Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Olive oil'

Olive (Olea europaea, Z.), an evergreen tree has been cultivated for thousands years, in many semi-arid and arid mountainous areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. Olive oil is extracted from the olive fruit by mechanical means, without any chemical treatment thus preserving all of its natural constituents, which are responsible for the unique flavor, as appreciated by consumers. This thesis concentrates on the important factors that might affect the quality of olive oil. These comprise: cultivar / agricultural methods / weather / processing / storage. Of the quantitative and qualitative results obtained, the following are of particular interest. The olive variety influenced the chemical composition and sensory quality of the olive oil. Particularly affected were the composition of fatty acids, sterols, aliphatic and triterpene alcohols, phenolic compounds and sensory attributes. Osmotic stress, due to no irrigation or to saline irrigation, influenced the size and oil content of the fruit and the composition of triacylglycerol molecular species, fatty acids, total phenols, secoiridoid derivatives as well as volatile compounds and sensory attributes of olive oil The processing methods affected the sensory quality and the phenolic compounds of olive oil. The most significant variations occured mainly due to the quantity of water added to the system of extraction and the duration and temperature of malaxation. The alteration of these during the extraction process was reflected in oxidative processes. The rate of olive oil oxidation was a function of both the time and the various conditions of storage. Virgin olive oil keeps its qualitative characteristics under the category of extra virgin olive oil for 15 months if it is stored in tin containers indoors at room temperature and with nitrogen in the headspace. The present studies provide information for the olive oil industry in order to improve the overall olive oil quality by optimising each step of the production chain.

Mestrado em Engenharia Alimentar - Processamento de Alimentos - Instituto Superior de Agronomia
Olive oil has been widely used in the cuisine of the Mediterranean basin, due to its organoleptic properties and also to its oxidative thermostability.ascribed to the richness in monounsaturated fatty acids and high concentration of natural antioxidants. Two heating trials were performed to.evaluate the thermostability of two olive oils with the name: “extra virgin olive oil” and “olive oil” (moisture of virgin olive oil with refined olive oil): one of these trial consisted on heating at 180ºC (±2ºC) during 63 hours and the other one was a heating trial with frying periods of frozen potato chips, for 45 hours. Several physico-chemical parameters were evaluated in the different olive oil samples collected along the experiments: viscosity, acidity, peroxide index, p-anisidine, absorbance in the UV (232 and 270 nm), polar compounds and fatty acid profile. The results showed that oxidation was higher in the samples heated at 180°C than in the corresponding samples from the trials with frying periods due to the decrease in temperature when the frozen potatoes were immersed in the olive oil. The extra virgin olive oil showed more stability than the “olive oil”, due to the presence of higher concentrations of natural antioxidants which are removed during refining

Throughout Australia, a great number of resources have been devoted to the burgeoning billion dollar Australian olive industry. Recently a rapid increase in olive oil production has been witnessed. This growth combined with aggressive international competition will see pressure put on Australian producers to supply quality and price-effective olive oil into the Australian market. This will require a detailed understanding of consumers' perceptions of and thoughts about olive oil and a comprehension of how, when, where and why consumers utilise olive oil.

Mestrado em Biotecnologia
O objetivo deste trabalho incidiu no desenvolvimento de um processo multi-stage económico para a produção de polímeros biodegradáveis, polihidroxialcanoatos (PHA), por culturas microbianas mistas, usando como matéria-prima águas residuais de lagares de azeite. Neste processo foram utilizadas águas residuais de lagares de azeite pré-fermentadas, nas quais 60% do conteúdo de CQO (Carência Química de Oxigénio) solúvel foi convertido em ácidos gordos voláteis (AGV) que são substratos mais directos para a produção de PHA. Esta corrente rica em AGV foi utilizada como alimento na fase sucessiva do processo, efetuada num reator descontínuo sequencial (SBR) à escala laboratorial. O objetivo desta etapa foi a selecção e enriquecimento da cultura mista microbiana em microrganismos com capacidade de acumulação de PHA elevada e estável, recorrendo ao regime de “fome e fartura”. Foram testadas duas cargas orgânicas diferentes no SBR – 2.37 e 4.74 g L-1 d-1 (referentes a CQO solúvel) – diluindo as águas residuais pré-fermentadas com meio mineral. A resposta de acumulação da cultura selecionada com a carga orgânica mais elevada foi estudada na etapa seguinte, tendo como objetivo o aumento do conteúdo intracelular de polímero na biomassa, através de uma estratégia de alimentação por pulsos sucessivos das águas residuais (as quais possuem baixo conteúdo de azoto) não diluídas. O polímero produzido consistia no poli β-hidroxibutirato-hidroxivalerato [P(HB-HV)] contendo entre 10 e 15% (w/w) de HV. Por fim foi desenvolvido o processo de extração do PHA obtido através de um processo de separação sólido-líquido seguido de digestão química com hipoclorito de sódio. Este estudo permitiu determinar o potencial do processo proposto para transformar resíduos orgânicos, como águas residuais de lagares de azeite, em produtos de valor acrescentado.
The aim of this research was the development of a low-cost multi-stage process for the production of biodegradable polymers, polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), by using mixed microbial cultures (MMCs) and olive oil mill effluents (OMEs) as feedstock. Prefermented OMEs were used, in which about 60% of the soluble chemical oxygen demand (COD) had been transformed into volatile fatty acids (VFAs) that are more direct substrates for PHA storage. This VFA-rich stream was fed to a successive stage performed in a lab scale sequencing batch reactor (SBR), 1 L working volume. The aim of this stage was to select and enrich MMCs in microorganisms with high and stable storage ability through the establishment of “feast and famine” regime. Two different organic loading rates (OLRs) – 2.34 and 4.74 g L-1 d-1 (referred to the soluble COD) – were assayed in the SBR by diluting the fermented OMEs (soluble COD = 23.7 ± 1.1 g L-1) with mineral medium. The storage response of the microbial culture selected at the higher investigated OLR was analyzed in a following stage, aimed at maximizing the intracellular PHA content in the biomass by successive pulse feeding of no diluted OME (whose nitrogen content is very low). The produced polymer was a poly β-hydroxybutyrate-hydroxyvalerate [P(HB-HV)] with an HV content between 10 and 15 % (w/w). Finally, the attention has been paid at developing the further PHA recovery stage which consisted in a solid-liquid separation followed by chemical digestion using sodium hypochlorite. In conclusion, this study pinpoints the great potential of the proposed process to convert organic wastes, such as OMEs, into valuable products.

Mestrado em Engenharia Alimentar - Instituto Superior de Agronomia
This thesis aimed to highlight the importance that traditional olive mills still have among small olive growers, through the analysis of socio-economic and environmental aspects. The study took place in Sertã (Beira Interior region), at the Cooperativa Agrícola dos Olivicultores de Palhais. The adopted methodology included monitoring of the olive oil production cycle of, fromolive harvesting to its processing, and subsequently physico-chemical analyzes of olive, olive pomace and wastewater from olive washing and olive oil clean-up. The results obtained allowed us to conclude that there are some aspects of processing procedure that should be improved in order to optimize the quality of olive oil as it was classified as “Lampante”. On the other hand, it would be necessary to do a more complete environmental evaluation, especially regarding the characterization and quantification of the different wastewater streams and its quantification, in order to be able to propose more sustainable alternatives than the ones currently implemented. However, it should be noticed that it was possible to illustrate the fact that traditional olive mills play a key role at a social level, in the communities where they are located.

Extra-virgin olive oil is a very appreciated vegetable fat used mainly for food purposes due to its pleasant flavour and taste and to the demonstrated and well-known health promoting effects, which include anti-inflammatory and antioxidant functions and protection against cardiovascular diseases. Olive oil quality depends on many factors, among which environmental (climate and soil), genetic (variety), agronomic and technological factors play important roles. Among the agronomic factors, the maintenance and use of healthy fruits, and, most of all, the choice of the best ripening stage of olive fruits represent the factors having a prominent role in determining olive oil quality. The ideal cultivation area for olive tree is the Mediterranean region, which usually has mild winters and long dry summers. Despite these climatic limitations, olive trees grown in marginal areas such as Northern Italy are known to yield extra-virgin olive oils with a pleasant flavour and an overall high quality profile. However, the often unfavourable climatic conditions in this area make necessary optimising the choice of the best harvesting period and setting up technological factors in order to improve oil quality. Many different approaches have been suggested so far for the definition of a simple and reliable way to assess the right harvesting time and to maximise oil quality. More in detail, physiological and biochemical changes that occur throughout olive ripening have been taken into account, such as loss of firmness, skin colour changes, pigment content or ratio, sugar content, oil accumulation, decrease in phenolics and some others. Results were however often conflicting due to the great variability among cultivars, growing areas, and technological aspects. It is therefore necessary to study all these factors in every specific growing area. In this dissertation different approaches have been chosen to characterise a cultivar grown locally in Veneto, i.e. cv. Grignano, yielding a unique oil with lemon peel aromatic notes and to evaluate factors involved in the definition of oil quality also in comparison with Frantoio, a common Italian variety. First of all, a study on anoxic oil extraction has been performed in order to understand the influence of the absence of oxygen, which can oxidise olive oil components but is also a required reagent for the biosynthesis of flavour compounds, on the global volatile profile of oils extracted from olives harvested at four consecutive ripening stages across véraison. The analysis of the volatile components of oils has been performed by means of PTR-MS (Proton Transfer Reaction-Mass Spectrometry), a spectrometric technique that allows an evaluation of the global volatile fingerprint of samples without any preparatory step. This “real-time” evaluation of the spectral signature of extra-virgin olive oils from cv. Grignano coupled with unsupervised multivariate analyses, i.e. principal component analysis and hierarchical clustering, allowed to explore the complex spectra by means of the construction of a heat map. Results showed that the ripening stage has a predominant effect on the definition of the global volatile profile compared to anoxic extraction, and that the progression of ripening is characterised by the biosynthesis of specific groups of volatiles that seem to be “expressed” only transiently. Moreover, the progression of fruit ripening causes a saturation effect in the volatile profile. Consequently, given that ripening is predominant over technological factors, an in depth study regarding olive ripening in Veneto region has been carried out focusing on fruit firmness, oil accumulation, chlorophyll a content, colorimetric analyses (calculating colour indices), and gene expression profiles. Results demonstrated that in Grignano and Frantoio cvs. ripening-related events were different, since Grignano showed an earlier and faster ripening course, both in loss of firmness and in oil accumulation. These findings suggest that monitoring cv. Grignano ripening stages is more difficult, since changes in ripening-related physiological parameters occur very quickly. Moreover, differences among two consecutive harvest seasons were observed resulting in a complex reading of the overall ripening profile. Statistical analyses have been performed, and principal component analysis established that cultivar Frantoio shows a greater variability in oil accumulation data, confirming that cv. Grignano ripening course is somehow more compact. One of the colour indices calculated in this study, namely CI, was suitable to distinguish drupe samples picked at different ripening stages. Then, to investigate on the peculiar flavour features of Grignano oil, a study on the terpenic metabolism in olive has been carried out isolating and characterising for the first time three enzymes responsible for the biosynthesis of terpenes (terpene synthases) in this species. To this end, a thorough search for putative terpene synthases in a published olive EST (expressed sequence tag) database was performed. Fragments have been then amplified and the full length genes have been used to deduce the amino acidic sequence to be heterologously expressed in E. coli. Expressed proteins have been checked for enzymatic activity and one of them turned out to be an active geraniol synthase, whilst the other two terpene synthases seemed inactive, a phenomenon not unusual in terpene metabolism. qPCR demonstrated that the three isolated terpene synthase genes have a ripening-dependent trend in transcript accumulation, suggesting a role in flavour development. Finally, gene expression analyses performed in the previous works emphasised the absence of validated reference genes suitable for gene expression studies in olive. Therefore, an extensive search for candidate reference genes to be used for olive gene expression studies has been performed using the above-mentioned EST database and retrieving studies regarding validated reference genes in other plant species. 13 candidate genes were identified for Olea europaea, which were tested both in olive drupes and leaves for their transcriptional stability. Stability analyses performed with genormPLUS and NormFinder software packages showed that 12 over the 13 genes in this work represented actually good reference genes and that, among these genes, the optimum number that must be used for good data normalisation was two. The best two reference genes identified in the study, specifically suitable for normalisation of gene expression data in fruit samples at different developmental stages, were GAPDH2 and PP2A1.
L’olio extravergine di oliva è un olio vegetale molto apprezzato utilizzato principalmente per scopi alimentari a causa del profilo aromatico piacevole e a effetti salutistici noti e dimostrati, che includono proprietà antinfiammatorie e antiossidanti e una protezione nei confronti di alcune malattie cardiovascolari. La qualità dell’olio di oliva dipende da molti fattori, e tra questi fattori ambientali (clima e suolo), genetici (cultivar), agronomici e tecnologici hanno un ruolo importante. Tra i fattori agronomici, la gestione e l’uso di frutti sani e, soprattutto, la scelta dello stadio di maturazione adatto dei frutti rappresentano le variabili che hanno un ruolo fondamentale nella determinazione della qualità globale dell’olio di oliva. Le zone adatte per la coltivazione dell’olivo sono le regioni mediterranee, che sono caratterizzate solitamente da inverni miti ed estati lunghe e secche. Nonostante queste limitazioni climatiche, olivi cresciuti in zone marginali come l’Italia settentrionale conferiscono oli extravergini con profili aromatici gradevoli e di alta qualità. Le condizioni climatiche spesso avverse in queste aree rendono però necessarie un’ottimizzazione della scelta del miglior periodo di raccolta e l’implementazione di processi tecnologici allo scopo di migliorare la qualità dell’olio. Molti approcci diversi sono stati proposti finora per la definizione di un modo semplice e affidabile per valutare il periodo di raccolta corretto e massimizzare la qualità dell’olio estratto. Più in dettaglio, i cambiamenti fisiologici e biochimici che si verificano durante la maturazione dell’oliva sono stati presi in considerazione, come ad esempio la perdita di consistenza, cambiamenti del colore superficiale delle drupe, contenuto di pigmenti o loro rapporti, contenuto in zuccheri, inolizione, diminuzione di componenti fenoliche e altri. I risultati si sono dimostrati però molto spesso discordanti, a causa della grande variabilità presente tra diverse cultivar, aree di coltivazione e aspetti tecnologici. Si rende perciò necessario uno studio di questi fattori in ogni singola area di coltivazione. In questa tesi diversi approcci sono stati adottati per la caratterizzazione di una varietà coltivata localmente in Veneto, la cultivar Grignano, da cui si estrae un olio dal profilo sensoriale unico con note di buccia di limone, e per la valutazione di fattori coinvolti nella determinazione della qualità dell’olio anche attraverso un confronto con la cultivar Frantoio, una varietà diffusa comunemente in tutta Italia. Inizialmente è stato condotto uno studio che prevedeva l’estrazione di olio in atmosfera priva di ossigeno, che può essere responsabile dell’ossidazione di componenti dell’olio ma è anche un reagente richiesto nella biosintesi di composti aromatici, per valutare l’effetto dell’estrazione in atmosfera controllata sul profilo volatile globale di oli ottenuti da olive raccolte in quattro stadi consecutivi di maturazione a cavallo dell’invaiatura. L’analisi delle componenti volatili è stata condotta mediante PTR-MS (spettrometria di massa con reazione di trasferimento di protoni), una tecnica di spettrometria che permette una valutazione del fingerprint globale dei volatili senza fasi preliminari o trattamento dei campioni. Questa valutazione “real-time” dei profili spettrali di oli extravergini da cultivar Grignano unita a analisi multivariata dei dati, mediante analisi delle componenti principali e clustering gerarchico, ha permesso di proiettare i complessi spettri ottenuti tramite l’analisi spettrometrica in una heat map. I risultati hanno dimostrato che lo stadio di maturazione ha un effetto predominante sulla definizione del profilo volatile rispetto all’estrazione in atmosfera controllata, e che il progredire della maturazione è caratterizzato dalla biosintesi di specifici gruppi di molecole volatili che sembrano quindi “espresse” in modo transiente. Inoltre, è stato osservato un effetto saturazione nel profilo volatile con il progredire della maturazione. Conseguentemente, dato che lo stadio di maturazione ha un effetto prevalente rispetto ai fattori tecnologici studiati, uno studio approfondito della fisiologia della maturazione in Veneto è stato condotto ponendo particolare attenzione a perdita di consistenza, inolizione, contenuto in clorofilla a, dati colorimetrici (calcolo di indici di colore) e dati di espressione genica. I risultati hanno dimostrato che gli eventi collegati alla maturazione sono differenti nelle cultivar Grignano e Frantoio, dato che Grignano manifesta una dinamica di maturazione più precoce e rapida, sia considerando la perdita di consistenza che l’accumulo di olio nella drupa. Questi risultati suggeriscono come monitorare la maturazione in Grignano sia più difficile, dato che i cambiamenti nei parametri di maturazione si verificano molto velocemente. Inoltre, sono state osservate differenze importanti nei parametri elencati in due stagioni successive, da cui consegue una notevole difficoltà nella comprensione del profilo globale di maturazione. Sono state condotte analisi statistiche sui campioni descritti e l’analisi delle componenti principali ha stabilito che la cultivar Frantoio mostra maggiore variabilità nei dati di inolizione, confermando che il decorso di maturazione della cultivar Grignano è in qualche modo più compatto. Tra gli indici di colore calcolati nello studio, uno, cioè CI, sembra appropriato per distinguere campioni raccolti in diversi stadi di maturazione. Successivamente, per approfondire le caratteristiche aromatiche tipiche della cultivar Grignano, è stato condotto uno studio riguardante il metabolismo terpenico in olivo, con l’isolamento e la caratterizzazione di tre enzimi responsabili della biosintesi di terpeni (terpene sintasi) per la prima volta in questa specie. A questo scopo è stata condotta una ricerca approfondita di putative terpene sintasi in un database di EST (expressed sequence tag) di olivo recentemente pubblicato. I frammenti selezionati sono stati amplificati permettendo di ottenere i geni full length, le cui sequenze sono state utilizzate per dedurre le sequenze aminoacidiche che sono state espresse in E. coli. Le proteine espresse sono state sottoposte a saggi enzimatici per determinarne l’attività e una di queste si è dimostrata una geraniolo sintasi attiva, mentre le altre due proteine non hanno dato prodotti anche se la presenza di terpene sintasi inattive non è così infrequente. Analisi qPCR hanno dimostrato come le tre terpene sintasi isolate abbiano un andamento legato alla maturazione nell’espressione genica, ed è possibile perciò un loro ruolo nella determinazione del profilo aromatico. Infine, l’utilizzo della qPCR come analisi di espressione genica nei lavori precedenti ha evidenziato come geni reference validati e adatti per studi di espressione genica in olivo non siano disponibili in letteratura. Una ricerca di geni reference candidati per questo scopo è stata quindi condotta utilizzando il database di EST citato sopra e cercando in letteratura studi riguardanti la validazione di geni reference in altre specie vegetali. Sono stati quindi identificati 13 geni candidati in Olea europaea, la cui stabilità dei trascritti è stata testata sia in drupe che in foglie di olivo. Analisi di stabilità condotte mediante gli strumenti genormPLUS e NormFinder hanno dimostrato che 12 tra questi geni sono effettivamente geni reference funzionali e utilizzabili per studi di espressione genica in olivo e che, tra questi, il numero di geni ottimale da utilizzare per una buona normalizzazione dei dati corrisponde a due. I migliori geni reference identificati in questo studio, adatti per analisi di espressione genica in frutti a diversi stadi di sviluppo, sono stati GAPDH2 e PP2A1.

Thesis (MTech (Food Technology))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2012.
The expansion of the South African olive processing industry has brought an increased threat to the environment. More production activities lead to more wastewater generation that requires more costly treatment. Regulatory bodies concerned with the release of effluents into the environment are imposing evermore-restrictive guidelines. With this information in mind, the South African olive industry is facing a significant challenge of maintaining economic competitiveness while becoming more environmentally benign. To begin addressing this challenge, the olive processing industry must develop and implement new, more effective, tailored treatment technologies to remediate olive wastewater prior to its release into the environment. In this study, the use of indigenous olive wastewater biofilms in combination with a rotating biological contactor (RBC) was investigated for possible bioremediation purposes. The development of microbial biofilms resulted in the breakdown of the hazardous chemical compounds present in the olive wastewater, i.e. reducing the chemical oxygen demand (COD) and polyphenol content. Results showed that indigenous microorganisms within table olive and olive mill wastewater have a strong tendency to form biofilms. Furthermore, when these biofilms are applied to a small-scale RBC system, significant lower levels of both COD (on average 55% for table olive wastewater (TOWW) and 46% for olive mill wastewater (OMWW) and total phenol (on average 51% for TOWW and 39% for OMWW) were obtained. Results from shocking the biofilms with chemicals routinely used during olive processing indicates that most have a negative effect on the biofilm population, but that the biofilms are able to survive and recover in a relatively short time. This study confirms the potential application of indigenous biofilms found in olive wastewater streams for future bioremediation technologies that form the basis for the development of an eco-friendly, easy-to-manage, low cost technologies specifically designed for the small South African olive processing industry.

The principal objective of this study was to extract olive oil from the fruit of Olea europaea by means of supercritical carbon dioxide (sc-C02) as an alternative to traditional methods. Extractions were performed on a laboratory scale supercritical fluid extractor of the latest design, featuring three mutually independent flow systems and extremely high flow rates. A number of extraction runs based on a statistical design was performed to establish the conditions (time, pressure, temperature) for a maximum yield of extracted olive oil. These conditions turned out to be 50 OC and 460 atm (corresponding density of 0.953 g/mL) for a 60 minute extraction run. The influence of different variables on the yield of extracted oil was investigated by means of computer-assisted surface response analysis. Additional extraction runs were performed at selected conditions to make reliable conclusions regarding the temperature, pressure and density dependencies of the extraction process and the nature of the mechanism of extraction. The density of the extracting fluid was found to be the key variable which limits the extraction by the extent to which olive oil dissolves in sc-CO2. The composition of the sc-C02 derived oil was determined by GC-GCTTOF-MS analysis and compared to that of commercial olive oil. A total of 27 peaks were detected in the chromatogram of the sc-C02 derived oil as opposed to 37 peaks observed for commercial olive oil. These peaks could all be identified, and the two major components in the sc-C02 derived olive oil are hexadecanoic and oleic acid. The quality and composition of the oil were evaluated against standard specifications of the International Olive Oil Council and classified on the basis of these criteria as lampante olive oil. This oil is suitable for industrial use but not for human consumption.
Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutical Chemistry))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2006.

Mestrado em Biotecnologia
O objectivo principal deste trabalho foi estudar a aplicação de líquidos iónicos de cadeia alquílica longa na formação de sistemas micelares, para melhorar a hidrólise enzimática de azeite comercial com o objectivo de produzir ácidos gordos de valor acrescentado. Este trabalho está dividido em duas partes. Na primeira, diferentes parâmetros, como o tipo e concentração de líquido iónicos e a razão volumétrica água/óleo, foram estudados com o objectivo de determinar as condições capazes de criar emulsões mais estáveis. A segunda parte incluiu a optimização das condições da reacção de hidrólise de forma a maximizar a produção dos ácidos gordos. Nesta fase, os parâmetros estudados foram a velocidade de agitação, a quantidade de enzima, a temperatura, o pH e a força iónica do sal usado para tamponizar a reação. Os resultados obtidos mostram que a actividade da CaLB aumentou 1.6 vezes, quando a reacção de hidrólise foi realizada a 314.2 (±0.1) K, 400 rpm, 2.08 mg proteina/mL e a formulação da emulsão era 15% azeite, 85 % (v/v) de tamão fosfato de sódio e 0.100 M de [C10mim]Cl. Assim, a superactividade da lipase foi conseguida, embora o seu valor seja menor que o reportado em literatura para outros sistemas reacionais de hidrólise usando a CaLB.
The main objective of this work was to study the application of long alkyl chain ionic liquids in the formation of micellar systems to improve the enzymatic hydrolysis of a commercial olive oil to produce valuable fatty acids. This work was divided in two major parts. The first part addresses the optimization of the emulsion preparation, where different parameters were studied in order to determine the conditions capable to create the most stable emulsion, namely the ionic liquid type and concentration and different water/olive oil volumetric ratios. The second part includes the optimization of the hydrolysis reaction conditions in order to maximize the fatty acids production. Here, the stirring speed, the amount of enzyme added to the reaction systems, the temperature, the pH and the ionic strength of the buffer used to maintain the pH during all the reaction experiments, were the parameters studied. The results obtained showed that the CaLB activity increased 1.6 times, when the hydrolysis was performed at 314.2 (±0.1) K, 400 rpm, 2.08 mg protein/mL and the emulsion was composed of 15% of olive oil, 85 % (v/v) of sodium phosphate buffer and 0.100 M of [C10mim]Cl. In summary, the lipase superactivity was achieved although its value was much lower than the reported in literature for other hydrolysis reactions using CaLB.

This dissertation project examines how value is changed and created through organic certification and the universalizing ideas of capacity building within the olive oil industry in Jordan and how these shifts affect the social and material processes of production. I approach organic olive oil production in Jordan as one method that producers use in accessing markets and capacity building. By shifting from looking strictly at organic certified farms to examining the larger context of capacity building and international standards, I identify how organic is just one strategy in a larger effort to diversify Jordanian agricultural production and to access global markets. However, more work needs to be done to elucidate how development shapes organic and other ‘alternative’ initiatives differently than in European and North American contexts. In order to do this, I incorporate postcolonial critiques of GPN and critical development studies to further our understanding how of these certifications and standards are taken up, challenged, and sometimes abandoned in favor of other production methods in local spaces of the Global South. The local embeddedness of olive oil production and the relative recent history of export provide a unique opportunity for examining how producers, organizations, governments, and universities create new export industries. In order to trace how these capacities are built, this dissertation examines the following questions: how is value redefined as producers try to access distant consumers? What are the material and social strategies? In answering these questions, I examine three types of value: taste/sensory, organic/environmental, and gendered tradition. Through the examination of these values, I found that they were each built through a mechanism: re-asetheticizing local taste, creating a new commodity network, and pushing domestic labor into the public sphere. Each mechanism has intended and unintended consequences for the social relations of production. In summary, this dissertation explores the use (and abandonment) of organic certification within the larger context of development and capacity building in Jordan. In order to explore how value is being created in new ways, the three empirical chapters examine extra virginity, organic certification, and women’s rural organizations. By looking beyond a singular commodity chain, this dissertation examines the processes through which institutional assemblages are formed and destabilized. Therefore, each of the three empirical chapters covers a different aspect of the institutions that are defining value within the larger network of the olive industry. This approach will further our understanding of how quality and conventions function in systems under transition. (Higgins, Dibden, and Cocklin 2008a). Together these findings provide a broad picture of efforts in Jordan to improve and expand the Jordanian olive oil industry. A large aspect of this effort is to produce exportable olive oil. While only a small percentage of producers are exporting, governmental and development networks want to build the capacity of the olive industry so that more farmers are producing to international standards. Through this broad initiative, traditional ideas of quality and the best practices of production are being challenged. These shifts create new networks and products through which rural producers try to capture value. While the overall ramifications of this shift for the average farmer are small now, with further government standardizing, production and its associated social relations could be significantly changed. The traditional farmers who were able to sell within their personal networks may lose their ability to sell flexibly, and simultaneously larger irrigated producers may flourish, having larger environmental impacts.

The aim of this thesis is the optimization of the anaerobic digestion of wastes derived from olive oil production, which represent one important economic sector of all the Mediterranean Countries. The main byproducts of this activity are the semi-solid Olive Pomace (OP), characterized by low pH, high content of organic matter and in particular of ligno-cellulosic materials, and a liquid one, the Olive Mill Waste Water (OMWW) which have a dark color, low pH and high content of polyphenolic substances. Because their features, these wastes are very polluting and not recommended with the traditional methods, which consists essentially to dispose on the soil with the consequent alteration of the chemical characteristics of the ground and the possibility to contaminate the groundwater. For these reasons anaerobic digestion represents the most sustainable method to treat these wastes, which permits the production of a gas rich in methane and a stabilized sludge poor in organic matter, the digestate usable as fertilizer. A first test, conducted in laboratory scale (about 100 ml) was made in order to evaluate the biogas production from a 10% w/w mixture composed by OP and OMWW. The biogas production was very low (0.22 NL/L) and consequentially the efficiency of process resulted of 0.3%. The high poly-phenols content in the OMWW are responsible of the inhibition of the methanogenic bacteria activity and owing the lignocelluloses nature of the largest organic structures determined the low biodegradability of the OP and OMWW. The first part of the thesis’ work consisted in the identification of the effects of chemical and physical pretreatments by AD fermentation tests in order to evaluate the biogas and methane production, abatement of the organic matter and reduction of the lag phase of 133 pretreated OP and OMWW to score the best one. In addition, considering that AD is aimed to produce energy, operational energy costs to perform the pretreatments were investigated, based on the consumption of direct energy (heat and electricity) as well as the indirect energy spent to produce the chemicals used. To this aim an Energy Sustainability Index (ESI) were introduced and applied to select the most efficient pretreatment method from an energy sustainability perspective. The simply dilution of OP with tap water (WP) has a beneficial effect in the anaerobic digestion, improving over 57 times the energy production respect to un-treated waste (NP). However considering the CH4 production, the best pretreatments resulted to be the CaCO3, FeCl3 addition and the ultrasonic pretreatment, which had an efficacy of 108, the highest among the tested pretreatment processes. Between the three best pretreatments the addition of 5g/L of CaCO3 to the reaction medium, resulted the only one able to give a positive energy balance between the energy obtained and that spent, due to the low energy required for the CaCO3 production. The CaCO3 pretreatment permits to pass from an efficiency of 0.3% to about 21%. After the identification of the CaCO3 addition as the best pretreatment, a test including the same OP- OMWW mixture with 5 g/L of CaCO3 has been conducted in a CSTR reactor having a volume of 2 Liters. Since the beginning of the prove, it was evident a problem with the mixing system due to a elevate value of the mixture’s viscosity, 160- 200 cP. The Rushton impeller resulted totally unable to guarantee an homogenous mixing of the reactor medium. In fact, the Rushton impeller can give a boost to the fluid only in a radial direction, resulting to be inefficient along the axial one and not able to guarante the circulation of the solid present in the feed, derived mainly from the breaking of the olive seeds during the olive oil production’s process. To improve the mixing of the reaction medium, four different impellers were tested:  Pelton Impeller;  Rushton impeller with six 45° inclined blades;  Marine Impeller with 3 blades;  Anchor Impeller. The best performances were obtained with the marine and the anchor impellers. The first is designed to guarantee mainly an axial movement to the fermenting fluid, which, at constant rpm, results to be superior than the Rushton with inclined blades. it guarantees also a radial movement to the reaction medium, which consents to involve in the mixing all 134 the reactor volume. Conversely, the optimal performances of the test conducted with the anchor impeller can be explained observing the presence of a well mixed region in the superior part of the reactor where anchor impeller was located, for the effect of the tangential movement given to the fluid, and a less agitated, but no stagnant, part in the inferior part of the reactor. This more quiet zone resulted ideal for the methanogenic bacteria’ conditions which do not tolerate intense mechanical stress derived from the impeller rotation. In this way their growth, reproduction and metabolism activity was favored with a consequent increasing of the methane production. An ulterior attempt to increase the efficiency of the AD process consisted in the simultaneous experimentation of the two best impellers (the marine and the anchor) with the two stage AD configuration, based on the separation into two interconnected steps, of the two distinctly different groups of bacteria (acidogens and methanogens), in order to maximize their growth by maintaining optimum conditions in each step for each particular group of bacteria. The two stage configuration resulted advantageous only for the AD conducted with the marine impeller using a reactor with a semi spherical bottom to improve the solids circulation. In this test the efficiency passed from 22.64% (mono-stage) to 30.24% (two stage configuration) with an improvement of rhe efficacy (η) of 1.34 times. Conversely, the two stage has worsened the efficiency of the AD with the anchor impeller whose efficiency dropped down from over 33% to 17.5%, which corresponds to η = 0.52. The marine impeller, in fact, gives an axial boots to the reaction medium which permits to the gas bubbles to leave the reaction volume, preventing the inhibition of the reactions involved in the AD. The semi-spherical bottom of the reactor also had a beneficial effect on the AD, permitting a better homogenization of the biomass and of the substrates into the reaction medium. Conversely, the anchor impeller which give a strong radial impulse and only a gentle axial movement to the reaction medium. This configuration gives a behavior, which can be similar to an UASB reactor, permits the growth, the reproduction and the activity of the methanogenic microorganisms which are not disturbed by strong mechanical stress transmitted by the mixing system. Although this good aspect, the quasi stagnant region does not consent the complete degassing of the hydrogen gas in the first acidogenic phase from the reaction medium. On the contrary the anchor impeller has not any impact on the mono-stage configuration where the biogas is formed essentially by methane, but has a strong inhibiting effect on the two stage configuration where the formed hydrogen is a reaction intermediate products. Lastly, a continuous test has been conducted using a pilot reactor having a working volume 135 of 1,800 liters. The olive oil production’s wastes were fed with milk whey, a byproduct form dairy activity. The codigestion was conducted in mesophilic conditions and had a duration of 75 days. The system reached a stationary condition with a biogas production of 1.4 L/L and a methane content of 70-75% v/v. This gas flow has an energetic annual potential of 55 GJ. Taking in account that Puglia’ s annual energetic consumption is of 375,000 GJ (Piano Energetico Ambientale Regionale – Regione Puglia, 2004), the anaerobic digestion of olive oil and dairy’s waste is able to cover the 0.015% of the regional energetic demand.

La culture de l’olivier et la production d’huile, du Néolithique à l’Empire romain : le cas particulier de la péninsule Ibérique. Ce titre met en lumière les deux axes principaux de cette recherche doctorale. La première concerne la domestication de la plante à partir des zones refuges de l’oléastre en Méditerranée ; la deuxième, l’apparition des différentes technologies de production oléicole, leur évolution, ainsi que les héritages observés entre les différents peuples du Bassin entre le Néolithique et l’Empire romain. Toutes ces problématiques sont analysées à partir du cas précis de la péninsule Ibérique, extrémité occidentale de la Méditerranée, lieu d’échanges et d’influences d’origine orientale – phéniciennes et grecques, principalement. Grâce à l’étude de la domestication et des premières implantations de l’olivier il a pu être mis en évidence la nécessité d’associer l’archéobotanique – identification d’endocarpes, du charbon de bois et du pollen – à la génétique. Cette dernière a récemment permis de démontrer l’autochtonie de la plante en Méditerranée occidentale depuis les dernières glaciations, contestant ainsi les théories diffusionnistes d’une origine phénicienne – exclusivement orientale – de l’espèce et de l’oléiculture. La deuxième partie consacrée à l’étude de la technologie oléicole péninsulaire, démontre l’importance d’une machinerie de type artisanal et local, contemporaine d’une mécanique de type « préindustrielle » d’origine orientale. Les deux groupes typologiques se complètent et s’influencent jusqu’à l’arrivée de l’industrie oléicole romaine
The culture of olive tree and the production of olive oil from the Neolithic Era to the Roman Empire: the case of the Iberian Peninsula. The title highlights the two main research lines of this doctoral thesis. On the one hand, the domestication of the olive plant from the refuge areas of oleaster in the Mediterranean Sea; on the second hand, the emergence of different technologies of oil production, evolution and legacy observed between the different cultures of the Mediterranean from the Neolithic Era to the Roman Empire. All these issues are studied within the specific context of the Iberian Peninsula, western end of the Mediterranean world and place of exchanges and influences of from Eastern cultures - namely Phoenician and Greek. Through the study of domestication and first implantations of the olive tree emerged the need of involving scientific research from archaeobotany - identification of endocarps, wood charcoal and pollen - to genetics. The latter has recently demonstrated the indigeneity of the plant in West Mediterranean since the last glaciations, thus disputing the “diffusionist” theories of a Phoenician origin - exclusively Eastern - of the varieties of olive and their production. The second part of the research, dedicated to the study the Peninsular technology of olive oil, demonstrates the importance of craft and local machinery, as well as contemporary ‘preindustrial’ types of Eastern origin. Both typological groups complement and influence each other until the introduction of Roman olive industry

Mestrado em Engenharia Agronómica - Instituto Superior de Agronomia
The purpose of this work is to draw an Analysis of the Export Market of Portuguese Olive Oil. For such, a characterization was made of the domestic olive oil market, a quick look to the world market and the selection and analysis of three target markets. Two questionnaires were also made, one to the national companies that export olive oil and another to the companies that import olive oil in the three target markets, Brazil, China and United Kingdom, previously selected. The olive oil imports/exports involves several attributes that affect in a different way the buy/selling operations. With the purpose to understand how important those attributes are, the answers from both questionnaires were analysed and gathered information was crossed, because that was the only reasonable way. It was concluded that the best way to overcome the difficulties of national olive oil exports companies would be to create a strong cluster that would aloud a bigger percentage of market to the national products, through increased sales of the brands already on market and the help to market entry of new national products.

Mestrado em Engenharia Alimentar - Qualidade e Segurança Alimentar - Instituto Superior de Agronomia
The main goal of the present work was the application of near infrared spectroscopy (NIR) in the characterization of soybean oil, sunflower oil, extra virgin olive oil and olive oil. Firstly, the models provided by Bruker, the equipment manufacturer, were validated. These models are related to the fatty acid composition and acidity for oils and olive oils, iodine value for oils and peroxide value, ultraviolet absorbance (232 and 270 nm), -sitosterol and total sterols in olive oils. Simultaneously calibration models were developed for the individual oils (fatty acid composition, iodine value, anisidine value and the ultraviolet absorbance (230 and 270 nm) and olive oils (acidity, fatty acid composition, -sitosterol, total sterol, absorbance at 232 nm, erythrodiol and uvaol). Also two calibration models were developed for the quantification of stigmastadienes in extra virgin olive oils, to detect and quantify the presence of soybean oil or sunflower oil. Both models proved promising – sunflower oil (r2 = 0,94; RMSECV = 0,013 ppm; RPD = 3,95) and soybean oil (r2 = 0,70; RMSECV = 0,054 ppm; RPD = 1,82). However, it is necessary to analyze a greater number of samples to carry out an external validation

This work proposed a deep learning approach to a multi-class classification problem. In particular, our project goal is to establish whether there is a connection between olive oil molecular composition and its geographical origin. To accomplish this, we implement a method to transform structured data into meaningful images (exploring the existing literature) and developed a fine-tuned Convolutional Neural Network able to perform the classification. We implement a series of tailored techniques to improve the model.

I denna kandidatuppsats besvaras frågan om vilka designlösningar på förpackningen till en olivolja som i butikssammanhang positionerar sig som mer exklusiv och därmed bidrar till att målgruppen inhandlar produkten. För att ta reda på detta har observationer på sådana olivoljeflaskor gjorts i tre utvalda butiker. Utifrån dessa observationer har sedan en trendanalys gjorts. Med utgångspunkt ur trendanalysen har ett designarbete gjorts där fyra olika olivoljeförpackningar tagits fram baserade på element som används på en majoritet av dagens olivoljeförpackningar som positionerar sig som mer exklusiva. Förpackningarna är 3D-modeller modellerade i 3D Studio Max och etiketterna har skapats i Illustrator och Photoshop och har i den sistnämnda programvaran sammanfogats med förpackningarna. Med hjälp av bärbar eye-trackingutrustning fick fyra deltagare se de framtagna förpackningarna och med blicken svara på frågor angående dessa. Förpackningarna visades med hjälp av en projektor på en vägg, i naturlig storlek och uppradade på en simulerad butikshylla. Efter detta intervjuades deltagarna genom att använda kvalitativa frågor angående deras åsikter om olivoljeförpackningarna. Resultaten visar att varumärkesnamnets utformning är viktigt samt att en förpackning till en olivolja som positionerar sig som mer exklusiv bör vara gjord av glas, vara mjuk och följsam, samt innehålla ett mönster på etiketten. Form och mönster är de element som verkar vara de mest minnesvärda elementen och för att locka målgruppen är det viktigt med en förpackning som sticker ut på butikshyllan. En alltför innovativ form är inte att rekommendera medan en innovativ etikett kan vara fördelaktig. Tidigare erfarenheter har en betydelse vid val av förpackning och varumärkesnamn, produktbeskrivare och produktnamn bör tydligt uttryckas. Det är även fördelaktigt om designlösningen får konsumenten att vilja använda förpackningen som en del av köksinredningen. Färger, ovanliga för denna typ av produkt, kan skapa ett positivt ”hyllintryck” och färger som associeras till positivitet, värme, sol och energi kan i synnerhet locka konsumenter inom målgruppen. Symmetri i utformningen av etiketter för olivoljor som positionerar sig som mer exklusiva är fördelaktigt liksom användningen av en ljus nyans i etiketten i kontrast till ett mörkare textelement och/eller grafiskt element.
In this bachelor thesis the question regarding which design solutions, concerning the packaging to an up-market olive oil, contribute to the target group purchasing the product. To find out, observations on the up-market olive oil packaging of today was made in three selected stores. Based on the observations a trend analysis was made. With this analysis as a base, a design task, where four different olive oil packages were produced. These packages were based on elements frequently used on the present olive oil packaging. The packages are 3D-models made in 3D Studio Max and the labels were made in Illustrator and Photoshop. The labels were then merged with the packages using Photoshop. Using portable eye-tracking equipment, four participants were shown the four different olive oil packages, and got to answer questions concerning these packages, by using their eyes. The packages were shown through a projector, on a plain wall, in natural size and lined up on a simulated store shelf. Afterwards the participants answered qualitative questions regarding their opinions concerning olive oil packaging. The results show that the formation of the brand name is of importance and that a packaging for an up-market olive oil should be made out of glass, have a streamlined shape and a label that contains a pattern. The most memorable elements seem to be shape and pattern and in order to attract the target group, it is important to use a packaging design that stands out on the store shelf. An overly innovative shape is not to be recommended, but an innovative label can be beneficial. Prior experiences are of importance when choosing a packaging and brand name, product descriptor and product name should clearly be expressed. It is also beneficial if the design solution makes the consumer want to use the packaging as a part of the interior design in the kitchen. Colors unusual for this type of product can be used to create a positive ‘shelf impact’ and colors associated with positivity, warmth, sun and energy can especially tempt the consumers of the target group. Symmetry in the layout of the labels for up-market olive oil is beneficial as well as the use of a light color tone on the label in contrast to a darker text element and/or graphic element.

Globalization increased the complexity of the olive oil value chain: this work analyzes its features and evolution using the Global Commodity Chain framework to provide sector stakeholders with insights on core actors and phenomena. Results show that olive oil is produced in Mediterranean areas - though new producers are growing - and globally traded and consumed, spreading in non-traditional countries in USA, Europe and Asia. Spain – focused on quantity - and Greece – with high quality but low promotional strength - are the core bulk exporters. Italy is the main bulk importer, which it blends, bottles and sells in global markets exploiting the Italian reputation but competing on price: this represents the dominant and debated scenario, where MNCs lead reducing the competitiveness of weaker higher quality regional producers. With globalization, new actors appeared; regulations intensified to combat fraud. The power of demand increased; authority shifted to large bottlers and retailers; fragmented producers suffer from agricultural squeeze, except for efficient Spanish cooperatives. Actors upgraded improving products, processes and international reach; relationships became modular, where however quality and brand promotion entail stronger coordination, bulk production and focus on quantity result in more price-driven relations. Future prospects will continue in these directions: cooperation, balance between quality and efficiency and international markets are key to succeed.

L’olio extravergine d’oliva (Extra-Virgin Olive Oil, EVOO) e l’estratto di foglie d’ulivo (Olive Leaves Extract, OLE) rappresentano un'importante fonte di composti nutraceutici, tra cui si annoverano composti a struttura fenolica e polifenolica come i fenil alcoli, gli acidi fenolici, i lignani, i flavoni, i flavonoli ed i secoiridoidi, una classe di composti esclusivi della famiglia delle Oleaceae. I secoiridoidi principalmente presenti nell’EVOO sono l’oleaceina e l’oleocantale, mentre nelle foglie si ritrova l’oleuropeina. Questi composti possiedono proprietà nutraceutiche, quali quelle antiproliferative, cardioprotettive, antiossidanti ed antinfiammatorie. Il progetto di ricerca della mia tesi di dottorato è stato focalizzato sullo studio dei composti fenolici e polifenolici presenti nell’EVOO e nell’OLE e si è articolato in varie direttrici:  Sviluppo di metodi efficienti per l'estrazione e la purificazione di oleocantale ed oleaceina da EVOOs Durante il dottorato sono state messe a punto delle procedure che hanno permesso di ottimizzare le precedenti metodiche di estrazione e purificazione ottenendo quantità significative di oleaceina ed oleocantale con buona purezza, partendo da EVOO fresco.  Studio delle proprietà nutraceutiche di oleocantale ed oleaceina L’oleocantale e l’oleaceina estratti e purificati dagli EVOOs sono stati sottoposti a studi farmacologici al fine di investigare le loro proprietà nutraceutiche. Questi studi hanno evidenziato il ruolo dei due secoiridoidi nell'infiammazione degli adipociti associata all'obesità e nella via di segnale NF-κB. È stato possibile evidenziare la capacità dell'oleaceina di inibire la proliferazione delle cellule di melanoma cutaneo in vitro (cellule 501Mel). Inoltre, è stato provato che l'oleocantale esercita un effetto anti-fibrotico, sia su modelli in vitro che in vivo di fibrosi epatica.  Studio delle variazioni della composizione fenolica e polifenolica degli EVOOs nel tempo Queste ricerche sono state condotte analizzando differenti EVOOs mediante metodiche HPLC sviluppate in questo dottorato. I risultati di queste analisi hanno confermato che i composti fenolici presenti nell’EVOO subiscono nel tempo un processo idrolitico, che differisce in ciascun campione di EVOO ed è fortemente correlato alle condizioni di conservazione.  Studio di nuovi componenti negli EVOOs e delle loro potenziali proprietà nutraceutiche Tra i pochi studi relativi ai processi ossidativi subiti dai composti fenolici e polifenolici presenti nell’EVOO, recentemente è stato individuato un nuovo prodotto di ossidazione dell’oleocantale, l’acido oleocantalico, che da studi preliminari è risultato essere particolarmente interessante per le sue potenziali proprietà neuroprotettive. La mia attenzione si è quindi focalizzata sull’acido oleocantalico al fine di ottenerlo ad alto grado di purezza, per poterlo poi sottoporre ad ulteriori studi per investigare le sue proprietà nutraceutiche. È stata valutata per la prima volta la sua attività antiossidante, dimostrando che l’acido oleocantalico possiede un’attività radical scavenging di specie reattive dell’ossigeno.  Studio della composizione di EVOOs toscani per la determinazione della loro tracciabilità geografica Questa parte della mia attività è stata svolta nell’ambito di un progetto che si propone di sviluppare un modello che permetta di verificare e garantire l’origine dell’olio, legandolo indissolubilmente al suo territorio di produzione. In particolare, mi sono dedicata allo studio delle caratteristiche di quaranta EVOOs toscani (acidità totale, contenuto dei composti fenolici e dei principali acidi grassi) al fine di correlarle con dati relativi ad altri parametri, quali la concentrazione di macroelementi, microelementi, elementi in traccia essenziali e non essenziali, nonché terre rare, presenti sia nei campioni di EVOOs che in quelli di suolo dove gli ulivi sono stati coltivati.  Sviluppo di device utili nel campo della rigenerazione tissutale a partire da fitoestratti di foglie d’ulivo (OLEs) ottenute da ulivi di Cultivar autoctone toscane Questa parte dell’attività di ricerca è stata svolta nell’ambito di un progetto che ha come obiettivo quello di studiare fibre biocompatibili che incorporano OLEs per lo sviluppo di dispositivi biomedicali utili nel processo di rigenerazione tissutale. Nell’ambito di questo progetto mi sono dedicata all’analisi di diversi OLEs al fine di selezionare quello più appropriato in termini di composizione fenolica e polifenolica, che è stato quindi incorporato nei biopolimeri. Ho quindi confermato l’avvenuta incorporazione dell’OLE nei biopolimeri e verificato che questi fossero in grado di rilasciare i fenoli ed i polifenoli dell’OLE. Inoltre, è stato dimostrato che i biopolimeri che incorporano l’OLE possiedono promettenti proprietà anti-infiammatorie ed immunomodulatorie, utili per il possibile sviluppo dei device.
Extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) and olive leaves extract (OLE) represent an important source of nutraceutical compounds, including phenolic and polyphenolic compounds such as phenyl alcohols, phenolic acids, lignans, flavones, flavonols and secoiridoids. Secoiridoids are a class of compounds exclusive of Oleaceae family. Oleocanthal and oleacein are the most important secoiridoids present in EVOO, while oleuropein is the main representative in OLE. These compounds possess nutraceutical properties, such as antiproliferative, cardioprotective, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. My PhD project was focused on the study of the phenolic and polyphenolic compounds in EVOO and in OLE and it was aimed to several parallel objectives:  Development of efficient methods for the extraction and the purification of oleocanthal and oleacein from EVOOs During this PhD, new procedures were developed by improving previous extraction and purification methods, obtaining significant quantities of oleacein and oleocanthal from fresh EVOO, with good purity.  Study of the nutraceutical properties of oleocanthal and oleacein Oleocanthal and oleacein extracted and purified from EVOOs were then submitted to pharmacological studies to investigate their nutraceutical properties. The results of these studies highlighted the role of the two secoiridoids in obesity-associated adipocytes inflammation and in the NF-κB pathway. The ability of oleacein to inhibit the proliferation of skin melanoma cells in vitro (501Mel cells) was demonstrated. Moreover, the antifibrotic effect of oleocanthal, in both in vitro an in vivo models of liver fibrosis, was proved.  Study of the variations in the phenolic and polyphenolic composition of EVOOs during storage This study was conducted by analysing several EVOOs using HPLC methods developed during this PhD thesis. The results of these analyses confirmed that the phenolic compounds present in EVOO underwent a hydrolytic process during storage. However, the evolution of this pathway differs in each EVOO sample, and it is strongly related to storage condition.  Study of novel components in EVOOs and their potential nutraceutical properties The oxidative process involving phenolic and polyphenolic compounds in EVOO are poorly investigated. A new oleocanthal oxidation product, named oleocanthalic acid, has been recently identified and preliminary studies showed the potential neuroprotective properties of this compound. My attention was therefore focused on obtaining oleocanthalic acid with high purity in order to submit it to further studies for its nutraceutical properties investigation. A detailed assessment of its in vitro radicals quenching activity was performed for the first time, demonstrating its scavenging capacity against reactive oxygen species.  Study of composition of Tuscan EVOOs for the determination of their geographical traceability This part of my PhD work was carried out as a part of a project aimed to develop a model that would allow to verify and guarantee the origin of the oil, indissolubly linking it to its production area. In particular, I studied the characteristics of forty Tuscan EVOOs (free acidity, phenolic compounds content and main fatty acids content). The results of these analyses will be correlated with other parameters studied, such as the concentration of macro-elements, micro-elements, essential and non-essential trace elements, as well as rare earth elements, present both in the samples of EVOOs and in those of soil where the olive trees were cultivated.  Development of devices useful in tissue regeneration fields from olive leaves phytoextracts (OLEs) obtained from autochthonous Tuscan olive trees Cultivars This part of my research was carried out under a project that aims to study biocompatible fibers incorporating OLEs for the development of biomedical devices useful in the tissue regeneration field. In particular, I analysed the phenolic and polyphenolic composition of several OLEs in order to select the most appropriate one to incorporate into the biopolymers. I therefore confirmed the incorporation of the OLE into the biopolymers and their capability to release the OLE phenols and polyphenols. Furthermore, the biopolymers incorporating OLE showed promising anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties, useful for the development of devices.

Background: The differential effects of using topical oils for the prevention or treatment of baby dry skin on skin barrier function may contribute to the development of childhood atopic eczema. Prevalence of atopic eczema has increased from 5% of children aged 2 to 15 years in the 1940s, to approaching 30% more recently. This increase cannot be attributed to genetic changes. It is likely that increases stem from environmental factors, including the increased use of some inappropriately formulated commercial and natural baby skincare products. Midwives, health visitors and other maternity service health professionals, in the UK, routinely recommend the use of olive oil and sunflower oil for baby dry skin or massage, but the effect of these oils on newborn baby skin has not been studied. Aim: The aim of this research was to assess the feasibility and acceptability of testing the hypothesis that the regular application of sunflower oil, when compared to no oil or olive oil, had an effect on skin barrier function of newborn term babies. Study Design: A pilot, assessor-blinded, single centre, three-arm, randomised controlled trial, with nested qualitative component, underpinned by post-positivism. Methods: Quantitative methods were used to establish proof of concept that the use of topical oils had some effect on newborn baby skin barrier function, and to assess the feasibility of trial processes and parameters. Qualitative methods were used to explore the acceptability to parents of having a newborn baby participating in a randomised controlled trial, and trial design and procedures. The study was conducted in St. Mary’s hospital, a large teaching hospital in North West England. Data were collected between September 2013 and August 2014.The randomised controlled trial included 115 babies who were randomised to three groups: sunflower oil, olive oil and no oil, using a computer-generated varied size block randomisation with concealed allocation. Parents of babies randomised to the oil groups were blinded to which oil they were allocated. Data were collected using standardised case report forms for demographic and clinical observation data, weekly telephone questionnaires and a follow-up questionnaire, informed by previous baby skincare trials. The qualitative study encompassed semi-structured interviews, conducted within six months of birth. The sample was a subset of the trial participants, purposively sampled to incorporate a mix of treatment groups and positive and negative experiences derived from the follow-up questionnaire. Data also included two open-text questions from the follow-up questionnaire. Quantitative data were managed using IBM SPSS Statistics versions 20 and 22 and analysed descriptively. Qualitative data were managed in NVivo 10 and analysed using Framework Analysis. Results: The pilot study found that a definitive randomised controlled trial is not the optimal next step. A longitudinal observational study and further mechanistic work is recommended. Recruitment was challenging and loss to follow-up was higher than anticipated. Protocol adherence was reasonable and the study was acceptable to parents. Some statistically significant results were obtained, which must be interpreted with caution as the study was not powered to detect such a difference. These results showed that both oils may impede the development of the skin barrier function from birth; clinical importance of the results is not known. Conclusion: A longitudinal observational study is required, which maps the diagnosis of atopic eczema with environmental factors such as the use of baby skincare products from birth. Mechanistic work is also required to consider the optimal skincare formulation. As any intervention should do more good than harm, it would be wrong to support the recommendation of topical olive oil or sunflower oil for newborn baby dry skin or massage, based on the study data.

As preocupações, desejos e necessidades dos consumidores à jusante tendem a guiar, cada vez mais, as iniciativas dos produtores à montante e esta é uma realidade também na agricultura, com a seleção de alimentos mais saudáveis, saborosos e com valor agregado por parte dos compradores, gerando um ambiente propício para produtos com estas características. O azeite extra virgem de oliva, cujas características se enquadram nos novos hábitos alimentares, vem assumindo uma posição de destaque entre os consumidores do mundo todo e não é diferente no Brasil. A despeito da pouca tradição na produção olivícola, o Brasil e em especial o Rio Grande do Sul, ao longo da última década tem iniciado uma produção concreta deste alimento, o qual vem chegando lentamente às gôndolas dos supermercados locais e nacionais gozando de uma reputação excelente. Diante, portanto, da possível emergência deste sistema de produção agrícola, da demanda potencial deste produto e da possibilidade de satisfazê-la por meio da produção local em contraposição às importações, entendeu-se que um estudo deste fenômeno recente e por conseguinte pouco analisado pode lançar as bases teóricas para a sua compreensão. Assim, teorias ligadas à governança foram utilizadas para a identificação da organização e coordenação do sistema. Para a análise dos elementos básicos do sistema, o referencial teórico utilizado foi o de sistemas complexos e para a compreensão da relação dos elementos básicos na formação de um sistema complexo, aplicou-se o ferramental da economia institucional evolucionária. Em função deste referencial teórico e da problemática a ser trabalhada, optou-se por um método reconhecidamente institucional com uma abordagem qualitativa, ou seja, um estudo de caso em modo exploratório, realizando entrevistas com participantes considerados chave no sistema e submetendo posteriormente os dados colhidos no campo aos dados secundários e ao referencial teórico. Os resultados encontrados apontam para um gradual florescimento da organização do sistema, com a coordenação não mercadológica do setor, entende-se governança, a cargo dos governos estadual e federal, mas não foram encontrados, até o momento, indícios de uma governança por parte da base, isto é, dos produtores. No que tange ao relacionamento dos elementos para a emergência do sistema, verificou-se que esta se dá por meio das trocas de informações constantes e transações que ocorrem entre os agentes e a economia local, influenciando uns aos outros em uma dinâmica base-topo e no sentido inverso, topo-base, quando o sistema reage às influências e inicia a estimular as estruturas de governança e infra-estrutura institucional. Nesta perspectiva, entende-se que os elementos do sistema que está efetivamente emergindo foram caracterizados, bem como sua relação com a economia local e que é imprescindível, para os participantes, que este sistema complexo seja entendido e tratado como tal, com intervenções adequadas, de modo que possa, desta forma, propiciar ganhos a todos os envolvidos.
Consumers concerns, desires and necessities in downstream tend to increasingly guide initiatives of producers in the upstream and this is a reality also in agriculture, with the selection of healthier, tastier, and with higher market value food, which generates a welcoming environment for products with such characteristics. Extra virgin olive oil, whose characteristics fit in the new dietary habits, has been assuming a highlighted position among consumers from the whole world, which is not different in Brazil. Despite having little tradition in olive cultivation, Brazil, especially the state of Rio Grande do Sul, has started since the last decade a solid production of this product, which has slowly reached national and international supermarkets’ shelves while receiving an excellent reputation. Therefore, with the possible emergence of this agricultural production system, and by the high demand of the product as well as the possibility of fulfilling this demand through local production instead of imports, we assume that a study about this recent, and consequently little studied, phenomenon can provide theoretical basis for its comprehension. Hence, governance theories were used to identify the system’s organization and coordination. In order to analyze basic elements of the system, the theoretical background used was that of complex systems; for the comprehension of the basic elements’ relation in the formation of a complex system, the apparatus of institutional-evolutionary economics was applied. Having in mind this theoretical background and the problem studied, we opted for a method acknowledgedly institutional with a qualitative approach i.e. an exploratory case study conducting interviews with participants considered as fundamental in the system, submitting afterwards the data collected in field to the secondary data and the theoretical background. The results obtained point to a gradual blooming of the system’s organization, with coordination not subjected to the market action of the sector, by which is understood governance, of Federal and State responsibility. However, until the moment evidences were not found of a governance of the base i.e. the producers. In reference to the relationship of the elements for the system’s emergence, it was verified that this occurs by means of constant information exchange and transactions that occur between the agents and the local economy. The agents and the local economy influence each other reciprocally in a bottom-up dynamics and in the reverse, topdown, when the system reacts to influences and begins to stimulate governance structures and institutional infrastructure. In this perspective, it is understood that the system’s elements that are effectively emerging were characterized, as well as their relation with local economy. It is crucial for the participants that this complex system can be understood and treated as so, with adequate interventions in a way that it can propitiate gains to all parts involved.

Nitric oxide (NO) is an important signaling molecule involved in many physiological and pathological processes. NO contributes to vessels vasodilatation and blood flow increasing, but also to the vessel homeostasis by inhibiting vascular smooth muscle contraction and growth, platelet aggregation, and leukocyte adhesion to the endothelium. In the intestinal epithelium, NO may play, at low levels, a protective role against the inflammatory process, while after acute or chronic exposure a toxic mechanism of action leads to injurious effects. Dietary polyphenols and their metabolites have been found to be directly involved in the modulation of the intracellular signals that lead to the production of NO. The purpose of this study was to investigate the mechanism of the modulatory action of extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) phenylethanoids, tyrosol (Tyr) and hydroxytyrosol (HT), and hydroxycinnamates, ferulic acid (FA), hydroferulic acid (DHFA) and isoferulic acid (IFA), in comparison to their glucuronide and sulfate metabolites, on the production of NO both at vascular and intestinal level. The first part of this investigation was assessed in endothelial cells (HUVEC and HAEC) to evaluate the superoxide production, the release of NO and cGMP and the activation of eNOS via Akt phosphorylation in endothelial cells. It was observed that the tested phenolic compounds enhanced NO concentration inhibiting its depletion caused by superoxide overproduction. Moreover, some of them enhanced its production through the modulation of Akt activation and of eNOS phosphorylation. DHFA and IFA showed better effectiveness than FA, as well as HT, which worked better than Tyr either as superoxide inhibitor or as eNOS enhancer. Interestingly, some of the tested metabolites worked in the same way of their parent compounds: it is the case of HT, whose metabolites were significantly effective in Akt and eNOS activation, as well as in superoxide counteraction. Overall, obtained data showed that these compounds promote NO production and availability, so their intake by EVOO dietary consumption can help in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension, thrombosis, hypercholesterolaemia and atherosclerosis. The second part of this study was focused on the modulation of NO and cGMP production in intestinal cells (Caco-2), with the aim of investigating the ability of EVOO phenolics to inhibit iNOS activation and the underlying mechanism of action. Treatments with pathological concentrations of lypopolysaccharide (LPS) were carried out to stimulate iNOS activation pathway, which involves NF-ĸB activation through IĸBα and Akt phosphorylation, and evaluate the transepithelial resistance changes on Caco-2 monolayers. It was overally observed that all the tested compounds inhibited NO release induced by LPS, acting as inhibitors of iNOS expression. Considering hydroxycinnamates, they were able to down-regulate Akt phoshorylation. IFA sulf was surprisingly the most effective in the Akt inhibition, while DHFA and its glucuronide better inhibited IĸBα degradation and iNOS. No one of the phenylethanoids instead were able to inhibit Akt activation. However, they were effective in the inhibition of IĸBα degradation, suggesting a modulatory action on a parallel mechanism upstream NF-ĸB translocation to the nucleus. All the tested phenolic compounds counteracted the deleterious effect of LPS on Caco-2 cell monolayer permeability, suggesting the ability of preserving intestinal barrier integrity. Thus, it can be assumed that reaching relevant concentrations of EVOO phenols in the gut lumen may exert beneficial effects against intestinal inflammation, which is one of the major features of many intestinal diseases.

virgen en spray para cocinar y para consumo directo. Utilizará una novedosa tecnología que evita el contacto entre el gas y el aceite y se orienta a un segmento de la sociedad que busque un producto saludable y de propiedades organolépticas agradables. Con relación al mercado para este producto el consumo interno va en aumento gracias a una tendencia creciente a consumir productos de estas características, proyectando al 2021 una demanda potencial de 807 toneladas de este producto. Sin embargo, considerando la competencia en el sector al que se dirige este producto y su intención e intensidad de compra, estimamos que la demanda del proyecto para el 2017 será de 21.46 toneladas del producto y para el 2021, 53 toneladas. Respecto a la localización de la planta, la provincia más adecuada luego de realizar un ranking de factores es Arequipa. Esto se debe a que, junto con Tacna, su producción de aceitunas es la más alta del Perú y la cercanía a la materia prima es vital. Su mayor proximidad a Lima a comparación a Tacna es lo que la define como el lugar más adecuado. La planta se localizará en el distrito Arequipa.
Trabajo de investigación

Orientador: Carlos Alberto Rodrigues Anjos
Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos
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Resumo: O consumo de azeite de oliva no Brasil apresentou um crescimento de 70% na última década. As gôndolas dos supermercados foram tomadas por uma diversidade de azeites de oliva acondicionados em vários tipos de embalagens. Esses produtos são todos importados, sendo que uma parte é fracionada e envasada no Brasil, visto que não existe produção em escala comercial no país. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a estabilidade do azeite de oliva extra virgem em diferentes sistemas de embalagem. As amostras de azeite de oliva extra virgem foram fracionadas e acondicionadas em embalagens de polietileno tereftalato (PET) nas cores cristal (transparente) e âmbar; em latas de folha-de-flandres; e em garrafas de vidro transparente. Um lote destas embalagens foi inertizado com nitrogênio gasoso. O envase e o fechamento foram feitos de forma manual. As amostras foram estocadas à temperatura ambiente (25±2°C) e em duas condições: mantidas em caixas de papelão ao abrigo da luz e expostas à luz (2900 lux) por 12 horas/dia por um período de seis meses. Para determinação da estabilidade do azeite foram realizadas análises físico-químicas de ácidos graxos livres, índice de peróxidos, extinção específica a 230 e 270 nm, teor de clorofila e cor L*C*h, no momento inicial e a cada 30 dias. Já as análises de umidade, compostos fenólicos totais, teor de tocoferóis e cor Lovibond foram feitas em intervalos de 90 dias. Observou-se que no período de 6 meses de estocagem, os resultados mais expressivos ocorreram devido à foto-oxidação, com degradação significativa nos compostos a-tocoferol, clorofila e significativa alteração da cor. Os efeitos da auto-oxidação foram observados pelo ligeiro aumento do valor de K232 e do índice de peróxido. Quando armazenados no escuro durante 6 meses, os quatro tipos de embalagem foram eficazes em manter a estabilidade oxidativa do azeite. Quando exposto à luz, o azeite das embalagens de PET e vidro transparentes apresentou expressiva degradação. Na embalagem de PET âmbar a degradação foi mais lenta, porém significativa. A inertização com nitrogênio não teve efeito sobre a estabilidade do azeite nos diferentes tipos de embalagens. Assim, diante dos resultados obtidos no experimento e sabendo que o azeite de oliva é exposto à luz nos pontos de venda e durante o consumo doméstico, o uso de embalagens transparentes não é recomendado para azeites de oliva extra virgem. Quanto à embalagem de PET âmbar, faz-se necessário melhorar seus parâmetros de barreira à luz, como a pigmentação e a espessura da parede
Abstract: Brazilian consumption of olive oil presented a growth about 70% in the last decade. Market shelves has been filled by a diversity of olive oil conditioned in a variety of packages. ln the Brazilian marketing all of the olive oil are imported and part of them are parceled and packed in Brazil, since in the country there is no production in commercial scale. The objective of this work is to evaluate the stability of virgin olive oil in different packaging systems. The olive oil was fractioned and packed in transparent and amber polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles, transparent glass bottles and tinplates cans. Half of the package received a nitrogen flow. The filling and closing were done manually. The samples were stored during six months at room temperature (25±2°C) and in two conditions: in cardboard boxes without exposition to light and with light exposition (2900 lux) for 12 hours/day. The quality parameters to determination of the oil stability were analyzed monthly: free fatty acid, peroxide value, specific extinction at 230 and 270 nm, chlorophyll content and color L*C*h. The moisture, total phenolics, a-tocopherol content and Lovibond color were evaluated every ninety days. It was observed that within 6 months of storage, the most significant results were due to photo-oxidation, causing significant degradation on the contents of a-tocopherol and chlorophyll and changes in the color. The effects of auto-oxidation were observed by the slight increase in K232 and peroxide value. It was realized that when stored in the dark for six months, the packages studied were effective in maintaining the oil stability. The most significant changes occur in the olive oil exposed to light in transparent PET and glass bottles. The inerting with nitrogen had no effect on the stability of olive oil. Thus, considering the results obtained in the experiment and knowing the fact that olive oil is exposed to light at points of sale and during the domestic consumption, the transparent packages are not recommended for extra virgin olive oil. Relating to the amber PET bottles exposed to light, the effect of the oxidation was slower, but significant. Therefore, it's necessary to improve its light barrier like the thickness and the pigmentation
Mestrado
Tecnologia de Alimentos
Mestre em Tecnologia de Alimentos

Orientador: Juliana Alves Macedo
Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos
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Resumo: O azeite de oliva virgem extra é considerado um alimento funcional com importantes propriedades biológicas relacionadas à elevada concentração de ácido graxo monoinsaturado. Estudos recentes indicam que os componentes minoritários na composição do azeite têm sido muito associados com benefícios à saúde, muito além do conteúdo de ácido oleico, destacando-se os compostos fenólicos, principalmente hidroxitirosol e tirosol. A região na qual as oliveiras são cultivadas pode ter influência direta na composição do azeite, principalmente no que se refere aos compostos minoritários. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar se o potencial antioxidante dos azeites de oliva produzidos no Brasil (ArbequinaRS, ArbequinaMG e Maria da Fé) se assemelha ao dos azeites europeus (ArbequinaMed e Gallo®) tradicionais no mercado brasileiro. O perfil de ácidos graxos mostrou que a amostra Maria da Fé assemelha-se à amostra referência Gallo®, apresentando as maiores concentrações de ácido oleico. O teor de tocoferóis foi maior nas amostras ArbequinaRS e Maria da Fé. Quanto à determinação de fenólicos totais, pelo método de Folin-Ciocalteu, destacaram-se a ArbequinaRS e ArbequinaMed. Esta também apresentou maior concentração de hidroxitirosol, enquanto que, a referência Gallo® apresentou maior teor de tirosol. A capacidade antioxidante foi avaliada por métodos de sequestro de radicais, ORAC e DPPH, este permitiu identificar diferença estatística entre as amostras testadas. Dentre as amostras de variedade Arbequina, destaca-se o azeite produzido na região Sul do Brasil, equiparando-se estatisticamente ao comercial de origem mediterrânea; foi observada uma correlação positiva entre conteúdo de fenólicos totais e a capacidade antioxidante pelo método de sequestro de radical DPPH. O método ORAC não mostrou diferença estatística significativa entre as amostras. A atividade biológica foi avaliada através da mensuração da atividade de enzimas endógenas, catalase e superóxido dismutase, do arsenal antioxidante de hepatócitos humanos. Após o ensaio MTT de viabilidade celular foram definidas duas concentrações de estudo para os testes enzimáticos: 0,5 e 2mg/mL. De forma geral, nos ensaios de ativação do sistema celular endógeno antioxidante de hepatócitos, dentre os azeites testados os de maior potencial biológico foram os brasileiros, com importante destaque para a variedade Arbequina produzida no Rio Grande do Sul, ArbequinaRS
Abstract: The extra virgin olive oil is considered a functional food with important biological properties related to the high concentration of monounsaturated fatty acid. Recent studies indicate that minor components in olive oil composition have been very associated with health benefits, far beyond the content of oleic acid, highlighting the phenolic compounds, especially hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol. The region where the olive trees are grown may have direct influence on oil composition, especially with regard to minority compounds. The objective of this study was to evaluate the antioxidant potential of olive oils produced in Brazil (ArbequinaRS, ArbequinaMG and Maria da Fé) is similar to European oil (ArbequinaMed and Gallo®) traditional in the Brazilian market. The fatty acid profile showed that the sample Maria da Fé resembles the reference sample Gallo®, with the highest concentrations of oleic acid. The tocopherols content was higher in ArbequinaRS and Maria da Fé samples. The determination of total phenolic by the Folin-Ciocalteu method, the highlights were the ArbequinaRS and ArbequinaMed. This also showed a higher concentration of hydroxytyrosol, while the Gallo® reference showed greater tyrosol content. The antioxidant capacity was evaluated by sequestration methods of radicals, ORAC and DPPH, this allowed us to identify significant differences between the samples tested. Among the samples of Arbequina variety, stand out from the oil produced in southern Brazil, equating statistically the trade of Mediterranean origin; was observed a positive correlation between total phenolic content and antioxidant activity by DPPH radical sequestration method. The ORAC method was not significantly different between the samples. The biological activity was evaluated by measuring the activity of endogenous enzymes of the antioxidant arsenal of human hepatocytes: superoxide dismutase and catalase. After the MTT assay cell viability was defined two concentrations to study enzyme tests 0,5 and 2 mg/mL. In general, the antioxidant endogenous cellular system hepatocyte activation assays, among the oils tested the highest biological potential were Brazilians, with major emphasis on the Arbequina variety produced in Rio Grande do Sul, ArbequinaRS
Mestrado
Nutrição Experimental e Aplicada à Tecnologia de Alimentos
Mestra em Alimentos e Nutrição

Vegetable oil is more difficult to degrade by microorganisms in comparison to carbohydrates and protein. Thus, it creates serious environmental and health concerns if oil-derived waste streams produced by restaurants and industries remain untreated. In this study, a strategy has been developed to grow filamentous fungi in pure olive oil so that it can be used as a bench-mark for growth in olive oil mill sidestreams. The growth of different strains (Aspergillus oryzae, Neurospora intermedia and Rhizopus oryzae) was tested in pure olive oil. A pre-germination stage using glucose as carbon and energy source, or the addition of yeast extract, were found necessary for successful fungal growth in olive oil. Here, A. oryzae showed a superior performance in comparison to N. intermedia and R. oryzae. Medium pH did not impact A. oryzae growth in olive oil, whereas a concentration higher than 40 g/L of the latter impaired the growth of the ascomycete. Obtained biomasses from A. oryzae and N. intermedia cultivations in olive oil were analyzed and compared for protein, fat, ash, and alkali-insoluble material (cell wall content), where the presence of olive oil had a steering effect. The fungal biomass of A. oryzae, obtained from cultivation in the absence of olive oil, contained 0.33% fat and 48% protein, whereas the respective values in the presence of olive oil were 31% and 14%. Similar trends on fat and protein contents were observed for the biomass of N. intermedia. Sudan black staining was also performed on fresh biomass which clearly indicated the presence of oil globules inside the fungal cells. This research can be a fundamental step towards treatment of oil-based waste streams, which entails high-energy and costs if treated, or environmental impacts during informal discharges. Moreover, the fact that the composition of fungal biomass can be steered through addition of olive oil increases the versatility of the originated biomass for various applications, namely in feed, food and biofuel production.

L'industria dell'olio d'oliva genera un numero importante di sottoprodotti, come le acque di scarico delle olive, la sansa di oliva e le foglie di ulivo. È stato dimostrato che questi scarti vegetali sono ricchi degli stessi composti fenolici presenti anche nell'olio d'oliva. Tuttavia, i sottoprodotti di olio d'oliva non sono ancora stati sfruttati su scala industriale, ad esempio come fonti di composti bioattivi. A tal fine, è necessario studiare a fondo in che modo le condizioni di lavorazione (pretrattamento della materia prima, estrazione, ecc.) influenzano il potenziale di bioattività, nonché esplorare nuove applicazioni nell'industria alimentare. Pertanto, l'obiettivo principale di questa tesi era legato alla possibilità di utilizzare i sottoprodotti oleari ricchi di composti polifenolici per la formulazione di nuovi alimenti funzionali. Per realizzare nuovi alimenti è necessario considerare che la potenziale incorporazione di sottoprodotti nella formulazione alimentare potrebbe alterare le proprietà sensoriali, suggerendo quindi che un'attenta selezione del tipo e la quantità di questi ingredienti e le opportune opzioni tecnologiche, dovrebbero essere adottate. In particolare, in questa attività di ricerca sono stati studiati gli effetti dei metodi di essiccazione applicati agli estratti dai sottoprodotti dell'olio di oliva sul contenuto di polifenoli e sulla capacità antiossidante. Estrazione di liquidi supercritici, estrazione liquida pressurizzata e estrazione assistita ad ultrasuoni sono stati adottati per scegliere le migliori condizioni di estrazione da applicare ai sottoprodotti. La sansa d'oliva fresca e le foglie di olivo sono state essiccate all'aria a basse temperature per preservare i composti bioattivi e poi utilizzate per alimentare la fortuna. Le acque reflue dei mulini sono state pretrattate dalla tecnologia a membrana, con il duplice scopo di ridurre l'acqua di scarico del carico organico e recuperare i polifenoli. Questa tecnologia, attraverso l'uso di quattro membrane in cascata di microfiltrazione, ultrafiltrazione, nanofiltrazione e osmosi inversa è in grado di estrarre composti polifenolici. Innovativi prodotti a base di cerali e di pesce sono stati realizzati utilizzando questi sottoprodotti ricchi di molecole bioattive. I prodotti alimentari arricchiti sono stati caratterizzati per il contenuto di composti bioattivi, per le proprietà sensoriali e quindi sottoposti a digestione in vitro allo scopo di valutare la bioaccessibilità dei polifenoli totali. I risultati sperimentali sono molto interessanti e sottolineano che i sottoprodotti dell'olio d'oliva potrebbero essere valorizzati come ingredienti promettenti per realizzare nuovi prodotti ricchi di composti fenolici, affrontando anche il problema dell'inquinamento ambientale.
The olive oil industry generates an important number of by-products, such as olive mill waste water, olive pomace and olive leaves. It has been demonstrated that these vegetable wastes are rich in almost all the phenolic compounds which are present in olive oil. Nevertheless, olive oil by-products have not yet been exploited at industrial scale, for example as sources of bioactive compounds. For this purpose, it is necessary to study how the processing conditions (raw material pre-treatment, extraction, etc.) affect their properties, as well as explore new applications in the food industry. Therefore, the main goal of this thesis was related to the possibility of using olive oil by-products for the formulation of new fortified foods. To this aim, it was necessary to consider that the potential incorporation of by-products into food formulation could alter the sensory properties, thus suggesting that careful selection of the type and the amount of these ingredients and proper technological options, should be adopted. Specifically, in this research activity the effects of drying methods applied to the extracts from olive oil by-products on the polyphenol content and antioxidant capacity were investigated. Supercritical fluid extraction, pressurized liquid extraction and ultrasonic assisted extraction were adopted to choose the best extraction conditions to be applied to by-products. Fresh olive pomace and olive leaves were air dried at low temperatures to preserve bioactive compounds and then used to fortity food. Olive mill waste water was pretreated by membrane technology, with the dual aims of reducing the organic load waste water and recovering polyphenols. This technology, through the use of four membranes in cascade of microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration and reverse osmosis is able to extract polyphenolic compounds. Innovative ceral-based and fish-based products were realized using these by-products rich in bioactive molecules. The enriched food products were characterized for the content of bioactive compounds, for sensory properties and then subjected to in vitro digestion with to purpose of evaluating the bioaccessibility of total polyphenols. The experimental results are very interesting and highlight that olive oil byproducts could be valorized as promising ingredients to realize new products rich in phenolic compounds, also facing the problem of the environmental pollution.

Mestrado em Engenharia Agronómica - Instituto Superior de Agronomia
The foresight study of the technology needs for the Olive Oil Industry allowed the identification of technological needs that require development. The DELPHI method, a technology foresight method that has been successfully used before in the agrifood sector, formed the basis of the analysis. This method required the participation of experts from the olive oil industry. The application of the method was undertaken in two rounds of surveys both with the participation of 29 experts. The surveys were the same in both rounds, with only one difference: in the second round, the results of the first survey were revealed as a feed-back to the participants. These results showed that the priority themes were those that are connected with questions of the market and commercialization of the olive oil, and those about marketing, in special about passing the information on the benefits of olive oil to the consumer. Important were also the themes on transfer of knowledge and on preserving the genetic pool of the Portuguese olive tree.

Els nivells de lipoproteïnes de baixa densitat (HDL) estan inversament relacionats amb la malaltia cardiovascular. No obstant, estudis d’intervenció i d’associacions genètiques assenyalen que la funcionalitat o qualitat de l’HDL és un paràmetre de major importància que la quantitat d’HDL. S’han descrit diversos efectes ateroprotectors dels compostos fenòlics (CFs) de l‘oli d’oliva verge (OOV). Conseqüentment, la síntesi d’OOV funcionals (OOVFs) enriquits amb CFs podria ser una bona estratègia per incrementar el consum de CFs sense incrementar la ingesta calòrica. La hipòtesi del present treball és que el consum sostingut d’OOVFs enriquits amb els seus propis CFs o amb ells més CFs complementaris propis de la farigola podria modificar les propietats fisicoquímiques de l’HDL i la distribució de les subclasses d’HDL, incrementant així la funcionalitat de l’HDL en individus hipercolesterolèmics. Dues intervencions aleatoritzades, controlades, doble cec i creuades foren realitzades dins el context de l’estudi “Virgin Olive Oil and HDL Functionality”. En la intervenció d’ingesta aguda, els participants ingeriren una dosi d’OOVFs enriquits amb els seus propis CFs a diferents concentracions (250-750 ppm de CFs). En la intervenció d’ingesta sostinguda, individus hipercolesterolèmics ingeriren OOVFs enriquits amb CFs a diferents concentracions i de diferent origen (80-500 ppm de CFs de l’oli d’oliva o combinats amb CFs de la farigola) durant tres setmanes. Els resultats mostraren que aquests OOVFs milloren la distribució de les subclasses d’HDL i diversos ratis aterogènics, incrementen la presència d’antioxidants en HDL, exerceixen un efecte beneficiós en la família de les paraoxonases i incrementen l’eflux de colesterol, d’acord amb la quantitat i l’origen dels CFs ingerits. Conseqüentment, aquests OOVFs podrien considerar-se nutracèutics apropiats per a augmentar la funcionalitat de l’HDL i com a una eina complementaria per al tractament d’individus hipercolesterolèmics.
Los niveles de lipoproteínas de alta densidad (HDL) están inversamente relacionados con la enfermedad cardiovascular. No obstante, estudios de intervención y de asociaciones genéticas señalan que la calidad funcional de la HDL es un parámetro de mayor importancia que la cantidad de HDL. Se han descrito diversos efectos ateroprotectores de los compuestos fenólicos (CFs) del aceite de oliva virgen (AOV). Por consiguiente, la síntesis de AOV funcionales (AOVFs) enriquecidos con CFs podría ser una buena estrategia para incrementar el consumo de CFs sin incrementar la ingesta calórica. La hipótesis del presente trabajo es que el consumo sostenido de AOVFs enriquecidos con sus propios CFs o con ellos más CFs complementarios propios del tomillo podría modificar las propiedades fisicoquímicas de la HDL y la distribución de las subclases de HDL, incrementando así la funcionalidad de la HDL en sujetos hipercolesterolémicos. Dos intervenciones aleatorizadas, controladas, doble ciego y cruzadas fueron realizadas en el contexto del estudio “Virgin Olive Oil and HDL Functionality”. En la intervención de ingesta aguda, los participantes ingirieron una dosis de AOVFs enriquecidos con sus propios CFs a diferentes concentraciones (250-750 ppm de CFs). En la intervención de ingesta sostenida, sujetos hipercolesterolémicos ingirieron AOVFs enriquecidos con CFs a diferentes concentraciones y de diferente origen (80-500 ppm de CFs del aceite de oliva o combinados con CFs del tomillo) durante tres semanas. Los resultados mostraron que estos AOVFs mejoran la distribución de las subclases de HDL y varios ratios aterogénicos, incrementan la presencia de antioxidantes en HDL, ejercen un efecto beneficioso en la familia de las paraoxonasas e incrementan el eflujo de colesterol, de acuerdo con la cantidad y el origen de los CFs ingeridos. Consecuentemente, estos AOVFs podrían considerarse nutracéuticos apropiados para acrecentar la funcionalidad de la HDL y como una herramienta complementaria para el tratamiento de sujetos hipercolesterolémicos.
High-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels are inversely related to cardiovascular disease development. However, data from gene association and intervention studies lead to consider the functional quality of HDL as a more important parameter than the quantity of HDL. Phenolic compounds (PCs) from virgin olive oil (VOO) have been reported to hold atheroprotective functions. Therefore, the tailoring of functional VOOs (FVOO) enriched with PCs has been postulated as an interesting strategy to increase the daily PCs intake without increasing the caloric intake. The aim of the present thesis is that the sustained intake of FVOOs enriched with its own PCs or with them plus complementary ones from thyme may modify the physicochemical properties of HDL particles, and may promote changes in HDL subclasses distribution leading to the consequent enhancement of HDL functionality in hypercholesterolemic subjects. Two randomized, controlled, double-blind, and crossover interventions were conducted within the frame of the “Virgin Olive Oil and HDL Functionality” study. In an acute-intake intervention, participants ingested a single dose of FVOOs enriched with their own PCs but differing in the phenolic content (250-750 ppm of PCs). In a sustained-intake intervention, hypercholesterolemic participants ingested VOOs differing in PCs source and content (80-500 ppm of PCs from olive oil or combined with those from thyme) for three weeks. The results revealed that these FVOOs improve HDL subclasses profile and their associated atherogenic ratios, increase antioxidants content in HDL, exert a beneficial impact on paraoxonases family, and increase cholesterol efflux, according to PCs content and source in the FVOOs tested. Therefore, the tailoring of FVOOs could be a good nutraceutical to enhance the functionality of HDL and a complementary tool for the management of hypercholesterolemic individuals.

L'huile d'olive est la principale source d’apports lipidique dans le régime méditerranéen. Elle est reconnue comme une source de nutriments et est à l’origine de plusieurs effets biologiques bénéfiques pour la santé. Plusieurs études montrent notamment que la consommation d'huile d'olive peut être efficace dans le traitement de maladies cardiovasculaires. Cependant, peu d'études mettent en évidence un effet antiinflammatoire, antiallergique et anti-Alzheimer de l’huile d’olive. De même, aucune étude n’a déterminé un lien entre ces effets et les variétés d’olives dont sont issues les huiles ainsi que les composés présents responsables de ces effets. Le but de ce travail est donc d'évaluer l'effet biologique, et plus particulièrement le potentiel antiinflammatoire et antiallergique des composés hydrophiles obtenus après extraction en phase solide (SPE-Diol), à partir de plusieurs variétés d’huiles d'olive extra vierge (EVOO) issues de trois années de récolte différentes. L'effet neuroprotecteur de la variété Picholine, contre la maladie d'Alzheimer a également été évalué. Les résultats montrent que l'effet anti-inflammatoire et l’effet anti-allergique varies de façon concentration dépendante et en fonction de la variété d’EVOO. De plus, nous avons mis en évidence que la variété de Picholine a un effet neuroprotecteur. L’ensemble de ce travail a établi une corrélation entre des activités anti-inflammatoire, anti-allergique et anti-Alzheimer des huiles d’olives issues de plusieurs variétés et les différents composés présents, ce qui a permis de mettre en avant la variété Picholine
Olive oil is the primary source of fat in the Mediterranean diet. It is not only known as a distinctive source of nutrients but also as an origin of several biological effects that represent a very important factor for the health. Several studies demonstrate that olive oil consumption has to be effective against heart and cardiovascular diseases. Few studies show up the anti-inflammatory, the anti-allergic and the anti-Alzheimer effects of olive oil but there is no study about the cultivar effect and the interference that could occur between the different olive oil compounds. The aim of this work is to evaluate the biological effect and more particularly the potential anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic of hydrophilic components obtained by solid phase extraction (SPE-Diol) of different extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) cultivars and from three different harvest years. Moreover the neuroprotective effect of Picholine cultivar against Alzheimer’s disease was also studied. The results show that the anti-inflammatory and the anti-allergic activities differ depending on the EVOO cultivar and they are concentration-dependent. The results show also that Picholine cultivar has an anti-Alzheimer activity. All of these studies have established a correlation between the anti-inflammatory, the anti-allergic and the anti-Alzheimer effects of different EVOO cultivars and different compounds present, which enabled us to highlight the Picholine cultivar

Streptomyces clavuligerus is a gram positive filamentous bacterium that produces clavulanic acid, a potent 13-lactamase inhibitor that prevents development of resistance to 13-lactam antibiotics by pathogenic bacteria. S. clavuligerus is unable to utilise glucose or other sugars therefore alternative carbon sources such as glycerol are used by the industry for production of clavulanic acid. Here, the possibility that S. clavuligerus can use food-based oils is tested, since they have benefits such as low price and anti-foam properties, and often lead to higher antibiotic yields. The process of oil utilisation was initially optimised in shake flasks and after use of various food-based oils, olive oil was found to give the highest clavulanic acid levels. An olive oil-containing medium was used for S. clavuligerus fermentations in a laboratory-scale bioreactor. Samples from olive oil- and glycerol-containing cultures were collected every 12 or 24 h and monitoring of the medium components was performed. Biomass levels were similar in both culture media, however clavulanic acid yield was higher with olive oil than glycerol.

碩士
國立屏東科技大學
食品科學系所
105
Raman spectrometry is a method based on the principle of meaning the inelastic scattering of the incident light from a substance and the frequency shift of the scattered light in a manner of detecting characteristic molecular vibrations. It can show the characteristics of the molecular structure of an analyte and it possesses advantages of being simple, time-saving and non-destructive. Some studies have used Raman spectrometry to detect olive oil adulteration with other edible oils such as soybean oil and sunflower oil based on the difference of fatty acid ratio among these oils. Virgin olive oil, the highest quality olive oil, is extracted only by physical procedures without application of refining process. Due to its high commercial profits, some dishonest traders often adulterate virgin olive oil with low-cost refined one and falsely label it as genuine virgin olive oil. Because these kinds of olive oil have similar fatty acid compositions, it is difficult to distinguish the differences. Thus, it is important to develop rapid analytical methods to detect whether or not virgin olive oil is adulterated with other refined oils. The oil refining processes such as bleaching and deodorization often use chemicals and heat, which can cause a loss of carotenoids. Virgin olive oil does not undergo refining steps, so it should contain more carotenoids than refined and pomace olive oil. Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MSMS) or spectrophotometry are common analytical methods to determine carotenoids, but these methods need sample pretreatment involving a large amount of solvent and are time-consuming. Therefore, our study intended to develop a rapid method using Raman spectrometry and statistical methods such as principal component analysis (PCA), hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) to detect olive oil samples for to distinguish adulteration and grading, and to compare it with gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and LC-MSMS methods. The results show that Raman spectrometry using excitation light source at 532 nm can be used to detect the characteristic Raman shifts at 1265 cm-1, 1650 cm-1 for fatty acids to distinguish olive oils from other edible oils and also those at 1150 and 1520 cm-1 for carotenoids for olive oil grading. In this study, Raman spectrometry has been used to successfully develop a simple, rapid and non-destructive method for olive oil grading.