Academic literature on the topic 'Paraguay river'

Species of the genus Rineloricaria from the Paraguay River basin were revised, the following species and geographic distributional patterns were found: R. aurata, Paraguay River basin in Brazil and Paraguay, rio Guaporé in Brazil; R. cacerensis, Paraguay River near Cáceres in Brazil; R. lanceolata, Paraguay River basin in Brazil and Paraguay, Guaporé, Ji-Paraná, Purus, Solimões, and Araguaia rivers in Brazil, Marañón and Madre de Dios rivers in Peru; R. parva, Paraguay River basin in Brazil and Paraguay, Paraná River in Argentina, Uruguay River in Brazil. Loricaria hoehnei is proposed as a new junior synonym of R. lanceolata. A key to the species of Rineloricaria from the Paraguay River basin is provided.

The "tucunaré", Cichla piquiti, an exotic Amazonian fish has become established along the left bank of the Paraguay River in the Pantanal. It was introduced by escaping from culture ponds in the Upper Piquiri River and spread downstream, along the lateral flooded areas of that river, continuing through the clear waters of the left bank of the Paraguay River and reaching south as far as the Paraguai Mirim and Negrinho rivers. Adult spawners have been found in the region, meaning that it is a self-sustained population. Reproduction occurs in the period of low waters. They were found feeding on fishes of lentic environments belonging to the families Characidae, Cichlidae and Loricariidae. Until the end of 2004, its distribution was restricted to the left bank of the Paraguay River, but in March 2005, some specimens were found on the right bank, raising a question for the future: what will be the distribution area of the tucunaré in the Pantanal? Information about its dispersion is increasing: it is known to be in the Tuiuiú Lake, Pantanal National Park and in the Bolivian Pantanal, all of them on the right bank of the Paraguay River. The hypothesis that the "tucunaré" could not cross turbid waters, such as in the Paraguay River, was refuted by these recent findings. Possibly, the tucunaré's capacity to lay more than one batch of eggs in a reproductive period, as well as its care of eggs and young, lead them to establish themselves successfully in new environments, as has been observed in the Pantanal and other localities.

Latin American maritime history is virtually an unexplored subject among English-speaking scholars. Opportunities for research abound since practically every Latin American nation has had an intimate affair with the water; for some it has been sweet and for others salt. One can find a maritime topic which complements his or her interest in almost any Latin American country or any era.Even land-locked Paraguay has been profoundly influenced by its maritime environment. It has fought two major wars since independence and the outcomes of both were influenced by the exploitation of the extensive river systems. During the War of the Triple Alliance, Paraguay lost control of the rivers, the only efficient means of transportation, early in the contest. As a result, Paraguay's enemies held the initiative and could find a haven under the guns of their fleet if the battle went poorly on land. Conversely, during the early stages of the Chaco War, Paraguay's control of the rivers gave it a significant logistical advantage over its enemy, Bolivia. Paraguay had to bring its supplies up the Paraguay River and its tributaries; on the other hand, Bolivia had to bring its supplies up the west slopes of the Andes and then down the other side.

The invasive golden mussel, Limnoperna fortunei (Dunker, 1857), was introduced into the La Plata River estuary and quickly expanded upstream to the North, into the Paraguay and Paraná rivers. An ecological niche modeling approach, based on limnological variables, was used to predict the expansion of the golden mussel in the Paraguay River and its tributaries. We used three approaches to predict the geographic distribution: 1) the spatial distribution of calcium concentration and the saturation index for calcium carbonate (calcite); 2) the Genetic Algorithm for Rule-Set Production (GARP) model; and the 3) Maximum Entropy Method (Maxent) model. Other limnological variables such as temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, and Total Suspended Solids (TSS) were used in the latter two cases. Important tributaries of the Paraguay River such as the Cuiabá and Miranda/Aquidauana rivers exhibit high risk of invasion, while lower risk was observed in the chemically dilute waters of the middle basin where shell calcification may be limited by low calcium concentrations and carbonate mineral undersaturation.

The ant communities of the Paraná River drainage in South America have spawned several major invasive species and a number of cosmopolitan tramp species, including the fire ant Solenopsis invicta Buren and the Argentine ant Linepithema humile (Mayr). Paraguay sits at the center of the Paraná drainage but hosts one of the most poorly-documented ant faunas in the Neotropics, imposing a taxonomic impediment to ant studies in the region. In order to establish a baseline of knowledge about Paraguay’s myrmecofauna, I surveyed nineteen entomological collections and the published literature for records of Paraguayan ants. The resulting catalogue lists 541 ant species, 423 of which could be associated with available names. The Chao-2 estimate of species richness, calculated from the incidence of uniques and doubletons, estimates that the total ant species richness for Paraguay is 698 +/35, suggesting that the catalogue is about 80% complete and more than 100 species remain to be discovered. The Paraguayan ant fauna is characterized by many typical Neotropical elements but shows low endemism, an elevated diversity of attine ants, and only six non-native species. No new taxa are described here, but 40 taxonomic changes are introduced to clean antiquated trinomials from the fauna. The history of Paraguayan myrmecology is discussed, and a reference list is provided for species-level identifications.

Studies with bird communities related to the hydrogeomorphological characteristics of climatic rivers associated with flood areas are important to identify short and long term temporal space changes. In this perspective, this research aims to evaluate the structure of the bird community of the Paraguay River, through the richness of descriptors, the quantity and the diversity and equability index over an interval of 10 years, 2008 / 9-2018 / 19 , considering the economies of the hydrological cycle, floods, floods, emptiness and drought and sampled macrohabitats. The study was developed addressing a connected hydrology of the Paraguay River, in the longitudinal and lateral dimensions. A study area comprised of three functional sectors of the Paraguay River, meandering, rectilinear and transitional, beginning in the urban period of the municipality of Cáceres-MT, up to a Descalvada Farm, with a 134 km course of the river, with 13 points in total. Each functional sector of the river, had a sampling point and 10 parental bays, with different degrees of lateral connectivity, were sampled. A survey analyzed and compared two hydrological sampling cycles, the first between June 2008 and March 2009, and the second between August 2018 and April 2019. The protocol for the sampling consisted of four campaigns corresponding to the hydrological drought studies, flood, full and ebb. The results pointed to a distinction in the community structure between the two cycles 2008/2009 - 2018/2019 show a difference in the relative scope and in the composition of the species in the sampled locations. The main change registered between the two cycles (2008/2009 and 2018/2019) was the disappearance of three nests - habitat for feeding and reproduction of colonial birds, identified in the first and without registration in the second cycle. The dominance of Mycteria americana is highlighted, a species sensitive to environmental changes, not observed in the first cycle of studies. The absence of nests in 2018/2019, coupled with the dominance of Pitangus sulphuratus, a generalist species, may indicate anthropic changes that occurred along the Paraguay River in this time interval. It is hoped that the results of this comparison will be able to subsidize or influence the effective decision-making for the conservation of the biodiversity of birds and the Paraguay and Pantanal river itself.

Patterns in the temporal composition, abundance and diversity of the phytoplankton community of the Paraná river prior to and after the initial filling phase of the Yacyretá reservoir are analyzed. The study site is located 220 km downstream from the Yacyretá reservoir and 30 km downstream from the confluence with the Paraguay river. Because both rivers remain separate and unmixed at the study site, we compared the possible effects of the impoundment on both river banks (left and right banks) in hydrological periods with similar duration and magnitude of the low and high water phases. Physical and chemical conditions measured on the right bank (water from the Paraguay river) were similar at both periods (pre and post-impoundment) whereas conductivity, pH and orthophosphate concentration increased on the left bank (water from the High Paraná river and Yacyretá reservoir) after the impoundment. Changes in phytoplankton density and diversity were observed only in samples collected from water flowing from the reservoir (left bank). The density of Chlorophyceae (Chloromonas acidophila, Chlamydomonas leptobasis, Choricystis minor, Chlorella vulgaris, Scenedesmus ecornis, Monoraphidium minutum, M. contortum and M. pusillum) and Cryptophyceae (Rhodomonas minuta, Cryptomonas marssonii and C. ovata) increased while Cyanophyceae (Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii, Raphidiopsis mediterranea and Planktolyngbya subtilis) and Bacillariophyceae (Aulacoseira granulata and its bioforms) decreased compared to previous studies conducted on the left bank of the Paraná river. Phytoplankton collected from the right bank of the river did not differ in pre and post- impoundment samples because they originate from the Paraguay river, which remains relatively unaffected by human activities.

An old published record for “Crocodilurus” in Paraguay was almost certainly based on Dracaena paraguayensis Amaral, 1950. Thus, D. paraguayensis occurs from the Brazilian Pantanal south along the Paraguay River as far as Fuerte Olimpo, and Crocodilurus lacertinus (Daudin, 1802) remains restricted to the Amazon and Orinoco river drainages.

AIM: The present study involved an analysis of the monthly variations in the population densities and body sizes of the different stages of planktonic larvae of the invasive golden mussel (Limnoperna fortunei), in the rivers Paraguay and Miranda; METHODS: The study was carried out between February 2004 and January 2005. Monthly collection of the plankton samples was accompanied by physical, chemical and biological analyses of the water; RESULTS: The Miranda River presented higher values of calcium, pH, alkalinity, conductivity and total phosphorous. Larval density varied from 0-24 individuals.L-1 in the Paraguay River, with a peak in March of 2004, while in the Miranda River, densities varied between 0-9 individuals.L-1 with a peak in February of 2004. No larvae were encountered during the coldest months, May and June. No significant correlations were found between environmental variables and larval density in either river. Only the valved larval stages were recorded. The "D" and veliger forms were most abundant; umbonate larvae were rare in the Miranda River samples. Mean body sizes of "D", veliger and umbonate larval stages were, respectively, 111, 135 and 152 µm, in the Paraguay River, and 112, 134 and 154 µm in the Miranda River. Principal Components Analysis indicated positive relationships between "D" larval stage size and the ratio between inorganic and organic suspended solids, while negative relationships were found between larval size and calcium and chlorophyll-<img border=0 width=7 height=8 src="/img/revistas/alb/2012nahead/ALB_AOP_230307car01.jpg">; CONCLUSIONS: The larvae were recorded in the plankton during most of the year, with the exception of the two colder months. Neither densities nor larval stage body sizes were significantly different between the two rivers. Possible positive effects of food and calcium concentrations on body size were not recorded. This species may be adapted to grow in environments with elevated sediment concentrations.

In the midst of the poverty and heat of Paraguay on an estancia, or ranch, in the department of Concepcióón along the Tagatiya river, a group of travelers are taught to make chipa, an iconic Paraguayan food staple. Chipa, a pre-Colombian bread, is made from manioc flour, lard, milk, eggs, salt and anise. Long before wheat was introduced in the region the indigenous Guaraníí depended on manioc for sustenance. Manioc is a calorie-rich tuber, native to the Americas, found in many Paraguayan dishes such as mbeju, soups and sauces. The chipa is traditionally baked atop banana leaves in a brick and clay oven called tatakuáá. While making the chipa the travelers are also introduced to tereréé, a cold herbal tea, and cocido negro, a coffee like beverage also made from the South American herbal tea called yerba mate.

Values have been identified as important factors that guide decision-making and influence preferences in water governance. Comparing the values reflected in water governance decisions with the values held by stakeholders and the general public may inform the debate on the political legitimacy of water governance. The research presented in this PhD thesis draws on multiple research traditions on values, ranging from ecological economics and political ecology to social and environmental psychology, to investigate the value base of water governance in the Upper Paraguay River Basin, in the state of Mato Grosso, Brazil. It first introduces a novel conceptual framework that integrates these various research traditions and suggests that water governance is closely related to the fundamental values, governance-related values, and assigned values of stakeholders and actors in water governance more generally. These different types of values vary in their level of abstractness, as well as in their ‘locus’, i.e. where the valuing person locates them, and are hypothesised to be closely interrelated in a hierarchical structure, with fundamental values being the most abstract type of values. Water governance, in turn, is defined as the synthesis of water policy (the ‘content’ of decisionmaking), water politics (the ‘power play’ between actors) and water polity (the institutional framework). The thesis then proceeds to apply this novel conceptual framework in a case study on stakeholders’ values in the Upper Paraguay River Basin, and investigates the relationship of their values with their preferences regarding the construction of the Paraguay-Paraná Waterway through the Pantanal wetland, in the south of Mato Grosso. This water infrastructure project has a long history of conflict attached to it, as it might impact the hydrology and ecology of the Pantanal, the world’s largest tropical freshwater wetland and UNESCO biosphere reserve, while at the same time benefitting Mato Grosso’s rapidly growing agribusiness sector by lowering the cost of soybean exports. Based on 24 semi-structured interviews with relevant stakeholders, it was found that supporters and opponents possess different, clashing ‘value landscapes’ (i.e. groups of related values), which may explain the protracted nature of the conflict around the construction of the waterway, while at the same time highlighting political legitimacy deficits of the project. This research was followed up by a quantitative study with members of the general public (n=1067), which sought to measure and test the assumption that we can empirically identify such clashing value landscapes, and their relationship with preferences for or against the Paraguay-Paraná Waterway. Using structural equation modelling (SEM), statistically significant links between people’s values and their preferences in water governance could indeed be found, as well as between different types of values, which formed two contrasting value landscapes. This suggests that water governance conflicts may in part be explained by the presence of different value landscapes among involved actors, which may include even the most abstract level of fundamental values. The research presented in this thesis thus contributes to interdisciplinary debates on the role of values for water governance from multiple conceptual, as well as methodological perspectives. Additionally, through its application to a concrete case study, it highlights the policy relevance of such research, as addressing conflicts in water governance and examining alternative policy options may require a more explicit consideration of the values of the actors involved.

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The anthropogenic activities in the ecosystem can cause changes in the landscape work and environmental social impacts from the human activities, such as mining, conventional agriculture, and extensive livestock, that are direct sources of the changes (Drive Forces), more evident about the ecosystem services, but in controversy, they are activities whose are based on global economy. This study hás the goal to evaluate and diagnose the human activities of Alto Paraguai fountain in Mato Grosso (Brazil), with the premise of characterizing the selective earthworm extracting in permanent protected áreas, (APP), in the area of environmental state protection of Alto Paraguai fountain, in the urban areal of Alto Paraguai MT, in Paraguai river margin which constitutes the South América Platina draw. They worried about identifying and characterizing the the social actors (earthwormers), to qualify their social economical activities, means of surviving and the environmental consequences due the work activities. This is a qualitative approach, done through fieldwork, semi-structured interview application, and bibliographical survey, besides the photographer records. For local social net construction, it was done the using of the software UCINET, from Analytic thechnologies (a north American company). First of all, as an obtainet result, according to this studies, the characterization of the state of Mato Grosso was detached, foccusing on its environmental aspects in the level of biomes, putting in question its biodiversity and the livestock impacts. In a more restricted sense, it was done environmental diagnostics, through geomorphological, pedological and slope maps, endind in a thematic map of using and occupation. In this one predominated the using of APA environmental services by means of agriculture livestock. The social net built allowed us to show the dominantes aspects practiced by the earthworms category of buyers, whose joined to the miners and landlords imposed restrictions to the local productive arrangement changes, due the advances obtained by the ilegal earthworm trade, IT Falls is the importance of the study in question seeing that we put in tariff social, economical and environmental situation in APA region, allowing reflections around the using of environmental services and contributing to a tenable local production, for the human welfare, the elaboration of environmental planning purposals and the efective public political fot the Alto Paraguya territory.
As atividades antrópicas nos ecossistema podem provocar alterações no funcionamento da paisagem e podem causar impactos sócio-ambientais, como a mineração, a agricultura convencional e a pecuária extensiva, que são as Fontes Diretas das Mudanças (Drives Forces) mais evidentes sobre os Serviços dos Ecossistemas, sendo atividades que se baseia a economia global. Este estudo tem como objetivo avaliar e diagnosticar as atividades humanas na área das Nascentes do Alto rio Paraguai em Mato Grosso (Brasil), com a premissa de caracterizar a extração seletiva de minhocas em áreas de proteção permanente (APP) na Área de Proteção Ambiental Estadual das Nascentes do Alto rio Paraguai, na área urbana de Alto Paraguai-MT, nas margens do rio Paraguai, formador da Bacia Platina na América do Sul. Preocupou-se em identificar e caracterizar os atores sociais (Minhoqueiros), para qualificar as suas atividades sócio-econômicas, formas de sobrevivência e as consequências ambientais devido a sua atividade laboral. Esta pesquisa possui uma abordagem qualitativa, realizada por meio de trabalho de campo, e aplicações de entrevistas semi-estruturadas e levantamentos bibliográficos, além de registros fotográficos das atividades. Para a construção da Rede Social Local fez-se uso do software UCINET, da Empresa Norte-Americana Analytic Technologies. Primeiramente destacou-se como resultado obtido, a partir de dados secundários, a caracterização do estado de Mato Grosso (Brasil), focando nos seus aspectos ambientais no nível dos Biomas, colocando em pauta a sua Biodiversidade e os Impactos decorrentes das atividades agropecuárias. Em um sentido mais restrito, em um segundo momento, realizaram-se diagnósticos ambientais, por meio de Mapas Temáticos, quali e quantificando seus aspectos vegetacionais, geológicos, geomorfológicos, pedológicos, clinográficos e de declividade, culminando em um Mapa temático final de Uso e Ocupação. Neste predominou o uso dos Serviços Ambientais da APA por meio da Agricultura e Pecuária. A Rede Social construída permitiu mostrar os aspectos dominantes exercidos pela Categoria de Compradores-Atravessadores de Minhocas, que em parceria com os Mineradores e Latifundiários impõem restrições às mudanças no arranjo produtivo local, devido às vantagens obtidas pelo comércio ilegal de minhocas. Releva-se a importância do estudo em questão, visto que este coloca em pauta situações sociais, econômicas e ambientais na região da APA, permitindo reflexões acerca do uso dos Serviços ambientais e contribuindo para a produção local sustentável, para o Bem Estar Humano e para a elaboração de propostas de Planejamento Ambiental e de Políticas Públicas efetivas para o Território de Alto Paraguai e na APA.

Orientador: Claudio Henrique de Moraes Batalha
Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Filosofia e Ciencias Humanas
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Resumo: Tendo o navio, o rio e o porto como espaços privilegiados e os tripulantes como personagens principais, a pesquisa aborda os ¿mundos do trabalho¿ no caminho fluído dos rios da Prata e Paraguai, passando pelas cidades portos de Buenos Aires, Montevidéu, Assunção e Corumbá, ligadas fisicamente pelas águas da Bacia Platina e, numa perspectiva social, pelas relações de trabalho e de resistência operária, no início do século XX. A narrativa pretende apresentar as experiências dos trabalhadores marítimos que delineiam proximidades para além fronteiras nacionais, contribuindo para romper com barreiras historiográficas que se desenham conforme os limites geo-econômicos nacionais. Apresentam-se, de início, os ambientes naturais apreendidos como espaços que se formam ao sofrerem a ação do homem, portanto, espaços dinâmicos que estabelecem fronteiras que podem não coincidir com as linhas demarcadas pelos Estados. A mobilidade da fronteira possibilita o emprego de mão-de-obra precarizada em Mato Grosso, arregimentada no Paraguai e no norte Argentino. Da mesma forma, a urbanização de cidades do antigo Sul de Mato Grosso é explicada a partir dessa percepção de transnacionalização da região. No interior dos navios que faziam a ligação entre o Mato Grosso e o Prata, visualiza-se a conjugação do tempo da natureza, do tempo da máquina a vapor e das relações que os homens estabeleciam com esses elementos e entre si no cotidiano do trabalho. Nos bairros portuários, local de moradia e de convivência desses trabalhadores, tenta-se identificar as diferenças e semelhanças dos marítimos com os outros em terra. Na seqüência prioriza-se o estudo das organizações operárias de Assunção, para entender as inter-relações dos movimentos operários no Cone-Sul americano, especialmente dos marítimos. Os momentos de greves e boicotes são privilegiados na apreensão da solidariedade internacional de classe. Finaliza-se a tese apontando para a existência, no Cone-Sul, de duas faces do movimento operário: a luta organizada e a repressão coordenada, ambas internacionalmente
Abstract: Having the ship, the river and the port as priviledged spaces and the crew as main characters, this research is an approach to ¿words of work¿ that flowed through river Plate and Paraguai river, passing by Buenos Aires, Montevideo, Assunción and Corumbá ports, geographically connected by Platina Basin waters and, in a social perspective, by working relations and working class resistence (at the beginning of the XX century). This narrative intends to present maritime workers experiences that outline proximities beyond national borders, this way contributing to break historiographic barriers outlined according to natural geo-economic limits. At the beginning we present two natural surroundings seized as spaces formed by man¿s action, so, dinamic spaces that have established limits that can ou cannot agree with limits marked out by the States: this frontier mobility permits the use of precarious labor workmanship in Mato Grosso, employed in Paraguay and North of Argentina. In a similar way, cities urbanization at the South of Mato Grosso can be explained from this perception of regional transnationalization. Aboard the ships that sail from Mato Grosso to Plata rivers, we can have a joint view of nature time. Stean machine time and the relations men establish with these elements and among themselves in their daily work. In port neighbourhoods (barrios), living and social places of these workers, we try to identify differences and similarities of these meritime workers with others in land. Then, we try to give priority to a study on labour organizations from Assunción, to understand interlations among Cone-Sul american labour movements, particularly sea workers. Strike and boycott moments are priviledged places to understand international class solidarity. At last, this thesis points out to the existence at Cone-Sul of two faces in this labour movement: organized struggle and coordinated repression, both happening internacionally
Doutorado
Historia Social
Doutor em História

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The Paraguay River, show spatial and temporal heterogeneity, due it had many secondary channels, oxbow lakes, baías, corixos floodplains, due to the Flood Pulse. Therefore these sets of factors are important for the aquatic macrophyte structuration on floodplains. This research had as main purpose, to evaluate the aquatic macrophyte of the Paraguay River, from Cáceres to Taiamã Ecological Station into the Pantanal of Mato Grosso State. For so, the sample collects were realized between April of 2008 to April of 2009, covering all the hydrological periods. Therefore on each period it was registered the environmental variables, water and air temperature, water level, transparency, pH, dissolved oxygen, water electric conductivity, nitrogen and phosphorous nutrients, calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium and the biological variable: though the cover of the community of water macrophyte, using a square, where was measured the cover degree according to the visualization. With these data were possible to analyze the composition, abundance, diversity and biological way of life. To shown the results of this study, it was separated into two chapters. The first one, The spatial and temporal dynamics of the aquatic macrophytes in the Paraguay river and in the parental lakes . On this were addressed the spatial and temporal dynamics of the structure and composition of the aquatic macrophyte composition and the environmental variables on many lakes with different degree of connectivity with the Paraguay River. The samples collects were realized on 11 neighboring lakes along the Paraguay river, showing three different kinds of connectivity (unconnected, directly connected to river and indirect connected to the river) While into the river the collects were realized onto ten points, downstream to each lake. The limnologic variables show strong correlation with flood pulse. The Paraguay River show high values of dissolved oxygen and pH during dry period and filling water period and the lakes shown high values of conductivity. The directly connected lakes show big richness of species and biologic way of life, and high values of diversity during all hydrologic periods. Eichhornia azurea, Eichhornia crassipes and Salvinia auriculata were the species who show the biggest abundance mainly in the river. The aquatic macrophyte ordination of the free floating kind showed the biggest abundance during flood in the river and in all hydrological periods in the lakes. The fix floating/emergent dominated on the Paraguay River. The environment studied shown difference during dry and filling period and was grouped on the flood period, when the water levels make the homogenization of the System River, lake and flood plain. The second chapter The functional sectors of the Paraguay river determine the aquatic macrophyte 9 domination , The text show the discussion about the dynamic and the community of the aquatic macrophyte, into three sections of the Paraguay river, which are different in the geomorphology. Where this functional sectors describe the segments of the river differentiated by the changes in the kind of the standard of the Channel flooding area, on the width of the river, in the inclination of the valley, on the sinuosity and on the effect of the confluence of the tributaries with the entry of different water and sediments. The sectors analyzed were: Meander, Straight and transition. On each sector were analyzed the cover the aquatic macrophyte community and the environmental variables of the lakes and the Paraguay river, during dry and flood period. The variable dissolved oxygen (dry period) and water electric conductivity (flood and dry period), analyzed though the ANOVA text, shown exist significant differences between sectors. Analyzing the composition and structure of the aquatic macrophyte community, it was observed that in the meander sector, the lakes, both periods, shown bigger richness and bigger diversity of species in relation to another lakes in another sectors, while the transition sector shown bigger richness and diversity during flood period. Probably these differences are related to the fluvial geomorphology, typical of each sector. The meandric sector is a sector with high sinuosity, which favor a high number of lakes, secondary channels, ancient channels of the river and floodplain. The Paraguay river shown bigger richness and diversity of species on the transition sector, on both hydrological periods, probably due to the presence of many fix floating species and/or emergent. However it is possible to verify that the abundance of Eichhornia azurea and Salvinia auriculata species, on the meandric and transition sectors, enforce the similarity which exists between these lakes during dry period. The lakes of the straight sector are more deep in relation to the another, what probably, favor the high abundance of Salvinia auriculata, make these not similar to another.
O rio Paraguai apresenta heterogeneidade espacial, por possuir vários canais secundários, meandros abandonados, baías, corixos, áreas alagáveis, e temporal, proporcionado pelo pulso de inundação. Portanto, estes conjuntos de fatores são importantes para a estruturação da vegetação aquática em planícies de inundação. Este estudo tem como objetivo geral, avaliar a diversidade de macrófitas aquáticas do rio Paraguai, entre a cidade de Cáceres e a Estação Ecológica de Taiamã localizado no Pantanal Mato-grossense. Para tal, as coletas dos dados foram realizadas de abril de 2008 a abril de 2009, abrangendo os quatro períodos do ano. Portanto, em cada período foi registrado a variável ambiental: temperatura do ar e da água, nível da água, transparência, pH, oxigênio dissolvido, condutividade elétrica da água, nutrientes nitrogenados e fosfatados, cálcio, magnésio, potássio, sódio e a variável biológica: através da cobertura da comunidade de macrófitas aquáticas, utilizando um quadrado, onde foi mensurado o grau de cobertura de acordo com a visualização. Com estes dados foi possível analisar a composição, abundância, diversidade e a forma biológica. Para a apresentação dos resultados deste estudo foi separados em dois capítulos. O primeiro capítulo intitulado A dinâmica espacial e temporal das comunidades de macrófitas aquáticas no rio Paraguai e baías parentais . Neste foram abordados a dinâmica espacial e temporal da estrutura e composição da comunidade de macrófitas aquáticas e as variáveis ambientais em várias baías com diferentes graus de conectividade e o rio Paraguai. As coletas dos dados foram realizadas em onze baías, localizadas adjacente ao longo do rio Paraguai, apresentando três tipos de conectividade (desconectadas, conectadas direta e indiretas). Enquanto que no rio a coleta de dados foi amostrada em dez pontos à jusante a cada baía. As variáveis limnológicas se apresentaram correlação forte com o pulso de inundação. O rio Paraguai apresentou altos valores de oxigênio dissolvido e pH durante a estiagem e enchente e as baías apresentaram altos valores de condutividade. As baías conectadas diretamente ao rio apresentaram maior riqueza de espécie e formas biológicas, e altos valores diversidade, nos quatro períodos hidrológicos. Eichhornia azurea, Eichhornia crassipes e Salvinia auriculata foram às espécies que apresentaram maiores abundância, principalmente no rio Paraguai. A ordenação das macrófitas do tipo flutuante livre apresentou maior abundância no período da cheia no rio e em todos os períodos nas baías. E a espécie do tipo flutuante fixa/emergente predominou no rio Paraguai. Os ambientes estudados apresentam distinção nos períodos de estiagem e enchente e foram agrupados nos período de cheia, quando o nível da água proporciona a homogeneização do sistema rio, baía e planície de inundação. O segundo 7 capítulo Os setores funcionais do rio Paraguai determinando a dinâmica da comunidade de macrófitas aquáticas . O texto apresenta a discussão sobre a dinâmica da comunidade de macrófitas aquáticas em três trechos, ou setores, do rio Paraguai, que são distintos na sua geomorfologia. Onde estes setores funcionais descrevem os segmentos do rio diferenciados por mudanças no tipo do padrão do canal-área inundável, na largura do rio, na inclinação do vale, na sinuosidade, e no efeito da confluência de tributários com a entrada de diferentes águas e sedimentos. Os setores analisados foram: Setor de Meandro, Setor Reto e Setor de Transição. Em cada setor foi analisado a cobertura comunidade de macrófitas aquáticas e as variáveis ambientais das baías e o rio Paraguai, nos períodos de estiagem e cheia. As variáveis, oxigênio dissolvido (período estiagem) e condutividade elétrica da água (cheia e estiagem), analisados através do teste de ANOVA, revelaram existir diferenças significativas entre os setores. Na analise da composição e estrutura da comunidade de macrófitas aquáticas observou-se que no Setor de Meandro as baías, em ambos os períodos, apresentaram a maior riqueza e maior diversidade de espécies de macrófitas aquáticas em relação às outras baías de outros setores Enquanto que o Setor de Transição apresentou maior riqueza e diversidade no período de cheia. Provavelmente estas diferenças estejam relacionadas à geomorfologia fluvial, típica de cada setor. O Setor de Meandro é um trecho com alta sinuosidade, que favorecem um numero alto de baías, canais secundários, canais antigos do rio abandonado e áreas alagadas. O rio Paraguai apresentou maior riqueza e diversidade de espécies no Setor de Transição, em ambos os períodos, provavelmente devido à presença de várias espécies flutuantes fixas e/ou emergentes. Entretanto podemos verificar que a abundância das espécies Eichhornia azurea e Salvinia auriculata nos setores de Meandro e Transição reforçaram a similaridades existentes entre estas baías, no período de estiagem. As baías do Setor Reto apresentaram-se significativamente mais profundas em relação às outras, o que provavelmente, favoreceram a alta abundância de Salvinia auriculata, tornando-a dissimilar em relação às outras.

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A maior planície inundável do mundo, o Pantanal, tem como seu principal contribuinte formador o Rio Paraguai. Em sua Região Hidrográfica foram instaladas cinco hidrelétricas e cinquenta e oito Pequenas Centrais Hidrelétricas (PDHs). No Rio Jauru, afluente importante do Rio Paraguai, uma sequência de 6hidrelétricas foi construída no gradiente longitudinal do rio. Neste estudo, que visou identificar e analisar os impactos sobre a hidrologia e qualidade da água do Rio Jauru, devido à operação em cascata das hidrelétricas, foi considerado não apenas o impacto individual produzido por cada hidrelétrica, mas também, o resultado de seus impactos de forma integrada. Foram analisados 12 parâmetros formadores da qualidade de água do rio em, diversos pontos no longitudinal do rio, a montante e a jusante das hidrelétricas. Também foram analisados 32 parâmetros hidrológicos utilizando o através do software IHA. Alterações na hidrologia e na qualidade da água após a instalação das usinas hidrelétricas foram verificadas. Os resultados deste estudo questionam a teoria que pequenas centrais hidrelétricas provocam pouco impacto ambiental no rio.
The Paraguay River is the major tributary of the largest floodplain in the world, the Pantanal. Itsbasincontains five hydropower plants and fifty-eight small hydro power plants. In the Jauru River, an important tributary of the Paraguay River, a cascade of six hydropower plants was built along the longitudinal gradient of the river. The present study aimed at identifying and analyzing the impacts on the hydrology and water quality of the Jauru River caused by the cascade hydropower plants, considering not only the individual impact produced by each one but also the combination of their impacts together. We analyzed 12 parameters indicating water quality of the river, data from several sites along the longitudinal axis of the river, upstream and downstream of the reservoirs lakes. Also, 32 hydrological parameters were examined with the aid of the software IHA. Changes in hydrology and water quality were found after the installation of the hydropower plants. Our results question the assertion that small hydropower plants have little environmental impact on the river.

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A diminuição elevada da pesca e quase o desaparecimento das espécies aquáticas e avícolas do rio Paraguaçu, única fonte de sobrevivência da comunidade pesqueira de Nagé, distrito de Maragogipe Estado da Bahia fez com que esse estudo buscasse saber qual era a percepção da população local e em que grau estava esse impacto ecológico cujas pessoas se referiam como desaparecimento dos pescados. Com o intuito de avaliar a percepção ambiental sobre os aspectos da fauna aquática e avícola, buscou-se utilizar uma pesquisa onde foram entrevistados 50 moradores, cuja metodologia se deu través de um questionário com 76 questões, sobre as espécies, aquáticas dos peixes, moluscos e crustáceos e ainda as espécies mais comuns de aves que habitavam o local. As respostas eram transformada em números entre I a V e em sim ou não. A população pesquisada fora escolhida de forma aleatória, com uma única exigência: que fossem maiores de 35 anos e residissem em Nagé a mais de 25 anos. A resposta à pesquisa atesta a diminuição ou desaparecimento das espécies pesquisadas. Outro ponto pesquisado foi a percepção jurídica protetiva, o âmbito das Ações Constitucionais, Popular e Civil Pública, onde foi unânime a negativa. O resultado trazido pela pesquisa denota um dano ambiental considerável, como o desaparecimento e diminuição em grande escala das espécies pesquisadas. Este dano trouxe à luz da comunidade uma consciência mais firme sobre a importância em manter e fiscalizar a área de estudo preservada, numa simbiose com toda população local, alertando-os para a necessidade de medidas que protejam o seu meio de sobrevivência prioritário, podendo ainda encontrar respaldo, tanto no âmbito administrativo, quando se tratar de dever da Administração pública , quanto legal, quando se tratar de obrigação do Ministério Público e de Entidades protetoras do meio ambiente, quando se defrontarem com desrespeitos as leis ambientais.
The high reduction of fishing and near disappearance of aquatic and avian species the river Paraguaçu only source of livelihood of the fishing community of Nage, Maragogipe district Bahia made this study sought to know what the perception of the local population and what degree was this ecological impact which people refer to as disappearance of fish. In order to evaluate the environmental perception on aspects of aquatic and bird population, we attempted to use a survey where respondents were 50 residents, whose methodology is given means of a questionnaire with 76 questions about the species, aquatic fish, molluscs and crustaceans and still the most common bird species that lived there. The answers were converted into numbers from I to V, yes or no. The research population was chosen randomly, with one requirement: they were over 35 years old and residing in the Nage over 25 years. The answer to the research attests to the decrease or disappearance of the surveyed species. Another point studied was the protective legal perception, the scope of Constitutional Shares, Popular and Civil Public, which was unanimously negative. The result brought by research denotes a considerable environmental damage, such as the loss and reduction in scale of the surveyed species. This damage brought to light the community a stronger awareness of the importance of maintaining and monitoring the study area preserved in a symbiosis with all local people, alerting them to the need for action to protect your means of survival priority, and may find support, both at the administrative level, in the case of the duty of public administration, as cool, in the case of obligation of the prosecution and protective of the environment Entities, when confronted with disrespect environmental laws.

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CAPES
Fontes de poluição podem comprometer os diversos fins de um manancial, principalmente o fim mais nobre, o consumo humano. Este trabalho tem como objetivo, avaliar e interpretar os fatores físicos, químicos e biológicos que interferem nas características de um corpo hídrico,nesse caso específico da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Paraguaçu, na Bahia. Para realizar este trabalho foi aplicada análise exploratória multivariada, Análise de Componentes Principais - PCA e Análise de Agrupamento Hierárquica - HCA, nos dados disponibilizados pelo Instituto de Gestão das Águas e Clima - INGÁ, correspondendo às amostras coletadas em 55 pontos e analisadas quanto aos parâmetros fisico-quimicos: temperatura, pH, turbidez, sólidos totais, oxigênio dissolvido (OD), sulfato, carbono orgânico total (COT), demanda bioquímica de oxigênio (DBO), Demanda Química de Oxigênio (DQO), nitrato, amônia, nitrogênio total, fósforo total, surfactantes, ferro, manganês, bário, níquel e zinco; e microbiológico: coliformes termotolerantes. Utilizando-se a PCA e a HCA como ferramentas estatisticas para avaliar os dados obtidos dos parâmetros físico-químicos e microbiológico, determinou-se os pontos de amostragem que apresentaram um comportamento atípico (outleirs), através do agrupamento dos pontos em função dos escores, além das variáveis que justificaram esse comportamento por meio dos pesos. A PCA promoveu uma redução de 20 dimensões (variáveis) para 3 componentes principais de acordo com os valores da variância de cada, tornando o sistema mais simples de ser analisado. Com a HCA, constatou-se agrupamentos de alguns pontos de amostragem, ratificando alguns agrupamentos obtidos com a PCA. Sendo assim, neste trabalho, a análise multivariada de dados facilitou bastante a determinação dos pontos de amostragem atípicos (outleirs), assim como as variáveis que justificaram esse comportamento. Com isso, pôde-se ter um conhecimento mais apurado das condições ambientais da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Paraguaçu, podendo favorecer a tomada de medidas corretivas e preventivas para que se tenha água em quantidade e qualidade satisfatórias para consumo humano.
Salvador

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Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico
The order Characiformes is one of the dominant teleost taxa in the neotropical region, where it is widely distributed. The systematics of one characiform, the trahira Hoplias malabaricus, is still unresolved. This species is characterized by high levels of karyotypical variation within and among basins, including differences in chromosome morphology and number, and in some cases, involving systems of multiple sex chromosomes. We compared cytogenetic data of populations H. malabaricus from the Upper Paraguay and amazon basins that have been isolated for at least 10 million years. Samples were collected and subject to standard cytogenetic techniques (Giemsa staining, C and NOR banding and CMA3). In the Amazon Basin samples from three tributaries of the Juruena River (Sangue, Papaguaio and Arinos rivers). In the Sangue river they were 2n=40, chromosomal formula 18 m + 16 sm + 6 st and fundamental number (NF) = 80; in the Papagaio river trahiras had 2n=42, chromosomal formula 18 m + 24 sm e NF= 84 and in the Arinos river they were 2n=42, chromosome formula 20 m + 22 sm and NF= 84. In the Paraguai basin, samples were collected in the Paraguai, Sepotuba rivers and in the Joaquim do Boche spring. All were 2n=40, with 20m + 20sm and NF=80. Morphology of the Sangue rivers cytotypes were considered as new proposal in this work. All populations were characterized by mostly centromeric heterochromatic regions, whereas some chromosomes showed telomeric blocks of heterochromatin associated to nucleolar organizer regions. Pattern of NOR variation was highly variable, but all populations showed multiple NORs associated to GC-rich regions. The shared presence of 2n=40 and 2n=42 cytotypes in the Upper Paraguay and Juruena basins suggested that karyotypic diversification within H. malabaricus largely preceded the 10 million years vicariance. The occurrence of unique cytotypes in the three Juruena tributaries indicated that processes of chromosomal differentiation were more intense in the Amazon basin than in the southern Brazilian basins.
A ordem Characiformes representa um dos grupos dominantes de teleósteos na região Neotropical, com ampla distribuição geográfica. Um desses caraciformes, a traíra Hoplias malabaricus, apresenta aspectos sistemáticos não resolvidos. Esta espécie apresenta grande diversidade de padrões cariotípicos dentro e entre bacias hidrográficas, com variações na morfologia e número cromossômico, em alguns casos envolvendo sistemas de cromossomos sexuais múltiplos. Foram comparadas populações de H. malabaricus das bacias do Alto Paraguai e amazônica, consideradas isoladas por aproximadamente 10 milhões de anos. Os espécimes foram coletados e submetidos a técnicas padrões de citogenética (coloração convencional, bandas C, NOR e CMA3). Na drenagem amazônica foram analisadas amostras de três afluentes do rio Juruena (rios Sangue, Papagaio e Arinos). No Sangue as traíras apresentaram 2n=40, fórmula cromossômica 18 m +16 sm + 6 st e número fundamental (NF) igual a 80; no Papagaio foram 2n=42, fórmula cromossômica 18 m + 24 sm e NF= 84 e no Arinos apresentaram 2n=42, fórmula cromossômica 20 m + 22 sm e NF= 84. Na bacia do Paraguai, foram amostradas populações dos rios Paraguai, Sepotuba e córrego Joaquim do Boche, todas apresentaram 2n=40, 20m + 20sm e NF=80. A morfologia do citótipo do rio Sangue foi considerada como nova no presente trabalho. Todas as populações apresentaram regiões heterocromáticas predominantemente centroméricas e alguns cromossomos com blocos heterocromáticos em regiões teloméricas associados com regiões organizadoras de nucléolos. O padrão de NORs se mostrou variável, mas todas a populações apresentaram NORs multiplas, demonstrando serem ricas em GC. A presença de citótipos semelhantes nas bacias do Paraguai e do Juruena sugere que a diversificação cariotípica precedeu a última vicariância entre estas drenagens, há 10 milhões de anos. Por outro lado, os citótipos em cada afluente do Juruena indicam que na bacia amazônica os processos de diferenciação cromossômica podem ter ocorrido de maneira mais intensa do que é observado nas bacias do sul brasileiro.

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Cáceres is situated to the left edge of High Paraguai river, in the Region Center-West, Brazil, possessing co-ordinated: south latitude (16º 11' 42' ') e longitude west (57º 40' 51' ') with altitude of 118 meters above sea level. This research was carried through with the objective to know the perception of the professional fishing of the Z-2 Colony with regard to the ambient functions, potentialities and to the impacts of the Paraguay river throughout the urban perimeter of the city of Cáceres/MT, in order to become possible the participation of all the involved ones in activities of Environmental Education, aiming at the environment conservation and the improvement of quality of life in the daily one of these people. Fishing has great importance for the Cáceres population, therefore it is the economic base for many families of low income who use waters of High Paraguai river, vestibule of the Pantanal Weed. The used methodological procedures for the collection of data had been documentary analysis, participant comment, informal dialogues, interviews, works of field, application of questionnaires, accomplishment of workshops, dynamic of group, lectures, systematization and interpretation of data. As results, we concluded that the professional fishing have faced a series of problems generated for fish predatory, for the deforestation and the tourism not guided, inconsequence practical that come causing difficulties in the supply fishing boat (amount) and in the biodiversity of ictiofauna (species) throughout the time, beyond social environmental impacts in the Paraguai river, as exclusion of the professionals of fishes, sanding up and erosion of the edges. Many of them point the polluting activities and predatory, they are conscientious that they can help the environment agencies and present suggestions for the questions of professional and sportive´s fishes. From the identification of the collective problems that face and the interpretation of the perception that they possess on such questions, it was possible to carry through practical of Environmental Education, taking in consideration the open and critical dialogue. It was evidenced that the environment management of Cáceres applied to the Paraguai river is not adjusted, lacking a rigorous fiscalization for it fishes predatory and bigger opening for the participation of the professional fishing in the public administration.
Cáceres está situada à margem esquerda do Alto Paraguai, na Região Centro-Oeste, Brasil, possuindo coordenadas: latitude sul (16º 11' 42'') e longitude oeste (57º 40' 51'') com altitude de 118 metros acima do nível do mar. Esta pesquisa foi realizada com o objetivo de conhecer a percepção dos pescadores profissionais da Colônia Z-2 com relação às funções ambientais, potencialidades e aos impactos do rio Paraguai ao longo do perímetro urbano da cidade de Cáceres/MT, a fim de tornar possível a participação de todos os envolvidos em atividades de Educação Ambiental, visando a conservação ambiental e a melhoria de qualidade de vida no cotidiano dessas pessoas. A pesca tem grande importância para a população de Cáceres-MT, pois é a base econômica para muitas famílias de baixa renda que utilizam as águas do Alto Paraguai, portal do Pantanal Mato-grossense. Os procedimentos metodológicos utilizados para a coleta de dados foram análise documental, observação participante, diálogos informais, entrevistas, trabalhos de campo, aplicação de questionários, realização de oficinas, dinâmicas de grupo, palestras, sistematização e interpretação de dados. Como resultados, concluimos que os pescadores profissionais têm enfrentado uma série de problemas gerados pela pesca predatória, pelo desmatamento e pelo turismo não orientado, práticas inconseqüentes que vêm causando dificuldades no estoque pesqueiro (quantidade) e na biodiversidade da ictiofauna (espécies) ao longo do tempo, além de impactos socioambientais no rio Paraguai, como exclusão dos profissionais da pesca, assoreamento e erosão das margens. Muitos deles apontam as atividades poluidoras e predatórias, estão conscientes que podem ajudar aos órgãos ambientais e apresentam sugestões para as questões da pesca profissional e esportiva. A partir da identificação dos problemas coletivos que enfrentam e da interpretação da percepção que possuem sobre tais questões, foi possível realizar práticas de Educação Ambiental, levando-se em consideração o diálogo aberto e crítico. Constatou-se que a gestão ambiental no âmbito municipal e mesmo regional para o rio Paraguai carece de atenção, tanto pelo poder público como pela população e pelo setor privado, faltando uma rigorosa fiscalização para a pesca predatória e maior abertura para a participação dos pescadores profissionais na gestão pública.

AbstractAround 1800, merchants, scientists and adventurers travelled to Latin America with different purposes. Their multifaceted interests in a world region, experiencing a threshold of independence from Spanish colonial rule, inspired new historical and political works about the continent’s recent past. The Enlightenment provided not only the philosophical armamentarium against corruption, but it also paved the way to a new expression of sentiments and to the loss of fear when addressing injustice. Some examples of these are Hipólito Villaroel’s list of grievances and Humboldt’s Political essay. These two authors provide some thoughts on the political landscape of New Spain (now Mexico), while the two Swiss physicians Rengger and Longchamp describe the ruthless and odd dictator Francia of independent Paraguay as a champion of anti-corruption. Finally, Argentine dictator Rosas—and his robberies as described by Rivera Indarte, Sarmiento and other anonymous authors—represent the embodiment of corruption through pure larceny, for whose crimes the Spanish colonial past apparently no longer served as a comparison.

This chapter gives a background on politics via water. It talks about Hydropolitics, the political economy that comes from an industrialization and electrification powered by water. It uncovers how it comes to matter to politics within Paraguay that the electricity that powers homes and factories comes from hydro, not fossil fuels. To untangle how energy can be simultaneously technological and sociopolitical, this chapter explains that people's relationship to the environment is a form of cultural production, which, in turn, inflects political, economic, and social structures. Understanding the dam requires the dual intervention of political ecology, which analyzes both how human interventions shape environment and how the shaping of nature in turn affects human communities. Itaipú has presented the Brazilian and Paraguayan governments the ability to achieve multiple political goals and has had far-reaching cascade effects. What Itaipú Dam has done is to turn the Paraná River under its influence into a political-electrical machine, an engineered complex of geological objects, atmospheric cycles, and cement intrusions.

River basins and river characteristics are controlled in part by their tectonic setting, in part by climate, and increasingly by human activity. River basins are defined by the tectonic and topographic features of a continent, which determine the general pattern of water drainage. If a major river drains to the ocean, its mouth is usually fixed by some enduring geologic structure, such as a graben, a downwarp, or a suture between two crustal blocks. The largest river basins constitute drainage areas of extensive low-lying portions of Earth’s crust, often involving tectonic downwarps. The magnitude of river flow is determined by the balance between precipitation and evaporation, summed over the drainage area. Seasonality of flow and water storage within any basin are determined by the seasonality of precipitation in excess of evaporation, modified in some regions by water stored in snow packs and released by melting, and by water stored in wetlands, lakes, and reservoirs. Increasingly the flows of rivers are influenced by human land use and engineering works, including dams, but in South America these anthropogenic influences are generally less intense and widespread than in North America, Europe, and much of Asia. Thus the major rivers of South America can be viewed in the context of global and regional tectonics and climatology. For reference, figure 5.1 outlines South America’s three largest river basins—the Orinoco, Amazon, and Paraguay-Paraná systems—while figure 5.2 shows the locations of rivers referred to in the text against a background of the continent’s density of population per square kilometer. The geologic history of South America has bequeathed to the continent a number of structural elements that are relevant to the form and behavior of its three major river systems. These structural elements are (1) the Andes; (2) a series of foreland basins, approximately 500 km wide immediately east of the Andes and extending southward from the mouth of the Orinoco to the Chaco-Paraná basin, where the crust is depressed by the weight of the Andes and the sediment derived from the mountains; (3) the Guiana and Brazilian shields reflecting Precambrian cratons and orogenic belts of mostly crystalline metamorphic rocks, partly covered with flat-lying sedimentary rocks and deeply weathered regolith; and (4) the Central Amazon Basin, a large cratonic downwarp with some graben structures dating back to early Paleozoic time, which runs generally east-west between the two shields, connecting the foreland basins to the west with a graben that localizes the Amazon estuary at the Atlantic coast.

Who were the original Brazilians? When the Portuguese discovered what is today Brazil, they encountered an Amerindian population living along the coast and in the basin of the Paraná and Paraguay Rivers. From early chronicles, the population was linguistically and culturally relatively homogeneous. While there...

Latin America encompasses a vast territory between 12°30'N and 55°30'S latitude and between 29°W and 82°W longitude. This subcontinent has 13 countries with complex climatic conditions. Extremely humid weather is typical closer to the equator, while semiarid, arid, and desertic conditions prevail in the Bolivian and Chilean high plains. The wide variation in climatic conditions leads to distinct agricultural conditions across Latin America. For example, forests, equatorial fruits, and perennial vegetation exist throughout the Amazonian region. Farther from the equator, toward the Andes and at higher latitudes, there is a noticeable change in agricultural systems. There is a greater emphasis on growing cereal/grain crops in Argentina and Brazil. The countries that compose the Amazon River basin experience a higher amount of annual precipitation, and drought is not a characteristic phenomenon there, except during high-intensity El Niño years (Marengo et al., 2001). In contrast, drought is a regular event commonly observed in parts of Peru, Chile, Paraguay, Argentina (Scian and Donnari, 1996), Uruguay, and Brazil. The Atacama Desert in Chile is one of the most arid regions on the earth, where the average annual precipitation is as low as 0.8 mm in Arika or even 0.5 mm in other regions of this desert. Figure 12.2 provides a more detailed description on climatic conditions of Brazil. Although the average annual precipitation in the northeastern region is less than 300 mm, it exceeds 2500 mm in some other regions of Brazil (Grimm, 2003). Agricultural operations take place during the rainy season (March–October). The northeast region is drought prone, but the central, west, and southeast regions are traditionally grain-producing regions. In the northeast and central-west regions, water deficiency is higher, which seriously affects food production. Table 12.1 shows production losses in Brazil due to climate anomalies including droughts that occurred during 1978–1986 (Mota, 1979) and 1991–1994 (Rossetti, 2001). About 33% (about 50% in the northeast region) of these losses were attributed to droughts. Maize production also significantly declined due to drought that occurred during 1990–91, 1993–94, 1996–97, and 1997–98.