flowability during storage whilst those without and with less essential oil tended to agglomerate. This effect also depended on the storage conditions. Surface structure investigations revealed that fatblooming on the microparticles surface causes agglomeration. Differential scanning calorimetry and X-ray scattering powder diffraction proved the accelerating effect of essential oil on the polymorphic transformation of the triacylglycerides of the fat matrix. The use of an essential oil loaded flow agent allowed the successful application of a coating containing a second palatability increasing essential oil mixture

This thesis describes experimental and numerical simulation work that has been carried out on the naturally occurring polymer guar gum and the commercial wormlike micelle solution ClearFRAC. Both of these fluids are used in the hydraulic fracturing process, which improves the rate of oil recovery. The rheology has been studied at different temperatures and in the case of guar gum at different concentrations, in both controlled strain and controlled stress parallel plate rheometers. The features observed in each fluid are typical for the class of fluids to which they belong. The effect of particulate and air inclusions on the rheology was studied, as was the formation of filaments of the fluids. Optical microscopy under shear flow revealed the formation of chains of tracer particles or air bubbles under certain conditions in both fluids. The wormlike micelle solution exhibited intermittent slip and the separation of the flow into regions of different flow rates. The application of shear induced a change in the transparency of the wormlike micelle solution when viewed in visible light and this is believed to be the first direct light observation of shear enhanced concentration fluctuations in a wormlike micelle solution. The fluids have been examined systematically in progressively more complicated geometries using pressure drop measurements, transmitted light, reflected light, scattered light and flow birefringence. Finite element modelling has been performed using the commercial package Polyflow to examine the effect of viscosity, elasticity, plasticity and inertia on the different flow geometries. The Cross model provided the best description of the behaviour of the guar gum solutions, whilst the wormlike micelle solution was well modelled by both the Cross and Herschel Bulkley models. The Wagner equation revealed the effects of elasticity on the flow.

The purpose of this research was to determine the solubility of apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.) oil in supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2), effects of parameters (particle size, solvent flow rate, pressure, temperature and co-solvent (ethanol) concentration) on extraction yield and to investigate the possibility of fractionation. Solubility, increased with pressure and increased with temperature above the crossover pressure, which was found between 200 and 300 bar, and decreased with temperature below the crossover pressure. Appropriate models were fitted to data. Extraction of apricot kernel oil occurred in two extraction periods as fast and slow extraction periods. Most of the oil was extracted in the fast extraction period and the oil recovered in the slow extraction period was negligible. Extraction yield increased with decrease in particle size and recovery of more than 99 % of the oil was possible if particle diameter decreased below 0.425 mm. Extraction rate increased with increase in flow rate, pressure, temperature and ethanol concentration. The volume mass transfer coefficient in the fluid phase changed between 0.6 and 3.7 /min, whereas the volume mass transfer coefficient in the solid phase changed between 0.00009 and 0.00048 /min. Extraction yield at 15 min for particle diameter smaller than 0.85 mm was formulated as a function of solvent flow rate, pressure, temperature, and ethanol concentration by using Response Surface Methodology. According to the model yield was highest (0.26 g /g) at 4 g/min flow rate, 60 oC, 450 bar and 3 % ethanol concentration. Fractionation was not possible at significant levels.

The objective of this research was to systematically study the effect of processing conditions on crystallization behavior and destabilization mechanisms of oil-in-water (o/w) emulsions. The effects of oil content (20 and 40 wt %); crystallization temperature (Tc = 10, 5, 0, -5, -10 °C); homogenization conditions, such as high shear (HS), very low pressure homogenization (VLPH), and high pressure homogenization (HPH); and cooling rate (0.2 and 30 °C/min) on both thermal behavior and destabilization mechanisms were analyzed. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) was added to VLPH emulsions and its effect on the physicochemical and oxidative stabilities and flavor was studied. Emulsions with 20% oil were less stable than those with 40% oil with a fast-cooling rate; however, stability increased when the emulsions were cooled slowly. Stability was also affected by oil and droplet size; the smaller the droplet the more stable the system. Smaller droplets (i.e., VLPH, HPH) had an effect on crystallization by delaying the onset of the crystal formation, which was promoted in emulsions with larger droplets (i.e., HS); 20% o/w emulsion crystallization was delayed more than 40%; and in emulsions crystallized using a slow-cooling rate, the crystal formation was less inhibited (i.e., crystals formed at a higher onset temperature [Ton], but at lower Tc) than when using a fast-cooling rate. The formation of lipid crystals either helped stabilize (small droplets) the emulsion and melted in a less fractionated manner or destabilized (big droplets) the emulsion. In addition, fast-cooling rates have greater fractionation than slow-cooling rates. Due to the greater stability of VLPH emulsions after thawing from being at -10 °C for 3 h, DHA was added to evaluate its effect on flavor (besides the effect on stability) of the emulsion. A descriptive panel was used to evaluate four attributes: oxidized, rancid, fishy, and buttery. The panelists were given samples after 72 h, because contrary to the TBA analysis which showed no significant differences between samples with and without DHA, the fishy smell was evident. The sensory evaluation results showed that there was a significant (p < 0.05) difference in fishiness between the VLPH emulsions with and without DHA, and that the odor was repulsive. No significance was seen for rancid and buttery flavors, and only a marginal significance was seen for oxidized.

Few publications on oil bodies or oleosomes seem concerned about their quality (chemical and physical) ex-vivo. This work attempts to identify the main factors (processing and pre-processing) that affect the quality/integrity of sunflower seed oil bodies recovered through a wet-milling process. The physical state of seeds during wet milling had a significant impact on the quality of the oil body suspension. Pre-soaking for 6 hours before wet milling and multiple washing with alkaline buffer (0.1M sodium bicarbonate) was performed to isolate high quality oil body suspensions. It was evident from different physical measurements such as particle size, ζ-potential and light microscopy that pre-soaking had a positive influence on the quality of oil body suspensions with no significant signs of aggregation or coalescence. It was also observed that the resultant washed oil body suspensions were highly surface charged (-28.4 ± 1.2 mV) indicating very stable suspension phase behavior. Washing oil bodies not only removes non-integral, extraneous proteins (derived from the seed matrix) but enriches the lipid content including Tocopherol (α-tocopherol: 491.6 mg/kg of washed oil bodies compared with 252.6 mg/kg crude oil bodies). Changes in the composition of oil bodies after washing have been observed before, but this research also monitored the size of oil bodies after washing, and our results indicate that certain factors can shift the distribution of droplet size. It is believed that any change in average size of droplets indicate the presence of disrupted oil bodies whose surface chemistry has changed enough to compromise their integrity on washing. The retention of droplet size on washing may, therefore, be diagnostic for the recovery of intact oil bodies. An assessment of the integrity of oil bodies recovered from sunflower seeds after accelerated aging (5 months) was carried out. Free fatty acid was more pronounced in oil rather than oil bodies, this could be due to the elimination of some of the free acid bound to oil body during washing. Although some minor variation was observed during seed aging, however, the oil bodies remained stable in the final suspension. The results indicate that oil body membrane was extremely robust under extreme conditions and the integrity of oil bodies was preserved. In addition, oil bodies obtained in this study were resistant to oxidation due to the presence of naturally occurring antioxidants (including vitamin E) associated with them. The results indicate that the physical barrier of surface membrane protein (oelosin) protect oil bodies against pro-oxidants.

PETRÓLEO BRASILEIRO S. A.
O presente trabalho apresenta uma análise termodinâmica dos processos de captura e reinjeção de CO2, que se tornaram indispensáveis à produção de óleo e gás nas instalações de petróleo offshore no Brasil desde o início do desenvolvimento dos campos do pré-sal. O petróleo dos reservatórios da camada pré-sal da Bacia de Santos apresenta uma particularidade importante, quando comparado com o petróleo dos campos pós-sal do Brasil. A composição do gás natural do pré-sal apresenta grande teor de CO2, podendo ultrapassar 15 por cento, enquanto que a composição típica do gás natural dos campos pós-sal apresenta teor de CO2 abaixo de 1 por cento. Isto exige que equipamentos e operações de processamento do petróleo sejam mais complexos, pois devem ser capazes de: (i) separar o CO2 do gás produzido, (ii) comprimir as correntes de CO2 e de gás natural com baixo teor de CO2 e enviá-las para seus diversos destinos (reinjeção, gas lift, exportação etc.). Consequentemente, com a introdução destes novos processos para captura e injeção do CO2, houve aumento da demanda energética nestas unidades. Este trabalho visa estudar os processos envolvidos na captura e reinjeção de CO2, uma vez que utilizam novas técnicas e tecnologias pouco divulgadas na literatura acadêmica. Busca, também, contribuir para o cálculo do consumo adicional energético nas plataformas de produção de petróleo offshore, tipo FPSO, devido à inclusão da captura e reinjeção de CO2. E, por último, apresenta uma breve análise do impacto ambiental que tais processos podem causar, considerando a emissão de poluentes atmosféricos, como CO2 e CH4, principalmente.
This work presents a thermodynamic analysis of carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and reinjection processes, which have become indispensable for oil and gas production, particularly in the Brazilian offshore pre-salt fields. In comparison to the Brazilian post-salt reservoir, the petroleum from the Santos Basin pre-salt reservoir has a much larger CO2 content, which can exceed 15 percent, as opposed to less than 1 percent in the post-salt case. This peculiarity demands more complex operational equipment and processes that: (i) separate the CO2 from the produced gas; (ii) compress both the CO2 and low content CO2 natural gas streams and (iii) direct them to their subsequent destinations (reinjection, gas lift, exportation etc.). Consequently, these new capture and injection processes increase the energy demand on these production units. The present study aims to describe the processes involved in the CO2 capture and reinjection, since there is a lack of references in the literature about these new techniques and technology. Furthermore, it contributes to the evaluation of the additional energy consumption of an offshore Floating, Production, Storage and Offloading unit (FPSO), due to the inclusion of processes related to the capture and reinjection of CO2. Finally, a brief analysis is made on the environmental impact from these processes, considering the additional emission of atmospheric pollutants such as CO2 and CH4.

The petroleum industry is currently moving to meet the ever-rising demand for oil and gas production. As onshore fields become depleted and decline in production, exploration and production companies have started venturing further offshore. To support this activity, there is need for new subsea production technologies to develop deepwater and ultra deepwater fields.Woodside Hydrocarbon Research Facility (WHRF) at Curtin University of Technology is working on natural gas dehydration processing using gas hydrate technology. Through the studies, a novel gas dehydration process has been developed and now proposed for subsea application. Natural gas dehydration processes generate both a treated dry gas stream and a waste stream of condensate consisting of both hydrocarbons and water. This condensate can be reinjected to the reservoir formation but this is not always economic or practical. Availability of an alternative means of treatment and disposal of the condensate would be advantageous. This study aims to investigate and to provide a basis for the design of such an alternative scheme by constructing a floating separator for the treatment and disposal of waste condensate from subsea dehydration stage.A model was developed to simulate the process of evaporation of condensate from the proposed floating separator. The calculations were performed taken into account zero wind speed and an ambient temperature around 34 C. The simulation results showed that condensate skimming time was found to be 15 days for flowrate (Qin) of 100 bbd associated with specific separator diameter and total height dimensions. By considering the ratio of diameter to total height of 2.5, the floating separator was designed to enhance the evaporation rate and to get overall structure stability due to the mechanical restrictions that might be encountered in the sea.

Machined fragments of 10 core plugs from oshore reservoirs have been analysed using a high resolution X-ray micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) facility. The facility includes a system capable of acquiring 3D images made up of 20003 voxels on core plugs up to 6 cm diameter with resolutions down to 2 um. The cores analysed include six cores from a gas reservoir and four cores from an oil reservoir. The cores exhibit a very broad range of pore and grain sizes, porosity, permeability and mineralogy. The petrological data, available only for gas reservoir cores, is compared with the data obtained from the tomographic images. Computational results made directly on the digitized tomographic images are presented for the permeability, formation factor, resistivity index and drainage capillary pressure across a range of . We show that data over a range of porosity can be computed from a single fragment. We compare the computations of petrophysical data on fragments to conventional laboratory measurements on the full plug. Permeability predictions from digital and conventional core analysis are consistent. It is shown that a characteristic length scale can be dened as a quality control parameter for the estimation of permeability. Results for formation factor, drainage capillary pressure and resistivity index are encouraging. The results demonstrate the potential to predict petrophysical properties from core material not suited for laboratory testing (e.g., sidewall or damaged core and drill cuttings) and the feasibility of combining digitized images with numerical calculations to predict properties and derive correlations for specic rock lithologies. The small sample size required for analysis makes it possible to produce multiple measurements on a single plug. This represents a potential multiplier on the quantity of core data allowing meaningful distributions or spreads in petrophysical properties to be estimated. We discuss the current limitations of the methodology and suggest improvements; in particular the need to calibrate the simulated data to parallel laboratory core measurements. We also describe the potential to extend the methodology to a wider range of petrophysical properties. This development could lead to a more systematic study of the assumptions, interpretations and analysis methods commonly applied within industry and lead to better correlations between petrophysical properties and log measurements.

Solid wettability plays an important role in many industrial processes. Two examples of processes dependent on solid wettability are: Bubble generation from porous media (project one) and the bitumen froth treatment process in the recovery of oil from oil sands (project two).
Project one. Bubble size has a profound effect on flotation efficiency controlling particle collection and froth stability. Models of bubble generation at a rigid sparger usually include a wettability effect (i.e., contact angle). The role of sparger wettability on bubble formation was examined using three rigid spargers exhibiting water contact angles of 0, 64 and >90°. The wettability was varied by heating the sparger, and the contact angle was determined by the Washburn and modified Washburn methods. By measuring permeability, it was determined that heating had no effect on sparger pore structure. The results showed no detectable wettability effect on bubble formation over the practical operating range of column flotation. The lack of wettability effect may be attributed to the highly irregular morphology of the sparger surface. The bubble size, it was shown, can be predicted by using the concept of sparger equivalent pore diameter and active pore number, which are estimated by a back-calculation routine.
Project two. Production of oil from oil sand deposits in northern Alberta involves open pit mining, mixing the ore with water, extraction of bitumen from the slurry by a flotation-related process (Hot Water Extraction Process), removal of water and solids from the froth formed (froth treatment process), and upgrading the heavy bitumen to liquid hydrocarbons. The froth treatment process to remove fine solids and water from the bitumen froth depends on the wettability of the solids. Fine solids were extracted from samples of bitumen froth using heptane. A mixture of heptane and toluene (diluent) was used to study fine solid wettability. The contact angle (sessile drop method) and partition of the fine solids among the aqueous, diluent and interphase regions were determined. The effect of diluent composition, sample drying, and surface washing was examined. The partition of the particles correlated well with their wettability, and the results helped interpret observations from plant practice.

[EN] The main goal of this Thesis was to determine the influence of the main processing stages involved in obtaining natural extracts with high antioxidant potential from byproducts originating in the olive oil industry. Firstly, the effect of freezing and/or the drying methods applied to olive oil byproducts on the polyphenol content and antioxidant capacity of the extracts subsequently obtained was addressed. For this purpose, two byproducts were considered: olive leaves and olive pomace. Secondly, the feasibility of intensifying the extraction of olive leaf polyphenols by means of a new technology, such as power ultrasound, was approached taking both compositional and kinetic issues into account. Thirdly, how the processing conditions (drying and extraction) influence the extract's stability was evaluated. Thus, on the one hand, extracts obtained from olive leaves were subjected to in vitro digestion or dehydrated and stored at different conditions. Finally, the possibility of obtaining a dried vegetable matrix (apple) rich in olive leaf phenolic compounds was explored by addressing the influence of apple pretreatments (blanching and freezing) and drying on the final retention of infused phenolics. The antioxidant potential of extracts and the retention of infused polyphenols in apple were evaluated by means of the total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity analysis, as well as the identification and quantification of the main olive leaf polyphenols by HPLC-DAD/MS-MS. Moreover, in apple samples, the polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase activity and microstructure were also analyzed. The experimental results highlighted that both drying and freezing methods significantly (p<0.05) influenced the concentration of the main polyphenols identified in the olive leaf extracts. Thus, drying at the highest temperature tested was the best processing condition in which to obtain extracts with high antioxidant capacity and phenolic content. Ultrasound application was found to be a relevant, non-thermal way of speeding-up the antioxidant extraction from olive leaves. Thus, by appropriately tuning-up the process variables, the ultrasonic assisted extraction shortened the extraction time from the 24 h needed in conventional extraction to 15 min, without modifying either the extract composition or the antioxidant potential. As far as extract stability is concerned, the processing conditions used for obtaining the olive leaf extracts did not have a meaningful influence on bioaccessibility. Regardless of the method used, stabilizing the extracts by means of dehydration only reduced both the antioxidant capacity and the total phenolic content by around 10 %. Moreover, storage conditions did not show a significant (p<0.05) effect on the antioxidant potential of the extracts for 28 days of storage. A stable dried product (apple), rich in natural phenolic compounds (from olive leaves or tea extracts), was obtained by combining drying-impregnation-drying steps. However, it should be considered that the role of fresh apple drying on the retention of infused olive leaf polyphenols was more important than the further drying of the impregnated apple. In overall terms, olive leaves can be considered a potential source of natural phenolic compounds. Notwithstanding this, the previous drying and freezing steps applied in the raw material processing are decisive factors in the obtaining of natural extracts with high antioxidant potential. Moreover, enhancing the extraction by applying power ultrasound was stated as a non-thermal way of shortening processing times. The stability of olive polyphenols during storage and in vitro digestion was closely related to the individual component considered. Finally, the exploitation of olive leaf extracts as a means of enriching solid foodstuffs requires the use of porous solid matrices free of oxidative enzymes.
[ES] El objetivo principal de esta Tesis fue determinar la influencia de las principales etapas de procesado implicadas en la obtención de extractos naturales con alto potencial antioxidante a partir de los subproductos originados en la industria del aceite de oliva. En primer lugar, se evaluó el efecto de los métodos de congelación y/o secado de la materia prima (hojas y orujo), sobre el contenido polifénolico y la capacidad antioxidante de los extractos. En segundo lugar, se abordó la intensificación de la extracción de polifenoles de hoja de olivo con ultrasonidos de potencia, teniendo en cuenta: composición y la cinética del proceso. A continuación, se estudió cómo las condiciones de procesado (secado y extracción) podían influir en la estabilidad de los extractos. Así, extractos de hojas de olivo fueron sometidos a digestión in vitro o deshidratados y almacenados a distintas condiciones. Por último, se exploró la posibilidad de obtener una matriz vegetal deshidratada (manzana) y rica en compuestos fenólicos de hoja de olivo. Para ello, se evaluó la influencia de los pretratamientos de la manzana (escaldado y congelación) y del secado en la retención final de los polifenoles impregnados. El potencial antioxidante se determinó a través del contenido total en compuestos fenólicos y la capacidad antioxidante y la identificación y cuantificación (HPLC-DAD/MS-MS) de los principales polifenoles. Además, en manzana, se midió la actividad enzimática de la polifenol oxidasa y peroxidasa y se analizó la microestructura. Los resultados manifestaron que el método de secado y el de congelación influyeron significativamente (p<0.05) en la concentración de los principales polifenoles en los extractos. Así, el secado a mayor temperatura resultó ser el mejor tratamiento para obtener extractos con alta capacidad antioxidante y alto contenido fenólico. La aplicación de ultrasonidos resultó ser una alternativa no térmica muy interesante para acelerar la extracción de antioxidantes de hojas de olivo. Con la combinación adecuada de las variables del proceso, la aplicación de ultrasonidos redujo el tiempo de extracción de 24 h necesarias en extracción convencional a 15 min, sin modificar la composición de los extractos y su potencial antioxidante. En cuanto a la estabilidad del extracto, las condiciones de procesado no tuvieron una influencia significativa en la bioaccesibilidad de los extractos. Independientemente del método utilizado, la estabilización de extractos por deshidratación sólo redujo la capacidad antioxidante y el contenido total en compuestos fenólicos en torno a un 10 %. Además, las condiciones de almacenamiento no mostraron ningún efecto significativo (p<0.05) sobre el potencial antioxidante durante los 28 días de almacenamiento. Combinando secado-impregnación-secado, fue posible desarrollar un producto deshidratado (manzana), estable y rico en compuestos fenólicos naturales (de hojas de olivo o extractos de té). No obstante, cabe destacar que el secado de la manzana fresca jugó un papel más importante en la retención de los polifenoles de hoja de olivo infundidos que el secado final de la manzana impregnada. En términos generales, las hojas de olivo pueden considerarse como una fuente potencial de compuestos fenólicos naturales. No obstante, el secado y la congelación durante el procesado de la materia prima son factores decisivos para la obtención de extractos naturales con alto potencial antioxidante. Además, la aplicación de ultrasonidos de potencia durante la extracción puede resultar una alternativa no térmica muy interesante de cara a acortar el tiempo de procesado. La estabilidad de los polifenoles de la hoja de olivo, durante el almacenamiento y la digestión in vitro, dependió claramente del compuesto individual considerado. Finalmente, el empleo del extracto de hoja de olivo como medio para enriquecer alimentos sólidos requiere del uso de matrices s
[CAT] L'objectiu principal d'aquesta tesi va ser determinar la influència de les principals etapes de processament implicades en l'obtenció d'extractes naturals amb alt potencial antioxidant procedents de subproductes de la indústria de l'oli d'oliva. En primer lloc, es va estudiar l'efecte de la congelació i/o els mètodes d'assecatge aplicats a fulles d'olivera i pinyolada sobre el contingut fenòlic i la capacitat antioxidant dels extractes. En segon lloc, es va avaluar, tenint en compte la composició i la cinètica del procés, la intensificació de l'extracció de polifenols de fulla d'olivera amb ultrasons de potència. En tercer lloc, es va avaluar com les condicions de processament (assecatge i extracció) poden influir en l'estabilitat dels extractes. Així, extractes de fulles d'olivera van ser sotmesos a una digestió in vitro o deshidratats i emmagatzemats a distintes condicions. Finalment, es va explorar la obtenció d'una matriu vegetal deshidratada (poma) i rica en compostos fenòlics de fulla d'olivera considerant la influència del pretractament de la poma (escaldament i congelació) i de l'assecatge sobre la retenció final dels fenòlics introduïts en la poma. El potencial antioxidant es va avaluar determinant el contingut fenòlic total i la capacitat antioxidant, així com identificant i quantificant els principals polifenols (HPLC-DAD/MS-MS). A més, en poma l'activitat enzimàtica de la polifenoloxidasa i la peroxidasa i la microestructura. Els resultats experimentals van destacar que el mètode d'assecatge i el de congelació van influir significativament (p<0,05) en la concentració dels principals polifenols identificats en els extractes. L'assecatge a la temperatura més alta que es va provar va resultar la millor condició de processament per a obtenir extractes amb una alta capacitat antioxidant i un alt contingut fenòlic. L'aplicació d'ultrasons va ser una manera rellevant i no tèrmica d'accelerar l'extracció d'antioxidants de les fulles d'olivera. Així, amb la combinació adequada de les variables del procés, l'extracció assistida per ultrasons va escurçar el temps d'extracció, de les 24 h requerides en l'extracció convencional a 15 min, sense modificar la composició de l'extracte ni el potencial antioxidant. Quant a l'estabilitat de l'extracte, les condicions de processament utilitzades per a l'obtenció dels extractes de fulla d'olivera no van tenir una influència significativa en la bioaccessibilitat. Independentment del mètode utilitzat, l'estabilització dels extractes per mitjà de la deshidratació només va reduir la capacitat antioxidant i el contingut fenòlic total al voltant d'un 10 %. A més, les condicions d'emmagatzematge (temperatura i forma de l'extracte: líquid o pols) no van mostrar cap efecte significatiu (p<0,05) en el potencial antioxidant dels extractes durant els 28 dies d'emmagatzematge. Combinant etapes d'assecatge-impregnació-assecatge fou possible obtenir un producte assecat estable (poma) i ric en compostos fenòlics naturals (de fulles d'olivera o te). No obstant això, cal destacar que l'assecatge de la poma fresca va ser més important i determinant en la retenció dels polifenols de fulla d'olivera que no l'assecatge de la poma impregnada. En termes generals, les fulles d'olivera es poden considerar com una font potencial de compostos fenòlics naturals. No obstant això, l'aplicació d'assecatge i congelació durant el processament de la matèria primera són factors decisius per a l'obtenció d'extractes naturals amb un alt potencial antioxidant. A més, l'aplicació d'ultrasons de potència durant l'extracció resultà ser una forma no tèrmica de millorar el procés, tot reduint-ne el temps d'extracció. L'estabilitat dels polifenols d'olivera durant l'emmagatzematge i la digestió in vitro va dependre del compost individual considerat. Finalment, la utilització d'extractes de fulla d'olivera per a desenvolupar aliments sòlids enriquits requ
Ahmad-Qasem Mateo, MH. (2015). ASSESSMENT OF THE INFLUENCE OF PROCESSING CONDITIONS ON THE ANTIOXIDANT POTENTIAL OF EXTRACTS OBTAINED FROM OLIVE OIL INDUSTRY BYPRODUCTS [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/53452
TESIS
Premiado

Food processing micro- and small-scale enterprises (MSEs) play an important role in the national economic development of Tanzania. Though many of them have great growth potential, they face a number of constraints hindering further development, and large amounts of cooking oil are imported each year. The aim of thesis has therefore been to identify and analyse the different factors affecting these MSEs in order to find out which the major growth challenges are. The case study is mainly based on individual semi-structured interviews with sunflower oil processors and farmers in Babati districts, conducted in February and March 2016, and earlier research and studies on the topic of MSE growth make up the theoretical framework used for analysis of the data. The findings show that there are indeed numerous challenges facing these processors, and the major constraint was found to be lack of capital; an issue causing or worsening a majority of the other challenges at hand. Other problems are related to raw material, equipment & electricity for processing, regulations, market accessibility, and competition. These obstacles need to be overcome in order to enable the industry's expansion within and outside of Tanzania, and further research is recommended.

1. V.Pryhid. Ecological catastrophe: Boryslav has not laughed for a long time // Deutsche Welle. - 30.10.2017. – Lviv. https://p.dw.com/p/2mdS7. 2. Dryguluch P.G., Pukish A.V. Problems of urban areas during the development of oil and gas fields (on the example of the city of Boryslav)// Oil and gas industry of Ukraine. 2013. № 2.
The territory of Ukraine has a large number of wells, as the history of hydrocarbon production dates back to XVI - XVII centuries. The western region of Ukraine is represented by several oil and gas regions: Lviv, Ivano-Frankivsk, Chernivtsi and Zakarpattia regions, which has a total of 91 deposits. Special attention in Western Ukraine should be paid to the Boryslav oil and gas field, which began to be developed in 1854. Since the oil was in layers at a depth of only tens, or sometimes about hundreds of meters, the production was conducted through primitive oil wells - pits. In those years in Borislav there were about 5 thousand such pits with a depth of 35-40 m. In 1870, oil production in Boryslav reached 10.6 thousand tons. There were about 800 small businesses, which employed almost 10 thousand workers [1]. Foreign firms from the USA, Canada, Belgium, France, Germany for the purpose of enrichment carried out exhaustive exploitation of deposits, respectively, without paying attention to labor protection, care of the environment and ignoring keeping records of wells in the documentation. Thus chaotically there were all new places of oil production and in a terrible state remained abandoned primitive wells.
Територія України має велику кількість свердловин, оскільки історія видобутку вуглеводнів сягає XVI - XVII століть. Західний регіон України представлений кількома нафтогазоносними регіонами: Львівською, Івано-Франківською, Чернівецькою та Закарпатською областями, що має загалом 91 родовище. Особливу увагу в Західній Україні слід приділити Бориславському нафтогазовому родовищу, яке почали розробляти в 1854 році. Оскільки нафта була шарами на глибині лише десятки, а іноді і близько сотні метрів, видобуток вівся через примітивні нафтові свердловини - ями. У ті роки в Бориславі було близько 5 тис. таких ям глибиною 35-40 м. У 1870 р. Видобуток нафти в Бориславі досяг 10,6 тис. тонн. Налічувалося близько 800 малих підприємств, на яких працювало майже 10 тис. робітників [1]. Іноземні фірми з США, Канади, Бельгії, Франції, Німеччини з метою збагачення проводили вичерпну експлуатацію родовищ, відповідно, не звертаючи уваги на охорону праці, догляд за навколишнім середовищем та ігноруючи ведення записів свердловин у документації. Таким чином хаотично з'явилися все нові місця видобутку нафти і в жахливому стані залишилися занедбані примітивні свердловини.