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Journal articles on the topic 'Penicillium chrysogenum'

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Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 16 June 2025

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1

Martín, Juan F. "Insight into the Genome of Diverse Penicillium chrysogenum Strains: Specific Genes, Cluster Duplications and DNA Fragment Translocations." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 21, no. 11 (2020): 3936. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms21113936.

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Background: There are eighteen species within the Penicillium genus section chrysogena, including the original penicillin producers Penicillium notatum (Fleming strain) and Penicillium chrysogenum NRRL 1951. Other wild type isolates of the Penicillium genus are relevant for the production of useful proteins and primary or secondary metabolites. The aim of this article is to characterize strain specific genes and those genes which are involved in secondary metabolite biosynthesis, particularly the mutations that have been introduced during the β-lactams strain improvement programs. Results: The available genomes of several classical and novel P. chrysogenum strains have been compared. The first genome sequenced was that of the reference strain P. chrysogenum Wis54-1255, which derives from the wild type P. chrysogenum NRRL 1951; its genome size is 32.19 Mb and it encodes 12,943 proteins. Four chromosomes were resolved in P. chrysogenum and P. notatum by pulse field gel electrophoresis. The genomes of three industrial strains have a similar size but contain gene duplications and truncations; the penicillin gene cluster copy number ranges from one in the wild type to twelve in the P. chrysogenum ASP-E1 industrial strain and is organized in head to tail tandem repeats. The genomes of two new strains, P. chrysogenum KF-25, a producer of antifungal proteins isolated from a soil sample, and P. chrysogenum HKF2, a strain with carbohydrate-converting activities isolated from a sludge treatment plant, showed strain specific genes. Conclusions: The overall comparison of all available P. chrysogenum genomes indicates that there are a significant number of strain-specific genes, mutations of structural and regulatory genes, gene cluster duplications and DNA fragment translocations. This information provides important leads to improve the biosynthesis of enzymes, antifungal agents, prebiotics or different types of secondary metabolites.
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2

Hardianto, Dudi, Suyanto ., Erwahyuni Endang Prabandari, Lira Windriawati, Edy Marwanta, and Tarwadi . "PENICILLIN PRODUCTION BY MUTANT OF Penicillium chrysogenum." Jurnal Bioteknologi & Biosains Indonesia (JBBI) 2, no. 1 (2016): 15. http://dx.doi.org/10.29122/jbbi.v2i1.530.

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Penisilin adalah antibiotika yang pertama kali ditemukan dan digunakan untuk pengobatan infeksi bakteri. Sejak ditemukan penisilin sebagai antibiotika oleh Alexander Fleming pada tahun 1928, banyak usaha dilakukan untuk meningkatkan produktivitas Penicillium chrysogenum. Pemuliaan galur untuk meningkatkan produksi penisilin dapat menggunakan mutasi acak secara fisika dan kimia. Pada penelitian ini, radiasi sinar ultraviolet digunakan untuk mendapatkan mutan P. chrysogenum. Produksi penisilin ditentukan menggunakan HPLC dan produktivitas mutan dibandingkan dengan induk P. chrysogenum. Mutan M12 menghasilkan penisilin 1,23 kali lebih banyak dibandingkan dengan induk P. chrysogenum.Kata kunci: Penisilin, Penicillium chrysogenum, ultraviolet, mutan, radiasi ABSTRACTPenicillin is the first antibiotic discovered and used for treatment of bacterial infections. Since the discovery of penicillin as antibiotic by Alexander Fleming in 1928, much effort has been invested to improve productivity of Penicillium chrysogenum. Strain improvement to increase the penicillin production can be carried out by physical and chemical random mutation. In this research, ultraviolet irradiation was used to obtain P. chrysogenum mutant. Penicillin production was determined by using HPLC and productivity of P. chrysogenum mutants was compared to the wild type. Mutant M12 produced 1.23 fold higher penicillin than the wild type did.Keywords: Penicillin, Penicillium chrysogenum, ultraviolet, mutant, radiation
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3

Frisvad, J. C., O. Filtenborg, and D. T. Wicklow. "Terverticillate penicillia isolated from underground seed caches and cheek pouches of banner-tailed kangaroo rats (Dipodomys spectabilis)." Canadian Journal of Botany 65, no. 4 (1987): 765–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/b87-102.

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Terverticillate penicillia were important colonists of the underground seed caches and the external cheek pouches of the banner-tailed kangaroo rat (Dipodomys spectabilis) from the North American desert. Two taxa representing the dominant Penicillium populations are described as new varieties of well-known ubiquitous species. Penicillium chrysogenum var. dipodomyis var.nov. produces the antibiotic penicillin but does not produce mycotoxins (PR-toxin and roquefortine C) known from P. chrysogenum. The new variety is further distinguished by having rough-walled stipes. Penicillium aurantiogriseum var. neoechinulatum var.nov. isolates produce penicillic acid, viridicatin, and cyclopenin, metabolites with antibiotic properties, but not the potent nephrotoxins xanthomegnin and viomellein or tremorgenic mycotoxins (e.g., penitrem A). The variety is also distinguished by conspicuously rough-walled conidia. Three additional new varieties which do not produce mycotoxins normally associated with their species are also reported: P. griseofulvum var. dipodomyicola var.nov. produced the antibiotically active compounds patulin and griseofulvin but not cyclopiazonic acid and roquefortine C; P. glandicola var. mononematosa var.nov. and P. glandicola var. confertum var.nov. did not produce roquefortine C, penitrem A, or patulin. Infrequently isolated strains of the species P. viridicatum and P. griseofulvum duplicated the mycotoxin profiles of the cultures ex type. It is suggested that the evolution of seed-caching behaviour in D. spectabilis may have guided the selection of less-toxic terverticillate penicillia as colonists in rodent seed caches.
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4

Wiharyani, Risma, Dudi Hardianto, Hermin Pancasakti Kusumaningrum, and Anto Budiharjo. "Kloning Gen pcbC dari Penicillium chrysogenum ke dalam Plasmid pPICZA untuk Pengembangan Produksi Penisilin G." Bioma : Berkala Ilmiah Biologi 16, no. 1 (2014): 33. http://dx.doi.org/10.14710/bioma.16.1.33-38.

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Availability of drugs in Indonesia is still limited by the high prices of drugs due to on the imported raw materials that reaches 95%. Developing antibiotic raw materials can be achieved by increasing of penicillin G production, which is the raw material for the formation of semisynthetic penicillin derivatives through the production of 6-aminopenisillanic acid (6-APA). One of the important enzyme in the penicillin G biosynthesis is Isopenisilin N Synthase (IPNS) that encodes by pcbC gene on Penicillium chrysogenum. This study aimed to obtain a recombinant of pcbC gene fragments that is inserted into pPICZA plasmid. Amplification of pcbC gene used pcbC-F and pcbC-R primers. The pcbC gene fragment was inserted into pPICZA vector and then transformed into TOP 10 F’. The results showed that the recombinant of the pcbC gene fragment from P. chrysogenum has been obtained. Analysis of DNA sequences using the BLAST program showed that the pcbC gene fragment has high homology (99%) with the pcbC gene from P. chrysogenum Wisconsin 54-1255 and P. chrysogenum AS-P-78 which encodes IPNS Keywords: pcbC Gene, Penicillium chrysogenum, cloning, penicillin G
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5

Lewis, Jesse A., and Nadja Anderson. "Penicillium Antibiotic Effect." American Biology Teacher 80, no. 7 (2018): 530–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/abt.2018.80.7.530.

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In this lesson students will use the Penicillium chrysogenum fungus, which naturally produces the antibiotic penicillin, to investigate the effect of naturally produced antibiotics on bacteria in laboratory cultures. Students co-culture P. chrysogenum with three species of bacteria to observe differences between penicillin-resistant and penicillin-sensitive bacteria. They will normalize fungal spore suspension and bacterial culture concentrations before inoculating co-cultures. After bacteria have been exposed to the antibiotic, students will quantify culture density to determine antibiotic effect in liquid culture and on solid media. Students will learn about natural product antibiotics as well as experimental design and application.
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6

Nawfa, Refdinal, Adi Setyo Purnomo, and Herdayanto Sulistyo Putro. "Synthesis of Antibiotic Penicillin-G Enzymatically by Penicillium chrysogenum." Asian Journal of Chemistry 31, no. 10 (2019): 2367–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.14233/ajchem.2019.21766.

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Penicillin-G antibiotic was used as the basic ingredient of making antibiotic type β-lactam such as tetracycline, amoxicillin, ampicillin and other antibiotics. Penicillin-G was splited into 6-amino penicillanic acid as the source of β-lactam. The biosynthetic pathway for the formation of penicillin-G in Penicillium chrysogenum cell through the formation of intermediates was carried out in the form of amino acids such as α-aminoadipate, L-cysteine, L-valine which are formed from glucose (food ingredients).The formation of 6-amino penicillanic acid is an amino acid combination of L-cysteine and L-valine, a step part of the formation of antibiotic penicillin-G in P. chrysogenum cells, thus, it is obvious that there are enzymes involved in its formation. The objective of this study was to examine the use of enzymes present in P. chrysogenum cells to produce penicillin-G and 6-amino penicillanic acid using the intermediate compounds α-aminoadipate, L-cysteine, L-valine and phenylacetic acid assisted by NAFA® coenzymes in P. chrysogenum cells which is more permeable. The research method started from producing biomass of P. chrysogenum cells that demonstrated penicillin-producing antibiotic capability, as the source of the enzyme, followed by addition of permeability treatment of P. chrysogenum cell membrane to get immobile of enzyme by its own cell therefore it can be used more than once. After that the enzyme activity was proven by adding α-aminoadipate, L-cysteine, L-valine, phenylacetic acid and NAFA® coenzyme for the formation of penicillin-G, whereas the addition of L-cystein, L-valine and NAFA® coenzyme were aimed to form 6-amino penicillanic acid. The results showed that P. chrysogenum is able to produce antibiotics with stationary early phase on day 6. The best increased permeability of P. chrysogenum cell membranes was obtained using a 1:4 of toluene:ethanol ratio mixture with the highest antibiotic concentration (130.06 mg/L) after testing for the enzymatic formation of antibacterial penicillin-G.
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7

Bartholomew, Holly P., Christopher Gottschalk, Bret Cooper, et al. "Omics-Based Comparison of Fungal Virulence Genes, Biosynthetic Gene Clusters, and Small Molecules in Penicillium expansum and Penicillium chrysogenum." Journal of Fungi 11, no. 1 (2024): 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof11010014.

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Penicillium expansum is a ubiquitous pathogenic fungus that causes blue mold decay of apple fruit postharvest, and another member of the genus, Penicillium chrysogenum, is a well-studied saprophyte valued for antibiotic and small molecule production. While these two fungi have been investigated individually, a recent discovery revealed that P. chrysogenum can block P. expansum-mediated decay of apple fruit. To shed light on this observation, we conducted a comparative genomic, transcriptomic, and metabolomic study of two P. chrysogenum (404 and 413) and two P. expansum (Pe21 and R19) isolates. Global transcriptional and metabolomic outputs were disparate between the species, nearly identical for P. chrysogenum isolates, and different between P. expansum isolates. Further, the two P. chrysogenum genomes revealed secondary metabolite gene clusters that varied widely from P. expansum. This included the absence of an intact patulin gene cluster in P. chrysogenum, which corroborates the metabolomic data regarding its inability to produce patulin. Additionally, a core subset of P. expansum virulence gene homologues were identified in P. chrysogenum and were similarly transcriptionally regulated in vitro. Molecules with varying biological activities, and phytohormone-like compounds were detected for the first time in P. expansum while antibiotics like penicillin G and other biologically active molecules were discovered in P. chrysogenum culture supernatants. Our findings provide a solid omics-based foundation of small molecule production in these two fungal species with implications in postharvest context and expand the current knowledge of the Penicillium-derived chemical repertoire for broader fundamental and practical applications.
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8

Fierro, Francisco, Inmaculada Vaca, Nancy I. Castillo, Ramón Ovidio García-Rico, and Renato Chávez. "Penicillium chrysogenum, a Vintage Model with a Cutting-Edge Profile in Biotechnology." Microorganisms 10, no. 3 (2022): 573. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10030573.

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The discovery of penicillin entailed a decisive breakthrough in medicine. No other medical advance has ever had the same impact in the clinical practise. The fungus Penicillium chrysogenum (reclassified as P. rubens) has been used for industrial production of penicillin ever since the forties of the past century; industrial biotechnology developed hand in hand with it, and currently P. chrysogenum is a thoroughly studied model for secondary metabolite production and regulation. In addition to its role as penicillin producer, recent synthetic biology advances have put P. chrysogenum on the path to become a cell factory for the production of metabolites with biotechnological interest. In this review, we tell the history of P. chrysogenum, from the discovery of penicillin and the first isolation of strains with high production capacity to the most recent research advances with the fungus. We will describe how classical strain improvement programs achieved the goal of increasing production and how the development of different molecular tools allowed further improvements. The discovery of the penicillin gene cluster, the origin of the penicillin genes, the regulation of penicillin production, and a compilation of other P. chrysogenum secondary metabolites will also be covered and updated in this work.
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9

Shirali, Akio, Wilson Minter Huijsmans, and Matteo Sottocornola. "Letter to the Editor: Genetic Editing of Secretory Pathway of Penicillium Chrysogenum After Observation of Increased Secretory Rates in an Increased Stress Environment (Microgravity), a Research Proposal by High School Students in Dubai." Fine Focus 4, no. 2 (2018): 163–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.33043/ff.4.2.163-169.

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In this study, we aim to amplify the secretory pathway of Penicillium Chrysogenum within the ISS or similar simulated microgravity using the miniPCR and/or RTQ-PCR and then optimizing Penicillium Chrysogenum function using CRISPR cas-9 (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats), a new technology in the genetics which can help in gene alteration for better drug production. The secretory pathway of Penicillium Chrysogenum is controlled by genes pcbAB , pcbC and penDE
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10

Martín, Jorge, Carlos García-Estrada, Ángel Rumbero, et al. "Characterization of an Autoinducer of Penicillin Biosynthesis in Penicillium chrysogenum." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 77, no. 16 (2011): 5688–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.00059-11.

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ABSTRACTFilamentous fungi produce an impressive variety of secondary metabolites; many of them have important biological activities. The biosynthesis of these secondary metabolites is frequently induced by plant-derived external elicitors and appears to also be regulated by internal inducers, which may work in a way similar to that of bacterial autoinducers. The biosynthesis of penicillin inPenicillium chrysogenumis an excellent model for studying the molecular mechanisms of control of gene expression due to a good knowledge of the biochemistry and molecular genetics of β-lactam antibiotics and to the availability of its genome sequence and proteome. In this work, we first developed a plate bioassay that allows direct testing of inducers of penicillin biosynthesis using single colonies ofP. chrysogenum. Using this bioassay, we have found an inducer substance in the conditioned culture broths ofP. chrysogenumandAcremonium chrysogenum. No inducing effect was exerted by γ-butyrolactones, jasmonic acid, or the penicillin precursor δ-(l-α-aminoadipyl)-l-cysteinyl-d-valine. The conditioned broth induced penicillin biosynthesis and transcription of thepcbAB,pcbC, andpenDEgenes when added at inoculation time, but its effect was smaller if added at 12 h and it had no effect when added at 24 h, as shown by Northern analysis andlacZreporter studies. The inducer molecule was purified and identified by mass spectrometry (MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) as 1,3-diaminopropane. Addition of pure 1,3-diaminopropane stimulated the production of penicillin by about 100% compared to results for the control cultures. Genes for the biosynthesis of 1,3-diaminopropane have been identified in theP. chrysogenumgenome.
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11

Laich, Federico, Francisco Fierro, and Juan F. Martín. "Production of Penicillin by Fungi Growing on Food Products: Identification of a Complete Penicillin Gene Cluster in Penicillium griseofulvum and a Truncated Cluster in Penicillium verrucosum." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 68, no. 3 (2002): 1211–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.68.3.1211-1219.2002.

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ABSTRACT Mycobiota growing on food is often beneficial for the ripening and development of the specific flavor characteristics of the product, but it can also be harmful due to the production of undesirable compounds such as mycotoxins or antibiotics. Some of the fungi most frequently isolated from fermented and cured meat products such as Penicillium chrysogenum and Penicillium nalgiovense are known penicillin producers; the latter has been shown to be able to produce penicillin when growing on the surface of meat products and secrete it to the medium. The presence of penicillin in food must be avoided, since it can lead to allergic reactions and the arising of penicillin resistance in human-pathogenic bacteria. In this article we describe a study of the penicillin production ability among fungi of the genus Penicillium that are used as starters for cheese and meat products or that are frequently isolated from food products. Penicillium griseofulvum was found to be a new penicillin producer and to have a penicillin gene cluster similar to that of Penicillium chrysogenum. No other species among the studied fungi were found to produce penicillin or to possess the penicillin biosynthetic genes, except P. verrucosum, which contains the pcbAB gene (as shown by hybridization and PCR cloning of fragments of the gene) but lacks pcbC and penDE. Antibacterial activities due to the production of secondary metabolites other than penicillin were observed in some fungi.
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12

Lu, Ying, Robert L. Mach, Karin Affenzeller та Christian P. Kubicek. "Regulation of α-aminoadipate reductase from Penicillium chrysogenum in relation to the flux from α-aminoadipate into penicillin biosynthesis". Canadian Journal of Microbiology 38, № 8 (1992): 758–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/m92-123.

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The activity and regulation of α-aminoadipate reductase in three Penicillium chrysogenum strains (Q176, D6/1014/A, and P2), producing different amounts of penicillin, were studied. The enzyme exhibited decreasing affinity for α-aminoadipate with increasing capacity of the respective strain to produce penicillin. The enzyme from all three strains was inhibited by L-lysine, and the enzyme from the lowest producer, Q176, was least sensitive. Between pH 7.5 and 6.5, inhibition of α-aminoadipate reductase by L-lysine was pH dependent, being more pronounced at lower pH. The highest producer strain, P2, displayed the lowest α-aminoadipate reductase activity at pH 7.0. In Q176, the addition of 0.5–1 mM of exogenous lysine stimulated penicillin formation, whereas the same concentration was ineffective or inhibitory with strains D6/1014/A and P2. The addition of higher (up to 5 mM) lysine concentrations inhibited penicillin production in all three strains. In mutants of P. chrysogenum D6/1014/A, selected for resistance to 20 mM α-aminoadipate, highest penicillin production was observed in those strains whose α-aminoadipate reductase was most strongly inhibited by L-lysine. The results support the conclusion that the in vivo activity of α-aminoadipate reductase from superior penicillin producer strains of P. chrysogenum is more strongly inhibited by lysine, and that this is related to their ability to accumulate increased amounts of α-aminoadipate, and hence penicillin. Key words: α-aminoadipate, α-aminoadipate reductase, regulation of lysine biosynthesis, penicillin biosynthesis, Penicillium chrysogenum.
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13

Galland, F., L. le Goff, J. Conrath, and B. Ridings. "Endophtalmie à Penicillium chrysogenum." Journal Français d'Ophtalmologie 27, no. 3 (2004): 264–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0181-5512(04)96128-1.

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14

Sánchez, Flora, María Lozano, Víctor Rubio, and Miguel Angel Peñalva. "Transformation in Penicillium chrysogenum." Gene 51, no. 1 (1987): 97–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-1119(87)90479-3.

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15

Bala, Jeremiah David, Faruk Kuta, Adabara Nasiru, Abdulameen Saheed Adedeji, Adel Ali Saeed Al-Gheethi, and Opeyemi Habeeb Fashola. "Biosorption potential of lead tolerant fungi isolated from refuse dumpsite soil in Nigeria." Acta Scientiarum. Biological Sciences 42 (July 1, 2020): e46753. http://dx.doi.org/10.4025/actascibiolsci.v42i1.46753.

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Metals are non-biodegradable and recurrent in the environs. Heavy metals tolerant fungi were isolated from refuse dumpsite soil using pour plate method. These fungi were identified as Aspergillus niger, Penicillium chrysogenum and Rhizomucor sp. The fungal isolates were screened for cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn) with concentration of 200ppm, 400ppm and 600ppm. Aspergillus niger and Penicillium chrysogenum showed high tolerance for the metals in contrast to the control. The fungi with high tolerance were used for biosorption study. However, Penicillium chrysogenum showed higher lead removal or biosorption potential of 1.07ppm, 3.35ppm and 4.19ppm as compared with Aspergillus niger with lead removal of 0.67ppm, 3.11ppm and 3.79ppm at 5th, 10th and 15th day respectively. One-way Analysis of Variance was used to interpret the data generated from the biosorption study which revealed that there was no significant different (p > 0.05) between the lead removal of Aspergillus niger and Penicillium chrysogenum on the 5th day but there was significant difference (p < 0.05) in the lead removal of Aspergillus niger and Penicillium chrysogenum on the 10th and 15th day. This study suggests the use of these fungal isolates for removal and biotreatment of heavy metal contaminated and polluted environment
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16

Muffic Obead, Esraa, and Rusul Mohamed Jasim. "Study of the effect of Synephrine against some contaminating fungi." Sumer 4 8, CSS 4 (2023): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.21931/rb/css/2023.08.04.50.

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This study aims to identify fungi (Aspergillus flavus, Arthroderma insingulare, Alternaria alternata, Penicillium chrysogenum, Penicillium expansum, Candida krusei, Candida famata). Those were identified according to morphological and microscopic examination. The yeast is identified by Vitek. Synephrine can be used as an antifungal. It was extracted from the leaves of Citrus aurantium.The diameter of Aspergillus flavus (6.767), Arthroderma insingular (6.467), Alternaria aiternata (6.733), Penicillium expansum (6.700), Penicillium chrysogenum (6.900), Candida famata (1.133), Candida krusei (1.233). Keywords: Synephrine, contaminated fungi, Exposure
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17

Šmidák, Roman, Martina Kralovičová, Beatrica Ševčíková, et al. "Sequence analysis and gene amplification study of the penicillin biosynthesis gene cluster from different strains of Penicillium chrysogenum." Biologia 65, no. 1 (2010): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/s11756-009-0216-2.

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AbstractIndustrial strains of Penicillium chrysogenum possess many genomic changes leading to higher levels of penicillin. In this work several production and wild-type strains of Penicillium chrysogenum were used in comparative nucleotide sequence analysis of the biosynthesis cluster. The alignments confirmed sequence conservation not only in promoter regions of the biosynthesis genes but also throughout the entire 44.7-kbp genomic fragment comprising the whole biosynthesis cluster with 15.5-kbp and 13.1-kbp flanking regions. As another titre-enhancing mechanism we subsequently examined gene dosage in two production strains introduced here, NMU2/40 and B14. Quantitative real-time PCR and Southern blot analysis showed the amplification of the biosynthesis genes in both these strains. Through the real-time PCR method the exact copy number was estimated for each of the pcbAB, pcbC and penDE genes. The equal pool of all three genes per genome was confirmed for the both production strains indicating that in these strains the entire penicillin cluster has been amplified as an intact element. Penicillium chrysogenum NMU2/40 was found to carry four copies of the cluster, while six copies were estimated for B14. This also proves the contribution of the additional titre-enhancing mechanisms in both strains, since the industrial data referred much higher production of these strains compared with the single copy reference strain NRRL 1951.
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18

Renno, Didier V., Gunter Saunders, Alan T. Bull, and Geoffrey Holt. "Transcript analysis of penicillin genes from Penicillium chrysogenum." Current Genetics 21, no. 1 (1992): 49–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00318654.

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19

de Jonge, Lodewijk P., Nicolaas A. A. Buijs, Angela ten Pierick, et al. "Scale-down of penicillin production in Penicillium chrysogenum." Biotechnology Journal 6, no. 8 (2011): 944–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/biot.201000409.

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20

Koetsier, Martijn J., Peter A. Jekel, Marco A. van den Berg, Roel A. L. Bovenberg, and Dick B. Janssen. "Characterization of a phenylacetate–CoA ligase from Penicillium chrysogenum." Biochemical Journal 417, no. 2 (2008): 467–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bj20081257.

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Enzymatic activation of PAA (phenylacetic acid) to phenylacetyl-CoA is an important step in the biosynthesis of the β-lactam antibiotic penicillin G by the fungus Penicillium chrysogenum. CoA esters of PAA and POA (phenoxyacetic acid) act as acyl donors in the exchange of the aminoadipyl side chain of isopenicillin N to produce penicillin G or penicillin V. The phl gene, encoding a PCL (phenylacetate–CoA ligase), was cloned in Escherichia coli as a maltose-binding protein fusion and the biochemical properties of the enzyme were characterized. The recombinant fusion protein converted PAA into phenylacetyl-CoA in an ATP- and magnesium-dependent reaction. PCL could also activate POA, but the catalytic efficiency of the enzyme was rather low with kcat/Km values of 0.23±0.06 and 7.8±1.2 mM−1·s−1 for PAA and POA respectively. Surprisingly, PCL was very efficient in catalysing the conversion of trans-cinnamic acids to the corresponding CoA thioesters [kcat/Km=(3.1±0.4)×102 mM−1·s−1 for trans-cinnamic acid]. Of all the substrates screened, medium-chain fatty acids, which also occur as the side chains of the natural penicillins F, DF, H and K, were the best substrates for PCL. The high preference for fatty acids could be explained by a homology model of PCL that was constructed on the basis of sequence similarity with the Japanese firefly luciferase. The results suggest that PCL has evolved from a fatty-acid-activating ancestral enzyme that may have been involved in the β-oxidation of fatty acids.
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21

Sawant, Amol M., Vishwambar D. Navale, and Koteswara Rao Vamkudoth. "Isolation and Molecular Characterization of Indigenous Penicillium chrysogenum/rubens Strain Portfolio for Penicillin V Production." Microorganisms 11, no. 5 (2023): 1132. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11051132.

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Beta (β)-lactam antibiotic is an industrially important molecule produced by Penicillium chrysogenum/rubens. Penicillin is a building block for 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA), an important active pharmaceutical intermediate (API) used for semi-synthetic antibiotics biosynthesis. In this investigation, we isolated and identified Penicillium chrysogenum, P. rubens, P. brocae, P. citrinum, Aspergillus fumigatus, A. sydowii, Talaromyces tratensis, Scopulariopsis brevicaulis, P. oxalicum, and P. dipodomyicola using the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region and the β-tubulin (BenA) gene for precise species identification from Indian origin. Furthermore, the BenA gene distinguished between complex species of P. chrysogenum and P. rubens to a certain extent which partially failed by the ITS region. In addition, these species were distinguished by metabolic markers profiled by liquid chromatography–high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). Secalonic acid, Meleagrin, and Roquefortine C were absent in P. rubens. The crude extract evaluated for PenV production by antibacterial activities by well diffusion method against Staphylococcus aureus NCIM-2079. A high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method was developed for simultaneous detection of 6-APA, phenoxymethyl penicillin (PenV), and phenoxyacetic acid (POA). The pivotal objective was the development of an indigenous strain portfolio for PenV production. Here, a library of 80 strains of P. chrysogenum/rubens was screened for PenV production. Results showed 28 strains capable of producing PenV in a range from 10 to 120 mg/L when 80 strains were screened for its production. In addition, fermentation parameters, precursor concentration, incubation period, inoculum size, pH, and temperature were monitored for the improved PenV production using promising P. rubens strain BIONCL P45. In conclusion, P. chrysogenum/rubens strains can be explored for the industrial-scale PenV production.
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Hoff, Birgit, Jens Kamerewerd, Claudia Sigl, et al. "Two Components of a velvet-Like Complex Control Hyphal Morphogenesis, Conidiophore Development, and Penicillin Biosynthesis in Penicillium chrysogenum." Eukaryotic Cell 9, no. 8 (2010): 1236–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/ec.00077-10.

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ABSTRACT Penicillium chrysogenum is the industrial producer of the antibiotic penicillin, whose biosynthetic regulation is barely understood. Here, we provide a functional analysis of two major homologues of the velvet complex in P. chrysogenum, which we have named P. chrysogenum velA (PcvelA) and PclaeA. Data from array analysis using a ΔPcvelA deletion strain indicate a significant role of PcVelA on the expression of biosynthesis and developmental genes, including PclaeA. Northern hybridization and high-performance liquid chromatography quantifications of penicillin titers clearly show that both PcVelA and PcLaeA play a major role in penicillin biosynthesis in a producer strain that underwent several rounds of UV mutagenesis during a strain improvement program. Both regulators are further involved in different developmental processes. While PcvelA deletion leads to light-independent conidial formation, dichotomous branching of hyphae, and pellet formation in shaking cultures, a ΔPclaeA strain shows a severe impairment in conidiophore formation under both light and dark conditions. Bimolecular fluorescence complementation assays provide evidence for a velvet-like complex in P. chrysogenum, with structurally conserved components that have distinct developmental roles, illustrating the functional plasticity of these regulators in genera other than Aspergillus.
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Wang, Xinxin, Jiachen Zhao, Jianye Xia, Guan Wang, Ju Chu, and Yingping Zhuang. "Impact of Altered Trehalose Metabolism on Physiological Response of Penicillium chrysogenum Chemostat Cultures during Industrially Relevant Rapid Feast/Famine Conditions." Processes 9, no. 1 (2021): 118. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pr9010118.

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Due to insufficient mass transfer and mixing issues, cells in the industrial-scale bioreactor are often forced to experience glucose feast/famine cycles, mostly resulting in reduced commercial metrics (titer, yield and productivity). Trehalose cycling has been confirmed as a double-edged sword in the Penicillium chrysogenum strain, which facilitates the maintenance of a metabolically balanced state, but it consumes extra amounts of the ATP responsible for the repeated breakdown and formation of trehalose molecules in response to extracellular glucose perturbations. This loss of ATP would be in competition with the high ATP-demanding penicillin biosynthesis. In this work, the role of trehalose metabolism was further explored under industrially relevant conditions by cultivating a high-yielding Penicillium chrysogenum strain, and the derived trehalose-null strains in the glucose-limited chemostat system where the glucose feast/famine condition was imposed. This dynamic feast/famine regime with a block-wise feed/no feed regime (36 s on, 324 s off) allows one to generate repetitive cycles of moderate changes in glucose availability. The results obtained using quantitative metabolomics and stoichiometric analysis revealed that the intact trehalose metabolism is vitally important for maintaining penicillin production capacity in the Penicillium chrysogenum strain under both steady state and dynamic conditions. Additionally, cells lacking such a key metabolic regulator would become more sensitive to industrially relevant conditions, and are more able to sustain metabolic rearrangements, which manifests in the shrinkage of the central metabolite pool size and the formation of ATP-consuming futile cycles.
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Wang, Xinxin, Jiachen Zhao, Jianye Xia, Guan Wang, Ju Chu, and Yingping Zhuang. "Impact of Altered Trehalose Metabolism on Physiological Response of Penicillium chrysogenum Chemostat Cultures during Industrially Relevant Rapid Feast/Famine Conditions." Processes 9, no. 1 (2021): 118. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pr9010118.

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Due to insufficient mass transfer and mixing issues, cells in the industrial-scale bioreactor are often forced to experience glucose feast/famine cycles, mostly resulting in reduced commercial metrics (titer, yield and productivity). Trehalose cycling has been confirmed as a double-edged sword in the Penicillium chrysogenum strain, which facilitates the maintenance of a metabolically balanced state, but it consumes extra amounts of the ATP responsible for the repeated breakdown and formation of trehalose molecules in response to extracellular glucose perturbations. This loss of ATP would be in competition with the high ATP-demanding penicillin biosynthesis. In this work, the role of trehalose metabolism was further explored under industrially relevant conditions by cultivating a high-yielding Penicillium chrysogenum strain, and the derived trehalose-null strains in the glucose-limited chemostat system where the glucose feast/famine condition was imposed. This dynamic feast/famine regime with a block-wise feed/no feed regime (36 s on, 324 s off) allows one to generate repetitive cycles of moderate changes in glucose availability. The results obtained using quantitative metabolomics and stoichiometric analysis revealed that the intact trehalose metabolism is vitally important for maintaining penicillin production capacity in the Penicillium chrysogenum strain under both steady state and dynamic conditions. Additionally, cells lacking such a key metabolic regulator would become more sensitive to industrially relevant conditions, and are more able to sustain metabolic rearrangements, which manifests in the shrinkage of the central metabolite pool size and the formation of ATP-consuming futile cycles.
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Guo, Liping, Yan Li, Shengchao Ding, et al. "Effect of Fermentation with Two Molds on Characteristics of Chicken Meat." Journal of Food Quality 2021 (February 10, 2021): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/8845552.

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In the present study, we investigated the characteristics of chicken meat fermented with Penicillium nalgiovense and Penicillium chrysogenum. Hardness and springiness gradually decreased, while gumminess gradually increased during fermentation. Fermentation with P. chrysogenum led to higher hardness and lower gumminess than fermentation with P. nalgiovense. Fermentation with two molds resulted in similar microstructure, such as granule formation and fractured myofibril. The highest percentage of secondary structure was ɑ-helix, and tyrosine residues were buried after fermentation. P. nalgiovense-fermented samples contained more bound water, lower relative content of alkanes, and higher relative content of aldehydes than P. chrysogenum-fermented samples.
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Kantarcioglu, A. S., H. Apaydin, A. Yucel, et al. "Central nervous system infection due to Penicillium chrysogenum. Fallbericht. ZNS-Infektion durch Penicillium chrysogenum." Mycoses 47, no. 5-6 (2004): 242–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0507.2004.00974.x.

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Naranjo, Leopoldo, Eva Martín de Valmaseda, Javier Casqueiro та ін. "Inactivation of the lys7 Gene, Encoding Saccharopine Reductase in Penicillium chrysogenum, Leads to Accumulation of the Secondary Metabolite Precursors Piperideine-6-Carboxylic Acid and Pipecolic Acid from α-Aminoadipic Acid". Applied and Environmental Microbiology 70, № 2 (2004): 1031–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.70.2.1031-1039.2004.

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ABSTRACT Pipecolic acid serves as a precursor of the biosynthesis of the alkaloids slaframine and swainsonine (an antitumor agent) in some fungi. It is not known whether other fungi are able to synthesize pipecolic acid. Penicillium chrysogenum has a very active α-aminoadipic acid pathway that is used for the synthesis of this precursor of penicillin. The lys7 gene, encoding saccharopine reductase in P. chrysogenum, was target inactivated by the double-recombination method. Analysis of a disrupted strain (named P. chrysogenum SR1−) showed the presence of a mutant lys7 gene lacking about 1,000 bp in the 3′-end region. P. chrysogenum SR1− lacked saccharopine reductase activity, which was recovered after transformation of this mutant with the intact lys7 gene in an autonomously replicating plasmid. P. chrysogenum SR1− was a lysine auxotroph and accumulated piperideine-6-carboxylic acid. When mutant P. chrysogenum SR1− was grown with l-lysine as the sole nitrogen source and supplemented with dl-α-aminoadipic acid, a high level of pipecolic acid accumulated intracellularly. A comparison of strain SR1− with a lys2-defective mutant provided evidence showing that P. chrysogenum synthesizes pipecolic acid from α-aminoadipic acid and not from l-lysine catabolism.
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Janus, Danielle, Birgit Hoff, and Ulrich Kück. "Evidence for Dicer-dependent RNA interference in the industrial penicillin producer Penicillium chrysogenum." Microbiology 155, no. 12 (2009): 3946–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/mic.0.032763-0.

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RNA interference (RNAi) is a sequence-specific post-transcriptional gene silencing system that downregulates target gene expression. Here, we provide several lines of evidence for RNA silencing in the industrial β-lactam antibiotic producer Penicillium chrysogenum using the DsRed reporter gene under the control of the constitutive trpC promoter or the inducible xylP promoter. The functional RNAi system was verified by detection of siRNAs that hybridized exclusively with gene-specific 32P-labelled RNA probes. Moreover, when RNAi was used to silence the endogenous PcbrlA morphogene that controls conidiophore development, a dramatic reduction in the formation of conidiospores was observed in 47 % of the corresponding transformants. Evidence that RNAi in P. chrysogenum is dependent on a Dicer peptide was provided with a strain lacking Pcdcl2. In the ΔPcdcl2 background, silencing of the PcbrlA gene was tested. None of the transformants analysed showed a developmental defect. The applicability of the RNAi system in P. chrysogenum was finally demonstrated by silencing the Pcku70 gene to increase homologous recombination frequency. This led to the generation of single and double knockout mutants.
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Luengo, J. M., M. T. Alemany, F. Salto, F. Ramos, M. J. López-Nieto, and J. F. Martin. "Direct Enzymatic Synthesis of Penicillin G Using Cyclases of Penicillium chrysogenum and Acremonium chrysogenum." Nature Biotechnology 4, no. 1 (1986): 44–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nbt0186-44.

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Scheckhuber, Christian Q., Marten Veenhuis, and Ida J. van der Klei. "Improving penicillin biosynthesis in Penicillium chrysogenum by glyoxalase overproduction." Metabolic Engineering 18 (July 2013): 36–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ymben.2013.04.003.

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31

Domínguez-Santos, Rebeca, Katarina Kosalková, Isabel-Clara Sánchez-Orejas, et al. "Characterization of the Gene Encoding S-adenosyl-L-methionine (AdoMet) Synthetase in Penicillium chrysogenum; Role in Secondary Metabolism and Penicillin Production." Microorganisms 10, no. 1 (2021): 78. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10010078.

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The filamentous fungus Penicillium chrysogenum (recently reidentified as Penicillium rubens) is used in the industrial production of the β-lactam antibiotic penicillin. There are several mechanisms regulating the production of this antibiotic, acting both at the genetic and epigenetic levels, the latter including the modification of chromatin by methyltransferases. S-adenosyl-L-methionine (AdoMet) is the main donor of methyl groups for methyltransferases. In addition, it also acts as a donor of aminopropyl groups during the biosynthesis of polyamines. AdoMet is synthesized from L-methionine and ATP by AdoMet-synthetase. In silico analysis of the P. chrysogenum genome revealed the presence of a single gene (Pc16g04380) encoding a putative protein with high similarity to well-known AdoMet-synthetases. Due to the essential nature of this gene, functional analysis was carried out using RNAi-mediated silencing techniques. Knock-down transformants exhibited a decrease in AdoMet, S-adenosyl-L-homocysteine (AdoHcy), spermidine and benzylpenicillin levels, whereas they accumulated a yellow-orange pigment in submerged cultures. On the other hand, overexpression led to reduced levels of benzylpenicillin, thereby suggesting that the AdoMet synthetase, in addition to participate in primary metabolism, also controls secondary metabolism in P. chrysogenum.
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van de Kamp, Mart, Theo A. Schuurs, Arnold Vos, Ted R. van der Lende, Wil N. Konings, and Arnold J. M. Driessen. "Sulfur Regulation of the Sulfate Transporter GenessutA and sutB in Penicillium chrysogenum." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 66, no. 10 (2000): 4536–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.66.10.4536-4538.2000.

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ABSTRACT Penicillium chrysogenum uses sulfate as a source of sulfur for the biosynthesis of penicillin. Sulfate uptake and the mRNA levels of the sulfate transporter-encoding sutB andsutA genes are all reduced by high sulfate concentrations and are elevated by sulfate starvation. In a high-penicillin-yielding strain, sutB is effectively transcribed even in the presence of excess sulfate. This deregulation may facilitate the efficient incorporation of sulfur into cysteine and penicillin.
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Kurzątkowski, Wieslaw, and Anita Gębska-Kuczerowska. "Pexophagy in Penicillin G Secretion by Penicillium chrysogenum PQ-96." Polish Journal of Microbiology 65, no. 3 (2016): 365–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/17331331.1215616.

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Penicillin G oversecretion by Penicillium chrysogenum PQ-96 is associated with a strictly adjusted cellular organization of the mature and senescent mycelial cells. Abundant vacuolar phagy and extended cellular vacuolization combined with vacuolar budding resulting in the formation of vacuolar vesicles that fuse with the cell membrane are the most important characteristic features of those cells. We suggest as follows: if the peroxisomes are integrated into vacuoles, the penicillin G formed in peroxisomes might be transferred to vacuoles and later secreted out of the cells by an exocytosis process. The peroxisomal cells of the mycelium are privileged in penicillin G secretion.
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Spröte, Petra, Axel A. Brakhage, and Michael J. Hynes. "Contribution of Peroxisomes to Penicillin Biosynthesis in Aspergillus nidulans." Eukaryotic Cell 8, no. 3 (2009): 421–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/ec.00374-08.

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ABSTRACT Peroxisomal localization of the third enzyme of the penicillin biosynthesis pathway of Aspergillus nidulans, acyl-coenzyme A:IPN acyltransferase (IAT), is mediated by its atypical peroxisomal targeting signal 1 (PTS1). However, mislocalization of IAT by deletion of either its PTS1 or of genes encoding proteins involved in peroxisome formation or transport does not completely abolish penicillin biosynthesis. This is in contrast to the effects of IAT mislocalization in Penicillium chrysogenum.
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Rodrı́guez-Sáiz, M., J. L. Barredo, M. A. Moreno, J. M. Fernández-Cañón, M. A. Peñalva, and B. Dı́ez. "Reduced Function of a Phenylacetate-Oxidizing Cytochrome P450 Caused Strong Genetic Improvement in Early Phylogeny of Penicillin-Producing Strains." Journal of Bacteriology 183, no. 19 (2001): 5465–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jb.183.19.5465-5471.2001.

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ABSTRACT The single-copy pahA gene from Penicillium chrysogenum encodes a phenylacetate 2-hydroxylase that catalyzes the first step of phenylacetate catabolism, an oxidative route that decreases the precursor availability for penicillin G biosynthesis. PahA protein is homologous to cytochrome P450 monooxygenases involved in the detoxification of xenobiotic compounds, with 84% identity to the Aspergillus nidulans homologue PhacA. Expression level of pahA displays an inverse correlation with the penicillin productivity of the strain and is subject to induction by phenylacetic acid. Gene expression studies have revealed a reduced oxidative activity of the protein encoded bypahA genes from penicillin-overproducing strains ofP. chrysogenum compared to the activity conferred byphacA of A. nidulans. Sequencing and expression of wild-type pahA from P. chrysogenum NRRL 1951 revealed that an L181F mutation was responsible for the reduced function in present industrial strains. The mutation has been tracked down to Wisconsin 49–133, a mutant obtained at the Department of Botany of the University of Wisconsin in 1949, at the beginning of the development of the Wisconsin family of strains.
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Skorokhoda, Volodymyr, Ihor Semeniuk, Taras Peretyatko, et al. "Biodegradation of Polyhydroxybutyrate, Polylactide, and Their Blends by Microorganisms, Including Antarctic Species: Insights from Weight Loss, XRD, and Thermal Studies." Polymers 17, no. 5 (2025): 675. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17050675.

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This study explores the biodegradation of polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), polylactide (PLA), and their blends by 11 bacterial species (including Antarctic strains) and 6 fungal species. Aeration significantly enhanced PHB degradation by mold fungi (Aspergillus oryzae, Penicillium chrysogenum) and bacteria (Paenibacillus tundrae, Bacillus mycoides), while Aspergillus awamori was most effective under non-aerated conditions. For PLA, degradation peaked under aeration with Penicillium chrysogenum and Bacillus subtilis. PHB/PLA blends degraded slower overall, with maximum degradation under aeration by Penicillium chrysogenum, Pseudoarthrobacter sp., and Flavobacterium sp. Biodegradation was assessed via weight-loss measurements, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and thermal analysis. PHB samples showed reduced crystallinity and thermal stability linked to weight loss, while PLA samples exhibited varied changes, often with increased crystallinity and stability depending on the microorganism. PHB/PLA blends displayed variable crystallinity changes, generally decreasing under microbial action. The search for effective plastic-degrading microorganisms, particularly from extreme environments like Antarctica, is vital for addressing plastic pollution and advancing sustainable polymer degradation.
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KURZĄTKOWSKI, WIESŁAW, MONIKA STANISZEWSKA, MAŁGORZATA BONDARYK, and ANITA GĘBSKA-KUCZEROWSKA. "Compartmentalization in Penicillin G Biosynthesis by Penicillium chrysogenum PQ-96." Polish Journal of Microbiology 63, no. 4 (2014): 399–408. http://dx.doi.org/10.33073/pjm-2014-054.

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The arrangement of organelles in the sub-apical productive non-growing vacuolated hyphal cells of the high- and the low-penicillin-pro- ducing strains Penicillium chrysogenum was compared using transmission electron microscopy. In the productive cells of the high-yielding strain the endoplasmic reticulum and the polyribosomes with associated peroxisomes are frequently arranged at the periphery of the cytoplasm and around the vacuoles. At the high activity of penicillin G biosynthesis the immuno-label of the cytosolic isopenicillin N synthase is concentrated at the polyribosomes arranged in the peripheral cytoplasm and along the tonoplast as well as around the peroxisomes. On the basis of the obtained results the compartmentalization of the pathway of penicillin G biosymthesis is discussed. The obtained results support the phenylacetic acid detoxification hypothesis of penicillin G biosynthesis.
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García-Rico, Ramón O., Francisco Fierro, Elba Mauriz, Ana Gómez, María Ángeles Fernández-Bodega та Juan F. Martín. "The heterotrimeric Gα protein Pga1 regulates biosynthesis of penicillin, chrysogenin and roquefortine in Penicillium chrysogenum". Microbiology 154, № 11 (2008): 3567–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/mic.0.2008/019091-0.

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Aljeldah, Mohammed, Hosam El-Sayyad, Nasreldin Elhadi, and Ali Rabaan. "Effect of Gamma-Rays on the Growth and Penicillin Production of Penicillium chrysogenum." Journal of Pure and Applied Microbiology 13, no. 2 (2019): 779–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.22207/jpam.13.2.13.

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Kocic-Tanackov, Suncica, Gordana Dimic, Dusanka Pejin, Ljiljana Mojovic, Jelena Pejin, and Ilija Tanackov. "Antifungal activity of the basil (Ocimmum basilicum L.) extract on Penicillium aurantiogriseum, P. glabrum, P. chrysogenum, and P. brevicompactum." Acta Periodica Technologica, no. 43 (2012): 247–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/apt1243247k.

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This study was aimed at investigating the antifungal potential of basil (Ocimmum basilicum L.) extract against toxin-producing Penicillium spp. (P. aurantiogriseum, P. glabrum, P. chrysogenum, and P. brevicompactum) isolated from food. The basil extract composition was determined by the GC-MS method. The major component identified in the extract was estragole (86.72%). The determination of the antifungal activity of basil extract on Penicillium spp. was performed using the agar plate method. Basil extract reduced the growth of Penicillium spp. at all applied concentration levels (0.16, 0.35, 0.70, and 1.50 mL/100mL) with the colony growth inhibition from 3.6 (for P. glabrum) to 100% (for P. chrysogenum). The highest sensitivity showed P. chrysogenum, where the growth was completely inhibited at the basil extract concentration of 1.50 mL/100mL. The growth of other Penicillium spp. was partially inhibited with the colony growth inhibition of 63.4 % (P. brevicompactum), 67.5% (P. aurantiogriseum), and 71.7% (P. glabrum). Higher concentrations (0.70 and 1.50 mL/100mL) reduced the growth of the aerial mycelium of all tested Penicillium species. In addition, at the same extract concentrations, the examination of microscopic preparation showed the deformation of hyphae with the frequent occurrence of fragmentations and thickenings, occurrence of irregular vesicle, frequently without metulae and phialides, enlarged metulae. The results obtained in this investigation point to the possibility of using basil extract for the antifungal food protection.
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SO, Oguche. "Screening of Fungi from Disposed Maize Cobs for Amylase Production." Open Access Journal of Microbiology & Biotechnology 6, no. 4 (2021): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.23880/oajmb-16000207.

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Background of Study: Microorganisms in particular have been regarded as treasure of useful enzymes. There is a great variation between various genera as to their ability to produce a specific enzyme for the production of particular enzymes varies with the particular medium and pH. Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted at the Department of Microbiology Laboratory, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, ATBU, Bauchi Nigeria, from November, 2020 to October, 2021. Aim: This study was aimed to isolates fungi from disposed maize cobs and evaluates its potentials to produce amylase. Methods: Twelve samples each was collected from three different areas; market place, farmland and residential areas in Bauchi metropolis, (a total of 36 samples in all) using precise aseptic techniques. Each sample was collected using clean polythene bag, transported to the lab and aseptically blended. One gram of each sample was aseptically weighed and placed in a test tube containing sterile water; it was then allowed to stand for 30 minutes. One ml of the stock solution was serially diluted and 10ml dilution of each sample was plated on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) media. The plate was incubated at 25°C within a period of three, five and seven days during which they were monitored and examined, to isolate the required fungi species. The isolates were tested for amylolytic activity using 1% iodine and screen for amylase production by pre-treatment and solid state fermentation, then α-amylase activity finally determined. Results: Amylase-producing fungi were isolated from maize cobs collected from residence, market and farm areas in Bauchi metropolis. The ability of ten (10) fungal isolates recovered, (Mucor racemosus, Aspergillus niger Penicillium chrysogenum, Rhizopus oryzae, Microsporum sp, Trichoderma sp, Nocardia sp, Monilla sp, Fusarium sp and Chaetomum sp) to degrade starch was determined. Three (3) of the fungal isolates Aspergillus niger Penicillium chrysogenum, Rhizopus oryzae, had the highest frequency of (20%) each. Four (4) of the fungal isolates (Mucor racemosus, Aspergillus niger, Penicillium chrysogenum and Rhizopus oryzae) showed zone of clearance on starch agar medium, the fungi isolates were selected and subjected to various temperatures, incubation time and pH ranges for amylase production. The results showed that Penicillium chrysogenum and Rhizopus oryzae have maximum amylase activity at temperature 35°C, incubation time 96hrs (4days), pH 5.5 and temperature 30°C,incubation time 96hrs(4days) and pH 5.0 respectively. Penicillium chrysogenum produced 46.3μ/ml, and Rhizopus oryzae, produced 30.8μ/ml of amylase. Conclusion: The results of this work proved Penicillium chrysogenum to be the best producer of amylase compared to Rhizopus oryzae. Isolation of amylase producing fungi from maize cobs from residence, market and farm areas will help in the bioremediation of environment, which could have caused environmental pollution. It is recommended that Penicillium chrysogenum and Rhizopus oryzae, are suitable fungi for amylase production. While Maize cobs can be used as substrate for commercial enzymes production.
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Rahman, Sajjad-Ur, Muhammad Hidayat Rasool, and Muhammad Rafi. "Penicillin production by wild isolates of Penicillium chrysogenum in Pakistan." Brazilian Journal of Microbiology 43, no. 2 (2012): 476–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s1517-83822012000200007.

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43

Meijer, Wiebe H., Loknath Gidijala, Susan Fekken, et al. "Peroxisomes Are Required for Efficient Penicillin Biosynthesis in Penicillium chrysogenum." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 76, no. 17 (2010): 5702–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.02327-09.

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ABSTRACT In the fungus Penicillium chrysogenum, penicillin (PEN) production is compartmentalized in the cytosol and in peroxisomes. Here we show that intact peroxisomes that contain the two final enzymes of PEN biosynthesis, acyl coenzyme A (CoA):6-amino penicillanic acid acyltransferase (AT) as well as the side-chain precursor activation enzyme phenylacetyl CoA ligase (PCL), are crucial for efficient PEN synthesis. Moreover, increasing PEN titers are associated with increasing peroxisome numbers. However, not all conditions that result in enhanced peroxisome numbers simultaneously stimulate PEN production. We find that conditions that lead to peroxisome proliferation but simultaneously interfere with the normal physiology of the cell may be detrimental to antibiotic production. We furthermore show that peroxisomes develop in germinating conidiospores from reticule-like structures. During subsequent hyphal growth, peroxisome proliferation occurs at the tip of the growing hyphae, after which the organelles are distributed over newly formed subapical cells. We observed that the organelle proliferation machinery requires the dynamin-like protein Dnm1.
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MARTÍN, JUAN F. "Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics of Penicillin Production in Penicillium chrysogenum." Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 646, no. 1 Recombinant D (1991): 193–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1991.tb18577.x.

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Barreiro, Carlos, and Carlos García-Estrada. "Proteomics and Penicillium chrysogenum: Unveiling the secrets behind penicillin production." Journal of Proteomics 198 (April 2019): 119–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jprot.2018.11.006.

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Díez, Bruno, Carmen Schleissner, Miguel Angel Moreno, Marta Rodríguez, Alfonso Collados, and José Luis Barredo. "The manganese superoxide dismutase from the penicillin producer Penicillium chrysogenum." Current Genetics 33, no. 6 (1998): 387–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s002940050351.

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47

D'Antonio, D., B. Violante, C. Farina, et al. "Necrotizing pneumonia caused by Penicillium chrysogenum." Journal of clinical microbiology 35, no. 12 (1997): 3335–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jcm.35.12.3335-3337.1997.

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48

D’Antonio, Domenico, Beatrice Violante, Claudio Farina, et al. "Necrotizing Pneumonia Caused by Penicillium chrysogenum." Journal of Clinical Microbiology 36, no. 2 (1998): 607. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jcm.36.2.607-607.1998.

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49

Renosto, F., R. L. Martin, and I. H. Segel. "Sulfate-activating Enzymes of Penicillium chrysogenum." Journal of Biological Chemistry 264, no. 16 (1989): 9433–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0021-9258(18)60550-2.

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LIU, Hui, Fang GUI, XiaoChun CAI, et al. "Metabolic engineering of Penicillium chrysogenum morphology." Chinese Science Bulletin 59, no. 21 (2014): 2017–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1360/972013-1159.

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