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Journal articles on the topic 'Palytoxins'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 11 March 2023

Last updated: 31 July 2025

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1

Espiña, Begoña, Eva Cagide, M. Carmen Louzao, et al. "Specific and dynamic detection of palytoxins by in vitro microplate assay with human neuroblastoma cells." Bioscience Reports 29, no. 1 (2008): 13–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bsr20080080.

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Palytoxin is one of the most complex and biggest molecules known to show extreme acute toxicity. The dinoflagellate Ostreopsis spp., the producer organism of palytoxin, has been shown to be distributed worldwide, thus making palytoxin an emerging toxin. Rat-derived hepatocytes (Clone 9) and BE (2)-M17 human neuroblastoma cells were used to test palytoxin or palytoxin-like compounds by measuring the cell metabolic rate with Alamar Blue. The dose-dependent decrease in viability was specifically inhibited by ouabain in the case of BE (2)-M17 neuroblastoma cells. This is a functional, dynamic and

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2

Hammond, Harriet L., and Chad J. Roy. "History and Toxinology of Palytoxins." Toxins 16, no. 10 (2024): 417. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins16100417.

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Palytoxins are a group of highly potent and structurally complex marine toxins that rank among some of the most toxic substances known to science. Palytoxins are naturally synthesized by a variety of marine organisms, including Palythoa zoanthids, Ostreopsis dinoflagellates, and Trichodesmium cyanobacteria, and are widely distributed in tropical and temperate regions where they can bioaccumulate in marine life. The evolution of research on palytoxins has been an intricate exchange between interdisciplinary fields, drawing insights from chemistry, biology, medicine, and environmental science in

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3

Bates, Nicola, Cassandra Morrison, Leah Flaig, and Andrew D. Turner. "Paralytic shellfish poisoning and palytoxin poisoning in dogs." Veterinary Record 187, no. 7 (2020): e46-e46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/vr.105686.

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BackgroundFatal cases of exposure to paralytic shellfish toxins and palytoxins have occurred in companion animals but are poorly described.MethodsWe describe one case of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) and three cases of palytoxin poisoning in dogs.ResultsMild PSP occurred following ingestion of crab while walking on a beach. Analysis confirmed the presence of paralytic shellfish toxins, particularly decarbamoyl saxitoxin, in clinical samples and marine organisms. This case occurred shortly after an outbreak of PSP in dogs on the eastern coast of England. Palytoxin poisoning occurred in a

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4

Uemura, Daisuke, Yoshimasa Hirata, Takashi Iwashita, and Hideo Naoki. "Studies on palytoxins." Tetrahedron 41, no. 6 (1985): 1007–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0040-4020(01)96468-3.

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5

Riobó, Pilar, and José M. Franco. "Palytoxins: Biological and chemical determination." Toxicon 57, no. 3 (2011): 368–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.09.012.

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6

Louzao, M. Carmen, Isabel R. Ares, Eva Cagide, et al. "Palytoxins and cytoskeleton: An overview." Toxicon 57, no. 3 (2011): 460–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.09.017.

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7

Guillen, Paul O., Karla B. Jaramillo, Grégory Genta-Jouve, and Olivier P. Thomas. "Marine natural products from zoantharians: bioactivity, biosynthesis, systematics, and ecological roles." Natural Product Reports 37, no. 4 (2020): 515–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c9np00043g.

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The dazzling marine zoantharians represent a reservoir of chemical diversity that remains to be unveiled. These fragile animals have so far been found to harbour the highly bioactive palytoxins or zoanthamines but also the harmless ecdysteroids or zoanthozanthins.

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8

Ciminiello, Patrizia, Carmela Dell’Aversano, Ernesto Fattorusso, and Martino Forino. "Palytoxins: A still haunting Hawaiian curse." Phytochemistry Reviews 9, no. 4 (2010): 491–500. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11101-010-9185-x.

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9

Melchiorre, Chiara, Michela Varra, Valeria Tegola, Valentina Miele, and Carmela Dell’Aversano. "Palytoxin Signal in LC-MS and UV: Preliminary Investigation on the Effect of Solvent and Temperature." Toxins 17, no. 6 (2025): 286. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17060286.

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Palytoxins (PLTXs) and ovatoxins (OVTXs) are a group of highly potent marine toxins that pose significant health risks through seafood contamination and environmental exposure. OVTX-producing algae have been linked to dermatitis and respiratory distress in Mediterranean beachgoers, while serious public health concerns are related to PLTX accumulation in seafood. In 2009, the European Food Safety Authority highlighted the need for analytical detection methods of the PLTX group of toxins and for the preparation of reference materials. This study investigates the stability of the palytoxin signal

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10

Tubaro, A., P. Durando, G. Del Favero, et al. "Case definitions for human poisonings postulated to palytoxins exposure." Toxicon 57, no. 3 (2011): 478–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2011.01.005.

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11

Ciminiello, Patrizia, Carmela Dell’Aversano, Emma Dello Iacovo, Martino Forino, and Luciana Tartaglione. "Liquid chromatography–high-resolution mass spectrometry for palytoxins in mussels." Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 407, no. 5 (2014): 1463–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00216-014-8367-6.

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12

Ciminiello, Patrizia, Carmela Dell’Aversano, Ernesto Fattorusso, Martino Forino, Laura Grauso, and Luciana Tartaglione. "A 4-decade-long (and still ongoing) hunt for palytoxins chemical architecture." Toxicon 57, no. 3 (2011): 362–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.09.005.

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13

Tubaro, A., G. Del Favero, D. Beltramo, et al. "Toxicological effects of palytoxins: An integrated in vivo and in vitro approach." Toxicon 75 (December 2013): 210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.08.017.

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14

Artigas, Pablo, and David C. Gadsby. "Large Diameter of Palytoxin-induced Na/K Pump Channels and Modulation of Palytoxin Interaction by Na/K Pump Ligands." Journal of General Physiology 123, no. 4 (2004): 357–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1085/jgp.200308964.

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Palytoxin binds to Na/K pumps to generate nonselective cation channels whose pore likely comprises at least part of the pump's ion translocation pathway. We systematically analyzed palytoxin's interactions with native human Na/K pumps in outside-out patches from HEK293 cells over a broad range of ionic and nucleotide conditions, and with or without cardiotonic steroids. With 5 mM internal (pipette) [MgATP], palytoxin activated the conductance with an apparent affinity that was highest for Na+-containing (K+-free) external and internal solutions, lowest for K+-containing (Na+-free) external and

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15

Vilariño, Natalia, M. Louzao, Paula Abal, et al. "Human Poisoning from Marine Toxins: Unknowns for Optimal Consumer Protection." Toxins 10, no. 8 (2018): 324. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins10080324.

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Marine biotoxins are produced by aquatic microorganisms and accumulate in shellfish or finfish following the food web. These toxins usually reach human consumers by ingestion of contaminated seafood, although other exposure routes like inhalation or contact have also been reported and may cause serious illness. This review shows the current data regarding the symptoms of acute intoxication for several toxin classes, including paralytic toxins, amnesic toxins, ciguatoxins, brevetoxins, tetrodotoxins, diarrheic toxins, azaspiracids and palytoxins. The information available about chronic toxicity

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16

Kim, Young-Sang, Hyun-Joo An, Jaeseong Kim, and You-Jin Jeon. "Current Situation of Palytoxins and Cyclic Imines in Asia-Pacific Countries: Causative Phytoplankton Species and Seafood Poisoning." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 8 (2022): 4921. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084921.

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Among marine biotoxins, palytoxins (PlTXs) and cyclic imines (CIs), including spirolides, pinnatoxins, pteriatoxins, and gymnodimines, are not managed in many countries, such as the USA, European nations, and South Korea, because there are not enough poisoning cases or data for the limits on these biotoxins. In this article, we review unregulated marine biotoxins (e.g., PlTXs and CIs), their toxicity, causative phytoplankton species, and toxin extraction and detection protocols. Due to global warming, the habitat of the causative phytoplankton has expanded to the Asia-Pacific region. When inge

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17

Ciminiello, Patrizia, Carmela Dell’Aversano, Emma Dello Iacovo, et al. "High Resolution LC-MSn Fragmentation Pattern of Palytoxin as Template to Gain New Insights into Ovatoxin-a Structure. The Key Role of Calcium in MS Behavior of Palytoxins." Journal of The American Society for Mass Spectrometry 23, no. 5 (2012): 952–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13361-012-0345-7.

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18

Biré, Ronel, Sophie Trotereau, Rodolphe Lemée, et al. "Hunt for Palytoxins in a Wide Variety of Marine Organisms Harvested in 2010 on the French Mediterranean Coast." Marine Drugs 13, no. 8 (2015): 5425–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/md13085425.

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19

Louzao, M. Carmen, Isabel R. Ares, Mercedes R. Vieytes, et al. "The cytoskeleton, a structure that is susceptible to the toxic mechanism activated by palytoxins in human excitable cells." FEBS Journal 274, no. 8 (2007): 1991–2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1742-4658.2007.05743.x.

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20

Biré, R., S. Trotereau, R. Lemée, et al. "Occurrence of palytoxins in marine organisms from different trophic levels of the French Mediterranean coast harvested in 2009." Harmful Algae 28 (August 2013): 10–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2013.04.007.

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21

Mazzeo, Antonia, Michela Varra, Luciana Tartaglione, et al. "Toward Isolation of Palytoxins: Liquid Chromatography Coupled to Low- or High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry for the Study on the Impact of Drying Techniques, Solvents and Materials." Toxins 13, no. 9 (2021): 650. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins13090650.

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Palytoxin (PLTX) and its congeners are emerging toxins held responsible for a number of human poisonings following the inhalation of toxic aerosols, skin contact, or the ingestion of contaminated seafood. Despite the strong structural analogies, the relative toxic potencies of PLTX congeners are quite different, making it necessary to isolate them individually in sufficient amounts for toxicological and analytical purposes. Previous studies showed poor PLTX recoveries with a dramatic decrease in PLTX yield throughout each purification step. In view of a large-scale preparative work aimed at th

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22

Cen, Jingyi, Lei Cui, Yafei Duan, et al. "Effects of palytoxins extracted from Ostreopsis ovata on the oxidative stress and immune responses in Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei." Fish & Shellfish Immunology 95 (December 2019): 670–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fsi.2019.11.001.

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23

Selwood, Andrew I., Roel van Ginkel, D. Tim Harwood, Paul S. McNabb, Lesley R. Rhodes, and Patrick T. Holland. "A sensitive assay for palytoxins, ovatoxins and ostreocins using LC-MS/MS analysis of cleavage fragments from micro-scale oxidation." Toxicon 60, no. 5 (2012): 810–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.05.024.

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24

Tartaglione, Luciana, Carmela Dell’Aversano, Antonia Mazzeo, Martino Forino, Andre Wieringa, and Patrizia Ciminiello. "Determination of Palytoxins in Soft Coral and Seawater from a Home Aquarium. Comparison between Palythoa- and Ostreopsis-Related Inhalatory Poisonings." Environmental Science & Technology 50, no. 2 (2015): 1023–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b05469.

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25

Tartaglione, Luciana, Marco Pelin, Massimo Morpurgo, et al. "An aquarium hobbyist poisoning: Identification of new palytoxins in Palythoa cf. toxica and complete detoxification of the aquarium water by activated carbon." Toxicon 121 (October 2016): 41–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.08.012.

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26

Kim, Jaemyun, Seungwon Ji, Jin-Young Lee, et al. "Marine Polyether Phycotoxin Palytoxin Induces Apoptotic Cell Death via Mcl-1 and Bcl-2 Downregulation." Marine Drugs 21, no. 4 (2023): 233. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/md21040233.

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Palytoxin is considered one of the most potent biotoxins. As palytoxin-induced cancer cell death mechanisms remain to be elucidated, we investigated this effect on various leukemia and solid tumor cell lines at low picomolar concentrations. As palytoxin did not affect the viability of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from healthy donors and did not create systemic toxicity in zebrafish, we confirmed excellent differential toxicity. Cell death was characterized by a multi-parametric approach involving the detection of nuclear condensation and caspase activation assays. zVAD-sensitive a

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27

Mullin, J. M., K. V. Snock, and M. T. McGinn. "Effects of apical vs. basolateral palytoxin on LLC-PK1 renal epithelia." American Journal of Physiology-Cell Physiology 260, no. 6 (1991): C1201—C1211. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpcell.1991.260.6.c1201.

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Research on palytoxin focuses on its action as a tumor promoter and its ionophoretic action in cell membranes. The first property is unusual because palytoxin is not a protein kinase C activator. The second property is remarkable in that it may require interaction with the Na(+)-K(+)-adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase). Our studies here with palytoxin exposure to the LLC-PK1 renal epithelial cells have yielded the following results: 1) unlike protein kinase C-activating tumor promoters (tetradecanoylphorbol 12,13-acetate or teleocidin), palytoxin does not produce a specific effect on the tight ju

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28

Kockskämper, Jens, Gias U. Ahmmed, Aleksey V. Zima, Katherine A. Sheehan, Helfried G. Glitsch, and Lothar A. Blatter. "Palytoxin disrupts cardiac excitation-contraction coupling through interactions with P-type ion pumps." American Journal of Physiology-Cell Physiology 287, no. 2 (2004): C527—C538. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpcell.00541.2003.

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Palytoxin is a coral toxin that seriously impairs heart function, but its effects on excitation-contraction (E-C) coupling have remained elusive. Therefore, we studied the effects of palytoxin on mechanisms involved in atrial E-C coupling. In field-stimulated cat atrial myocytes, palytoxin caused elevation of diastolic intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i), a decrease in [Ca2+]i transient amplitude, Ca2+ alternans followed by [Ca2+]i waves, and failures of Ca2+ release. The decrease in [Ca2+]i transient amplitude occurred despite high sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca2+ load. In voltage-clam

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29

Wattenberg, Elizabeth V. "Palytoxin: exploiting a novel skin tumor promoter to explore signal transduction and carcinogenesis." American Journal of Physiology-Cell Physiology 292, no. 1 (2007): C24—C32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpcell.00254.2006.

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Palytoxin is a novel skin tumor promoter, which has been used to help probe the role of different types of signaling mechanisms in carcinogenesis. The multistage mouse skin model indicates that tumor promotion is an early, prolonged, and reversible phase of carcinogenesis. Understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying tumor promotion is therefore important for developing strategies to prevent and treat cancer. Naturally occurring tumor promoters that bind to specific cellular receptors have proven to be useful tools for investigating important biochemical events in multistage carcinogenesi

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30

Rakowski, R. F., Pablo Artigas, Francisco Palma, Miguel Holmgren, Paul De Weer, and David C. Gadsby. "Sodium Flux Ratio in Na/K Pump-Channels Opened by Palytoxin." Journal of General Physiology 130, no. 1 (2007): 41–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1085/jgp.200709770.

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Palytoxin binds to Na+/K+ pumps in the plasma membrane of animal cells and opens an electrodiffusive cation pathway through the pumps. We investigated properties of the palytoxin-opened channels by recording macroscopic and microscopic currents in cell bodies of neurons from the giant fiber lobe, and by simultaneously measuring net current and 22Na+ efflux in voltage-clamped, internally dialyzed giant axons of the squid Loligo pealei. The conductance of single palytoxin-bound “pump-channels” in outside-out patches was ∼7 pS in symmetrical 500 mM [Na+], comparable to findings in other cells. In

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31

Manic, Dolly C., Richard D. Redil, and Irene B. Rodriguez. "Trace Metals in Phytoplankton: Requirements, Function, and Composition in Harmful Algal Blooms." Sustainability 16, no. 12 (2024): 4876. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su16124876.

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In a constantly changing environment brought about by the climate crisis and escalated anthropogenic perturbations driven by the growing population, harmful algal bloom dynamics and their impacts are expected to shift, necessitating adaptive management strategies and comprehensive research efforts. Similar to primary productivity, HABs have been thought to be driven primarily by major nutrients such as N, P, and Si. However, recent investigations on the role and importance of micronutrients as limiting factors in aquatic environments have been highlighted. This paper provides a review of metal

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32

Dutra Pierezan, Milena, Cristian Rafael Kleeman, Pedro Luiz Manique Barreto, Rodrigo Barcellos Hoff, and Silvani Verruck. "Investigating the etiology of Haff disease: Optimization and validation of a sensitive LC-MS/MS method for palytoxins analysis in directly associated freshwater and marine food samples from Brazil." Food Research International 190 (August 2024): 114585. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2024.114585.

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33

Abuaziz, Suliman S. S., Suraboyina Pavani, and Kanchan Singh. "An Overview on the Worlds Dead Liest Poison (Palytoxin and its Analogs)." International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology 11, no. 3 (2023): 2063–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.22214/ijraset.2023.49872.

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Abstract: Palytoxin is a marine toxin found originally in soft corals Palythoa species of the Pacific Ocean. It is a thermostable, non-protein, coronary vasoconstrictor that leads to death by diminishing the supply of O2 to the Myocardium. Several analogs of PTX or PTLX such as Ostreocin-D, Ovatoxin are found in several dinoflagellates and other marine species such as Crabs (Demania reynaudii) and Smoked Fishes (Decapterus macrosoma) found in same ecological regions. Toxicological studies of PTX showed low lethal dose values in different mammals revealing the acute toxicity due to different ro

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34

Harmel, Nadine, and Hans-Jürgen Apell. "Palytoxin-induced Effects on Partial Reactions of the Na,K-ATPase." Journal of General Physiology 128, no. 1 (2006): 103–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1085/jgp.200609505.

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The interaction of palytoxin with the Na,K-ATPase was studied by the electrochromic styryl dye RH421, which monitors the amount of ions in the membrane domain of the pump. The toxin affected the pump function in the state P-E2, independently of the type of phosphorylation (ATP or inorganic phosphate). The palytoxin-induced modification of the protein consisted of two steps: toxin binding and a subsequent conformational change into a transmembrane ion channel. At 20°C, the rate-limiting reaction had a forward rate constant of 105 M−1s−1 and a backward rate constant of about 10−3 s−1. In the pal

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35

Suh, Edward M., and Yoshito Kishi. "Synthesis of Palytoxin from Palytoxin Carboxylic Acid." Journal of the American Chemical Society 116, no. 24 (1994): 11205–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja00103a065.

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36

Boente-Juncal, Andrea, Sandra Raposo-García, Carmen Vale, M. Carmen Louzao, Paz Otero, and Luis M. Botana. "In Vivo Evaluation of the Chronic Oral Toxicity of the Marine Toxin Palytoxin." Toxins 12, no. 8 (2020): 489. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins12080489.

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Palytoxin (PLTX) is one of the most poisonous substances known to date and considered as an emergent toxin in Europe. Palytoxin binds to the Na+-K+ ATPase, converting the enzyme in a permeant cation channel. This toxin is known for causing human fatal intoxications associated with the consumption of contaminated fish and crustaceans such as crabs, groupers, mackerel, and parrotfish. Human intoxications by PLTX after consumption of contaminated fishery products are a serious health issue and can be fatal. Different reports have previously explored the acute oral toxicity of PLTX in mice. Althou

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37

Patocka, Jiri, Eugenie Nepovimova, Qinghua Wu, and Kamil Kuca. "Palytoxin congeners." Archives of Toxicology 92, no. 1 (2017): 143–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00204-017-2105-8.

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38

Falciola, Jacques, Bernard Volet, Rolf M. Anner, Marlis Moosmayer, Danielle Lacotte, and Beatrice M. Anner. "Role of cell membrane Na,K-ATPase for survival of human lymphocytes in vitro." Bioscience Reports 14, no. 4 (1994): 189–204. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01200248.

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Lymphocytes are primordial immune cells with variable life times. Besides genetic programming, extracellular factors interacting with cell surface receptors might alter cell survival. We investigated whether the activity of the membrane-embedded Na,K-ATPase (EC 3.6.1.37) or sodium pump (NKA) plays a role for cell survival since this ubiquitous system establishes the vital transmembrane Na and K gradients as well as the resulting high intracellular K/Na ratio required for macromolecule synthesis; furthermore, the system exposes an extracellular inhibitory receptors for cardioactive steroids and

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39

Armstrong, Robert W., Jean Marie Beau, Seung Hoon Cheon, et al. "Total synthesis of palytoxin carboxylic acid and palytoxin amide." Journal of the American Chemical Society 111, no. 19 (1989): 7530–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja00201a038.

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40

Pelin, Marco, Chiara Florio, Cristina Ponti, et al. "Pro-inflammatory effects of palytoxin: an in vitro study on human keratinocytes and inflammatory cells." Toxicology Research 5, no. 4 (2016): 1172–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c6tx00084c.

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41

Mebs, D., and S. Gleibs. "Ecology of palytoxin." Toxicon 35, no. 6 (1997): 814. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0041-0101(97)90327-5.

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42

Hall, Christine, David Levy, and Steven Sattler. "A Case of Palytoxin Poisoning in a Home Aquarium Enthusiast and His Family." Case Reports in Emergency Medicine 2015 (2015): 1–3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/621815.

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Inhalational exposure to palytoxin is an extremely rare cause of respiratory distress. This little-known marine toxin has the potential to cause significant morbidity and mortality. Toxicity has been best documented in cases of ingestion but has also been seen in cases of dermal exposure and inhalation of vapors. Palytoxin has been found in several coral species, some of which are favored by home aquarium enthusiasts and are commercially available. We report a case of a family who were exposed to the aerosolized toxin following the cleaning of a coral in their home aquarium. It is important th

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43

Abe, Takahiro, Takayuki Naito, and Daisuke Uemura. "Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate-Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) Analysis of Palytoxin." Natural Product Communications 12, no. 8 (2017): 1934578X1701200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1934578x1701200815.

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Many natural products have been isolated from various marine organisms. These natural products, especially huge polyol and polyether compounds, are expected to be promising drug-leads. On the other hand, the accumulation of these compounds in fish and shellfish can cause food poisoning in humans. Therefore, the development of effective methods for the detection of these compounds is important from both academic and public health perspectives. We subjected palytoxin to an SDS-PAGE analysis, which is very easy, quick, and inexpensive, to determine whether this approach could be effective for det

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44

Crawford, Mark H. "Harvard Synthesizes Palytoxin Molecule." Science 246, no. 4926 (1989): 34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.246.4926.34.d.

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45

CRAWFORD, M. H. "Harvard Synthesizes Palytoxin Molecule." Science 246, no. 4926 (1989): 34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.246.4926.34-c.

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46

Munday, Rex. "Palytoxin toxicology: Animal studies." Toxicon 57, no. 3 (2011): 470–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.10.003.

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47

Kishi, Y. "Natural products synthesis: palytoxin." Pure and Applied Chemistry 61, no. 3 (1989): 313–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1351/pac198961030313.

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48

Levine, Lawrence, Hirota Fujiki, Hilda B. Gjika, and Helen Van Vunakis. "A radioimmunoassay for palytoxin." Toxicon 26, no. 12 (1988): 1115–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0041-0101(88)90295-4.

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49

Patocka, Jiří, Ramesh C. Gupta, Qing-hua Wu, and Kamil Kuca. "Toxic potential of palytoxin." Journal of Huazhong University of Science and Technology [Medical Sciences] 35, no. 5 (2015): 773–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11596-015-1506-3.

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Levine, Lawrence, Hirota Fujiki, Hilda B. Gjika, and Helen Van Vunakis. "Production of antibodies to palytoxin: Neutralization of several biological properties of palytoxin." Toxicon 25, no. 12 (1987): 1273–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0041-0101(87)90005-5.

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