Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Performance swimming'

This thesis examines the linear swimming motion of Carangiform fish, and investigates how to improve the swimming performance of robotic fish within the fields of kinematic modeling and mechanical engineering, in a successful attempt to replicate the high performance of real fish. Intensive research was conducted in order to study the Carangiform swimming motion, where observational studies of the common carp were undertaken. Firstly, a full-body length Carangiform swimming motion is proposed to coordinate the anterior, mid-body and posterior displacements in an attempt to reduce the large kinematic errors in the existing free swimming robotic fish. It optimizes the forces around the centre of mass and initiates the starting moment of added mass upstream therefore increasing performance, in terms of swimming speed. The introduced pattern is experimentally tested against the traditional approach (of posterior confined body motion). A first generation robotic fish is devised with a novel mechanical drive system operating in the two swimming patterns. It is shown conclusively that by coordinating the full-body length of the Carangiform swimming motion a significant increase in linear swimming speed is gained over the traditional posterior confined wave form and reduces the large kinematic errors seen in existing free swimming robotic fish (Achieving the cruising speeds of real fish). Based on the experimental results of the first generation, a further three robotic fish are developed: (A) iSplash-OPTIMIZE: it becomes clear that further tuning of the kinematic parameters may provide a greater performance increase in the distance travelled per tail beat. (B) iSplash-II: it shows that combining the critical aspects of the mechanical drive system of iSplash-I with higher frequencies and higher productive forces can significantly increase maximum velocity. This prototype is able to outperform real Carangiform fish in terms of average maximum velocity (measured in body lengths/ second) and endurance, the duration that top speed is maintained. (C) iSplash-MICRO: it verifies that the mechanical drive system could be reduced in scale to improve navigational exploration, whilst retaining high-speed swimming performance. A small robotic fish is detailed with an equivalent maximum velocity (BL/s) to real fish.

Performance when gliding in the streamlined position depends on a swimmer’s morphological characteristics, body orientation and water characteristics. The purpose of this thesis was twofold. First to identify and assess the effect of controllable factors that contribute to glide performance and second to form the foundations of an improved approach of simulating the fluid flow around the swimmers’ body. To address the purposes of the thesis four investigations were conducted. Study 1. The effect of the head position on glide performance was investigated. When the high, medium and low head positions were compared, it was found that swimmers experience significantly greater resistance and decelerate faster when they adopt a high head position. It was also found that there is no significant difference between the medium and low head position indicating for the first time that swimmers can choose any of the positions according to their natural tendency. Study 2. The second study examined the effect of gliding depth on gliding performance. A range of depths was investigated ranging from 0.8 m to 0.2 m from the water surface. The results demonstrated significantly higher glide factor values for glides at a greater depth when compared to glides closer to the water surface highlighting the retarding effect of wave drag when gliding close to the surface. The optimum gliding performance was reported for glides at 0.8 m from the surface. Study 3. The third study investigated the effect of full body swimsuits on glide performance. According to the findings, it is demonstrated for the first time that the improved gliding performance when wearing full body swimsuits is linked to changes in swimmers’ morphology due to compression. Study 4. In the fourth study the magnitude of resistive forces applied on a swimmer’s body when gliding underwater was assessed with the use of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and the LES approach. The results showed a close match between the glide factor values of the experimental and the computational findings demonstrating the effectiveness of the CFD method when the LES approach is employed.

This thesis examines the swimming performance of mackerel (Scomber scombrus L.), herring (Clupea harengus L.), and saithe (Pollachius virens (L.)), and relates it with the mechanical and the electrical properties and the volume of the red and the white swimming muscle. Analysis of kinematics of swimming from cine films and video recordings allows development of a mathematical model of swimming movements and examination of thrust and power output during swimming. This output can be scaled for the time of the tail beat cycle and the size of the fish. Swimming of mackerel at low speeds is related to the lift required in this negatively buoyant species in order to maintain a constant swimming depth. Longitudinal tilting of the mackerel body at low speeds is observed and related to the echo sounder target strength in fisheries surveys. Swimming performance of mackerel, herring and saithe at intermediate speeds is measured in terms of speed and endurance. The maximum sustained swimming speed for each species is related to the maximum cross-section area of the red muscle. Maximum burst swimming speed up to 18 body lengths per second is measured in a 30.5 cm long mackerel. This maximum speed is found to be limited by the minimum contraction time of the white muscle which is measured in 60 samples of 20 individual mackerel. Recordings of the electromyograms of swimming mackerel and measurements of muscle contraction time and muscle cross-section area lead to a new fish swimming model demonstrating how the thickest part of the red muscle is used when the maximum thrust is output from the caudal fin during one tail beat cycle. The swimming performance of marine fish near fishing gears, especially otter trawls is summarised by analysing video tapes recorded at sea and compared with the measured swimming performance in laboratory conditions. Some models of fish swimming behaviour near fishing gears are developed.

Synchronized swimming (SS) is a sports discipline combining swimming, dancing and gymnastics. Synchronized Swimmers perform a choreography called routine consisting of elaborate moves in the water accompanied by music. Previous research investigating SS from a physiological perspective has mainly used figures or fractionated and/or simulated routine protocols during training, although the nature of sports leads to continuous very demanding exercises (~2-4 minutes) performed at increasingly higher levels of intensity with almost 50% of this time underwater. In addition, different from training, competition is a challenging situation which usually stimulates higher psycho-physiological responses in the participant. Current knowledge is thus limited as regards physiological responses in competitive elite SS. Therefore, the overall aim of this thesis is to study the physiological responses related to performance during the execution of competitive routines both during training and competitive sessions in elite synchronized swimmers. The thesis is based on three studies (Studies I – III); all of them use the same protocol with continuous cardiovascular monitoring during competitive routines, perceived exertion assessment after the executions, and blood lactate measurements (Studies I and III). Study I characterized the physiological responses in relation to performance during an official competition. In Study II the execution of the duets in both conditions –training and competitive session– was used to compare the athletes’ internal load in order to ascertain whether swimmers may achieve the competitive intensity during training sessions, and Study III was performed to investigate how immersion periods, with the concomitant bradycardic events, affect perceived exertion with both physiological (HR) and subjective perceptual markers (RPE). The current thesis demonstrates that cardiovascular responses during competition are characterized by intense anticipatory pre-activation and rapidly developing tachycardia up to maximal levels with interspersed periods of marked bradycardia during the exercise bouts performed in apnea (Studies I­III). Moderate blood lactate accumulation suggested the activation of the glycolytic metabolism in the exercising muscles and an adaptive metabolic response due to the specific training adaptations in this kind of athletes (Studies I and III). Furthermore, competitive routines were perceived as very to extremely intense by all swimmers, likely reflecting not only the absolute exercise demands but also their previous experience and expectations (Studies I – III). In Study II, the internal load (HR and RPE) imposed by SS duets performed during training was virtually identical to that elicited in a real competitive situation due to the effects of automaticity –embodied through the replication of the same movement sequence in practice–, and by the swimmers’ long-term adaptations to specific routine exercise and apnea. There was a strong positive relationship between RPE and the duration and / or frequency of bradycardic events during routines (Studies II – III). In fact, the frequency and duration of immersions, the magnitude of subsequent bradycardic events, the blood lactate concentration, and the HR recovery during competitive SS routines explained 62% RPE variance changes in perceived exertion, with cardiorespiratory factors providing a relatively greater neural input as compared to metabolic factors (Study III). Attending the relationships between physiological parameters and performance, the magnitude of anticipatory heart rate activation and bradycardic response explained 26% of variability in performance (Study I) supporting the concept that an augmented diving response was associated to higher performance in SS. However, in Study III the percentage of variance rose to 53% by adding the blood lactate concentration, the number of immersions and longest immersion time, and the lower mean time immersed during the routine. This could explain that best swimmers show a greater adaptation to breath holding and this would likely translate into a more efficient O2 conservation effect (Study III).

This thesis examined the benefits of physiological and performance testing of elite swimmers. The study considered the following research questions: the degree to which physiological and performance measures in training contribute to swimming performance; sources and magnitude of variability in testing, training and competition performance; the magnitudes of changes in test measures during routine training; and the reliability, validity and utility of miniaturised and automated smart sensor technology to monitor the stroke and performance times of swimmers in training. The experimental approach involved the retrospective analysis of five years of physiological and performance testing of elite level swimmers, the development of a new accelerometry-based smart sensor device to monitor swimmers in the pool, a cross-sectional study comparing the physiological and performance responses of swimmers of different levels, and the effects of an intensive 14-day training program on submaximal physiological and performance measures. Collectively, the outcomes of these studies provide a strong justification for the physiological and performance testing of elite swimmers, a quantitative framework for interpreting the magnitude of changes and differences in test scores and sources of variation, and highlight the potential utility of new smart sensor technology to automate the monitoring of a swimmer�s training performance. The first study (Chapter 2) characterises the changes and variability in test performance, physiological and anthropometric measures, and stroke mechanics of swimmers within and between seasons over their elite competitive career. Forty elite swimmers (24 male, 16 female) performed a 7 x 200-m incremental swimming step test several times each 6-month season (10 � 5 tests, spanning 0.5 to 6.0 y). Mixed linear modeling provided estimates of change in the mean and individual responses for measures based on submaximal performance (fixed 4-mM lactate), maximal performance (the seventh step), and lean mass (from skinfolds and body mass). Submaximal and maximal swim speed increased within each season from the pre to taper phase by ~2.2% for females and ~1.5% for males (95% confidence limits �1.0%), with variable contributions from stroke rate and stroke length. Most of the gains in speed were lost in the off-season, leaving a net average annual improvement of ~1.0% for females and ~0.6% for males (�1.0%). For submaximal and maximal speed, individual variation between phases was �2.2% and the typical measurement error was �0.8%. In conclusion, step test and anthropometric measures can be used to confidently monitor progressions in swimmers in an elite training program within and between seasons. The second study (Chapter 3) quantified the relationship between changes in test measures and changes in competition performance for individual elite swimmers. The primary question addressed was whether test measures could predict a swimmers performance at the major end-of-season competition. The same sample group as in Study 1 was examined. A 7 x 200-m incremental swimming step-test and anthropometry were conducted in up to four training phases each season. Correlations of changes in step-test and anthropometric measures between training phases between and within seasons, with changes in competition performance between seasons, were derived by repeated-measures mixed modeling and linear regression. Changes in competition performance were best tracked by changes in test measures between taper phases. The best single predictor of competition performance was skinfolds for females (r = -0.53). The best predictor from the step-test was stroke rate at 4-mM lactate (females, r = 0.46; males, r = 0.41); inclusion of the second-best step-test predictor in a multiple linear regression improved the correlations marginally (females, r =0.52 with speed in the seventh step included; males, r = 0.58 with peak lactate concentration included). Changes in test measures involving phases other than the taper provided weak and inconclusive correlations with changes in performance, possibly because the coaches and swimmers took corrective action when tests produced poor results. In conclusion, a combination of fitness and techniques factors are important for competitive performance. The step test is apparently a useful adjunct in a swimmer�s training preparation for tracking large changes in performance. These initial studies identified stroke mechanics as a major determinant of a swimmer�s performance. Chapter 4 details the development of a small tri-axial accelerometry-based smart sensor device (the Traqua) that enables continual monitoring of various performance/stroke characteristics in swimming. The initial focus was to develop a device that automated the detection of a swimmer�s movements, specifically lap times, stroke rate and stroke count. The Traqua consists of a tri-axial accelerometer packaged with a microprocessor, which attaches to the swimmer at the pelvis to monitor their whole body movements while swimming. This study established the failure/error rate in the first generation algorithms developed to detect the swimming-specific movements of stroke identification, laps (start, turn and finish), and strokes (stroke count and stroke rate) in a cohort of 21 elite and sub-elite swimmers. Movements were analysed across a range of swimming speeds for both freestyle and breaststroke. These initial algorithms were reasonably successful in correctly identifying the markers representing specific segments of a swimming lap in a range of swimmers across a spectrum of swimming speeds. The first iteration of the freestyle algorithm produced error-rates of 13% in detection of lap times, 5% for stroke rate, and 11% for stroke count. Subsequent improvements of the software reduced the error rate in lap and stroke detection. This improved software was used in the following two studies. The next study (Chapter 5) evaluated the reliability and validity of the Traqua against contemporary methods used for timing, stroke rate and stroke count determination. The subjects were 14 elite and 10 sub-elite club-level swimmers. Each swimmer was required to swim seven evenly paced 200-m efforts on a 5-min cycle, graded from easy to maximal. Swimmers completed the test using their main competitive stroke (21 freestyle, 3 breaststroke). Timing was compared for each 50-m lap and total 200-m time by electronic touch pads, video coding, a hand-held manual stopwatch, and the Traqua. Stroke count was compared for video coding, self-reported counting, and the Traqua, while the stroke rate was compared via video coding, hand-held stopwatch, and the Traqua. Retest trials were conducted under the same conditions 7 d following the first test. All data from the Traqua presented in this and the subsequent studies were visually inspected for errors in the automated algorithms, where the algorithms had either failed to correctly identify the start, turn, finish or individual strokes and corrected prior to analysis. The standard error of the estimate for each of the timing methods for total 200 m was compared with the criterion electronic timing. These standard errors were as follows: Traqua (0.64 s; 90% confidence limits 0.60 � 0.69 s), Video (0.52 s; 0.49 � 0.55 s); Manual (0.63 s; 0.59 � 0.67 s). Broken down by 50-m laps, the standard error of the estimate for the Traqua compared with the electronic timing for freestyle only was: 1st 50-m 0.35 s; 2nd and 3rd 50-m 0.13 s; 4th 50-m 0.65 s. When compared with the criterion video-coding determination, the error for the stroke count was substantially lower for the Traqua (0.6 strokes.50 m-1; 0.5 � 0.6 strokes.50 m-1) compared to the self-reported measure (2.3 strokes.50 m-1; 2.5 � 2.9 strokes.50 m-1). However, the error for stroke rate was similar between the Traqua (1.5 strokes.min-1; 1.4 � 1.6 strokes.min-1) and the manual stopwatch (1.8 strokes.min-1; 1.7 � 1.9 strokes.min-1). The typical error of measurement of the Traqua was 1.99 s for 200-m time, 1.1 strokes.min-1 for stroke rate, and 1.1 strokes.50 m-1 for stroke count. In conclusion, the Traqua is comparable in accuracy to current methods for determining time and stroke rate, and better than current methods for stroke count. A substantial source of error in the Traqua timing was additional noise in the detection of the start and finish. The Traqua is probably useful for monitoring of routine training but electronic timing and video are preferred for racing and time trials. Having established the reliability and validity of the Traqua, Chapter 6 addressed the ability to discriminate the pattern of pacing between different levels of swimmers in the 7 x 200-m incremental step test. This study also sought to quantify the differences in pacing between senior and junior swimmers. Eleven senior elite swimmers (5 female, 6 male) and 10 competitive junior swimmers (3 female, 7 male) participated in this study. Each swimmer was required to swim seven evenly paced 200-m freestyle efforts on a 5-min cycle, graded from easy to maximal. The Traqua was used to measure time, stroke rate and stroke count. The senior swimmers were better able to descend in each of the 200-m efforts. Overall the senior swimmers were ~2-3 s per 50 m faster than the junior swimmers. Both groups were fastest in the first 50-m lap with the push start. The senior swimmers then descended the 50- m time for each of the subsequent laps, getting ~0.5 s faster per lap, with the final lap the fastest. In contrast, the junior swimmers swam a similar time for each of the subsequent laps. The junior swimmers were marginally more variable in their times (coefficient of variation: ~2%) compared with the senior swimmers (~1.8%). In comparison to junior swimmers, the senior swimmers in this study were faster, adopted a more uniform negative split strategy to pacing within a 200-m effort, and were more consistent in reproducing submaximal and maximal swimming speeds. The final study (Chapter 7) analysed the effect of 14-d of intensive training on the reproducibility of submaximal swimming performance in elite swimmers. Submaximal physiological and performance testing is widely used in swimming and other individual sports but the variability in test measures, and the effects of fatigue, during intensive training have surprisingly not been quantified systematically. Seven elite swimmers (3 male and 4 female) participated in an intensive 14-d training camp one month prior to the National championships. The aim of the study was to characterise the intra-session, daily and training block variability of submaximal swimming time, physiological and stroke characteristics in elite swimmers. The swimmers performed a specified submaximal 200-m effort in most sessions, after the warm-up and at the end of the session for both morning and afternoon sessions. During the efforts, swimming time and stroke mechanics were measured and physiological measures were recorded immediately on completion. The Traqua was worn by all swimmers in every training session. Mixed linear modeling was used to provide estimates of changes in the mean and individual responses (within-athlete variation as a coefficient of variation) for all measures. The swimmers were moderately slower (1.4%; �1.4%) over the 14-d training camp. The mean submaximal 200-m effort was very likely to be faster (0.7%; confidence limits �0.7%) in the afternoon compared with the morning session. The females were more variable in their submaximal performance times (CV=2.6%) than the male swimmers (1.7%). Blood lactate concentration was almost certainly lower (-23%; �10%) following higher volume in the previous session; however a higher intensity workout the previous session almost certainly leads to higher lactate (21%; �15%) in the current session. Considered together, these results indicate that the 200-m submaximal test is useful in monitoring submaximal physiological and performance measures and the negative effects of cumulative fatigue. In conclusion, changes in the physiological and performance measures derived from the poolbased progressive incremental step test are moderately correlated with changes in end-ofviii. season competition performance. The magnitudes of changes and differences in test measures between phases within a season, from season to season, and between males and females, established in this study can be applied to similar elite level swimmers preparing for major competition. The quantification of typical error of the same measures demonstrates that coaches and scientists can distinguish real and worthwhile improvements using the 7 x 200-m step test. Continual pool-based monitoring with the automated smart sensor Traqua device may provide more accurate and detailed information about a swimmer�s training adaptation than current fitness tests and monitoring methods. Finally, submaximal testing in trained swimmers is useful in monitoring progress in physiological and performance measures, and the impact of cumulative fatigue during an intensive period of training. Collectively, the outcomes of these studies indicate that routine physiological and performance testing can provide measurable benefits for elite swimmers and their coaches.

Twelve competitive male swimmers were studied for a comparison of lactate/velocity profiles to heart rate/velocity profiles during a season of swim training. Lactate concentration (mM) and post-exercise heart rate (sum of three) after a 200-yard submaximal swim (approximately 90% of maximal attainable velocity) and a maximal swim were determined three times during the season: at the beginning (T1), after two months of training (T2) and after four months of training (T3). Both profiles demonstrated a significant rightward shift at T2 and a smaller, further shift at T3. Both lactate and heart rate significantly decreased at an absolute and relative exercise intensity in response to training. It is concluded that either parameter can be useful in monitoring training progress and for determining optimal training intensities. Because of the expense and difficulty of blood lactate measurements, heart rate/ velocity profiles can provide a practical and non-invasive alternative to blood lactate testing.

Choking under pressure is a devastating experience for athletes who have invested their time and energy to master a sport. This study reviewed the mechanisms of choking under pressure to further understand the phenomenon and identify possible remedies. Twenty-eight competitive swimmers from the University of Arizona swim team were assessed on measures of dispositional mindfulness and trait anxiety, while three current staff members rated each athlete on measures of skill transfer and receptiveness to feedback. Athlete performances were recorded over the course of one season, and assigned a pressure rating of low, medium, and high. Results indicated significant effects of pressure on change in performance, and revealed non-significant trends between trait anxiety, mindfulness, and performance improvements as a function of pressure. Significant relationships were also found for trait anxiety with mindfulness and gender. Coach ratings were not found to be accurate predictors of improvements in swimming performance. These findings call into question theory suggesting trait anxiety is facilitative when low and detrimental when high, instead suggesting it may distribute as an inverse-u relative to performance. They also suggest dispositional mindfulness may be facilitative of performance under pressure, an endorsement for continued research into the efficacy of mindfulness training in athletics. Finally, they call into question the accuracy of coach ratings of athletes, and reveal a need for further investigation in that area. Implications for choking under pressure are discussed.

This study examines swimming in fish as a function of the performance of the locomotor musculature. Aspects of evolutionary adaptation and scaling relevant to swimming performance in fish are introduced. The concepts of resistance and capacity adaptations are illustrated in relation to the evolution of the suborder Notothenioidei to the antarctic environment. Alterations in hydrodynamics, swimming performance and efficiency with growth/scaling are discussed.

Swimming performance is primarily judged on the overall time taken for a swimmer to complete a specified distance performing a stroke that complies with current regulations defined by the Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA), the International governing body of swimming. There are three contributing factors to this overall time; the start, free swimming and turns. The contribution of each of these factors is event dependent; for example, in a 50m event there are no turns, however, the start can be a significant contributor. To improve overall performance each of these components should be optimised in terms of skill and execution. This thesis details the research undertaken towards improving performance-related feedback in swimming. The research included collaboration with British Swimming, the national governing body for swimming in the U.K., to drive the requirements and direction of research. An evaluation of current methods of swimming analysis identified a capability gap in real-time, quantitative feedback. A number of components were developed to produce an integrated system for comprehensive swim performance analysis in all phases of the swim, i.e. starts, free swimming and turns. These components were developed to satisfy two types of stakeholder requirements. Firstly, the measurement requirements, i.e. what does the end user want to measure? Secondly, the process requirements, i.e. how would these measurements be achieved? The components developed in this research worked towards new technologies to facilitate a wider range of measurement parameters using automated methods as well as the application of technologies to facilitate the automation of current techniques. The development of the system is presented in detail and the application of these technologies is presented in case studies for starts, free swimming and turns. It was found that developed components were able to provide useful data indicating levels of performance in all aspects of swimming, i.e. starts, free swimming and turns. For the starts, an integrated solution of vision, force plate technology and a wireless iii node enabled greater insight into overall performance and quantitative measurements of performance to be captured. Force profiles could easily identify differences in swimmer ability or changes in technique. The analysis of free swimming was predominantly supported by the wireless sensor technology, whereby signal analysis was capable of automatically determining factors such as lap times variations within strokes. The turning phase was also characterised in acceleration space, allowing the phases of the turn to be individually assessed and their contribution to total turn time established. Each of the component technologies were not used in isolation but were supported by other synchronous data capture. In all cases a vision component was used to increase understanding of data outputs and provide a medium that coaches and athletes were comfortable with interpreting. The integrated, component based system has been developed and tested to prove its ability to produce useful, quantitative feedback information for swimmers. The individual components were found to be capable of providing greater insight into swimming performance, that has not been previously possible using the current state of the art techniques. Future work should look towards the fine-tuning of the prototype system into a useable solution for end users. This relies on the refinement of components and the development of an appropriate user interface to enable ease of data collection, analysis, presentation and interpretation.

A "velocity-video" system was developed with the intent of measuring forward body velocity changes and technical skill during swimming. The system consists of a "swim-meter", video camera, A-D converter, Apple IIE computer, Microkey system, VCR and monitor. A correlation of 1.0 was found between the velocity computed by the "velocity-video" system and a known speed. Furthermore, comparison of the velocity pattern of breaststroke from video with digitized film revealed a correlation of 0.95. These results suggest that the "velocity-video" system is a valid method of describing swimming velocity and corresponding changes in body position. The second part of this investigation examined the relationship between physiological economy (ml 02-U_1-LBW-7L), technical skill, swim power, and performance between "superior" and "good" male and female breaststrokers. Swimmers were categorized based on best 100 yd performance time. To study physiological economy oxygen uptake was determined after a 400 yd submaximal breaststroke swim. No significant difference in economy (ml 02•m-1 -LBW-1) was noted between the superior and good swimmers for both males and females. The superior male swimmers, however, were found to have lower blood lactate values compared to the good male breaststrokers', 1.85 + 0.39 vs. 4.49 ± 0.86 mM•1-1. The superior males and females were found cover a greater distance per stroke compared to the good males and females, respectively. The ability to generate power and/or peak power was found to be an important factor in sprint performance (r = 0.91 and 0.92, respectively). During a submaximal effort the superior swimmers spent a greater amount of time during the glide and leg recovery phases of the breaststroke cycle than the good swimmers. The results of the present study suggest that the superior breaststrokers were characterized by there ability to minimize drag during the glide and leg recovery phases of the stroke cycle. This suggests greater technical skill as evidenced by the superior swimmers' ability to cover a greater distance per stroke cycle at a given speed.

Magister Artium (Sport, Recreation and Exercise Science) - MA(SRES)
Swimming, as a sport, is constantly developing, both through the resources employed in training and assessment, and through the technological development of the fundamental aspects of swimming. In the freestyle events, swimmers spend between 38% and 50% of their competition time executing turns in short pool competitions over distances that vary from 50 m to 1500 m. The importance of the turn has been noted and analyzed for several decades, where it was found that the final turn velocity was second only to mid-pool swimming velocity for determining a medal finish in the men’s race. Due to the impact that the tumble turn has on swimming performance, the present study investigated the importance of the tuck index, foot-plant index and wall-contact time (WCT) on swimming performance. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the effect of the tuck index, foot-plant index, and WCT on the round trip time (RTT) in the tumble turn performance in level 3 swimmers in the freestyle swimming stroke. A quantitative cross-sectional and descriptive design was used in this study. A convenient sample of ten (10) swimmers were tested, five male and five female, all being level 3 swimmers affiliated to the high performance team of Swimming South Africa (SSA). Video analyses of the turns were recorded. Each subject performed thirty (30) trials, each consisting of a 50 m freestyle swim with flip turns at race pace. Descriptive statistics and multiple stepwise regression analyses were used to analyse the data. A p-value of below 0.05 indicated statistical significance. The mean tuck index was 0.57 ± 0.14°. The mean foot-plant index was 0.45 ± 0.10 cm. The mean WCT was 74.31 ± 11.57 %. The mean RTT was 2.47 ± 0.40 s. A significant negative correlation was found between tuck index and RTT (r = -0.41; p < 0.05). No significant relationship was found between foot-plant and WCT. Further regression analysis showed that the tuck index was a significant predictor of RTT (F = 21.745, p < 0.001). Following the freestyle tumble turn, the flutter kick technique remained the superior method of exiting the wall, based on the 5 m RTT. Therefore, the introduction of optimal turning practice for age-group swimmers is likely to result in significant reductions in turning times and should be noted by coaches and swimmers alike.

Apesar da propulsão na natação não ser ainda completamente compreendida, as forças propulsivas efetivas podem ser verificadas, por exemplo, por meio do modelo de Sanders ou pelo teste de nado atado. Esse modelo vem sendo aplicado, embora sem ter sido avaliado de forma aprofundada. Assim, o objetivo geral do presente trabalho foi comparar as forças propulsivas efetivas calculadas com o modelo de Sanders e medidas ao longo de um teste de nado atado. Os objetivos específicos foram: revisar os efeitos das condições instáveis na propulsão na natação a partir de estudos que compararam as condições estáveis e instáveis; comparar a força propulsiva efetiva obtida usando duas áreas, a área projetada da mão e a área da superfície da palma da mão; e comparar a frequência de ciclos, a velocidade, a aceleração, o ângulo de ataque e a amplitude de movimento de ambas as mãos entre as condições atada e livre. Para cada objetivo, geral e específico, foi desenvolvido um estudo. Desse modo, o primeiro compreendeu a revisão sistemática, em que uma busca em bases de dados foi realizada, e somente aqueles que atingissem todos os critérios de elegibilidade foram incluídos. Seis trabalhos que compararam condições estáveis e instáveis usando experimentos físicos ou simulações numéricas foram selecionados. Estes verificaram os efeitos nas forças propulsivas de um ou mais fatores que caracterizam uma condição como instável. Logo, mais pesquisas são necessárias para entender o efeito de cada fator, assim como os efeitos da combinação dos fatores na propulsão. Para o segundo estudo, 13 nadadores executaram um teste de esforço máximo de 30 segundos realizando palmateio, enquanto atados à parede da piscina. A partir dos dados cinemáticos obtidos pela técnica de videogrametria, a força propulsiva efetiva foi estimada com o modelo de Sanders utilizando duas áreas de referência: a área projetada da mão e a área da superfície da palma da mão. A força estimada usando a área da superfície da palma da mão foi aproximadamente 21% maior do que a força estimada usando a área projetada. Considerando esse resultado, associado à literatura, recomenda-se usar a área da superfície da palma da mão no cálculo das forças. No terceiro estudo, a amostra e o teste foram os mesmos do anterior, porém a força propulsiva efetiva, além de ser calculada com o modelo de Sanders usando a área da superfície da palma da mão, também foi medida utilizando uma célula de carga ao longo do teste. Os resultados indicaram que o modelo de Sanders não é adequado para estimar as forças propulsivas, uma vez que a força medida foi 807,7% maior do que a força calculada. Para o último estudo, a amostra foi composta por oito nadadores que executaram o mesmo teste já descrito e um teste de esforço máximo de 25 metros realizando palmateio. Foi notado que há diferenças importantes na velocidade da mão e na amplitude de movimento da mão na direção lateral entre as condições atada e livre e que a condição atada intensifica as assimetrias cinemáticas.
Despite swimming propulsion is still not completely understood, the effective propulsive forces may be verified, for instance, through Sanders’ model or through tethered swimming. This model has been applied, although without being evaluated deeply. Thus the main purpose of the present work was to compare the effective propulsive force calculated with Sanders’ model with the effective propulsive force measured during tethered swimming. The other purposes were: to review the effects of unsteady conditions on swimming propulsion based on studies that have compared steady and unsteady conditions; to compare the effective propulsive force obtained using two areas: the palmar surface area of the hand and the projected area of the hand; and compare the cycle rate, speed, acceleration, attack angle and range of motion of both hands between tethered and free conditions. For each purpose was developed one study. Therefore, the first one was a systematic review, in which a multiple database search was performed, and only those studies that met all eligibility criteria were included. Six studies that compared steady and unsteady conditions using physical experiments or numerical simulations were selected. These works verified the effects of one or more factors that characterise a condition as unsteady on the propulsive forces. Thus much research is necessary to understand the effect of each individual factor, as well as the effects of the combination of factors on swimming propulsion. For the second study, 13 swimmers performed one all-out 30-second sculling motion trial while the participant was tethered. Based on the kinematic data obtained through videography technique, the effective propulsive force was estimated with Sanders’ model using two reference areas: the palmar surface area of the hand and the projected area of the hand. The estimated force with the palmar surface area of the hand was approximately 21% higher than that one estimated with the projected area. According to this result and based on the literature, it is recommended to use the palmar surface area of the hand when calculating the forces. In the third study, the sample and the test were the same of the previous study, but the effective propulsive force, besides being calculated with Sanders’ model using the palmar surface area of the hand, was measured with a load cell during the test. The results indicate that Sanders’ model is not suitable for estimating propulsive forces, because the measured force was 807.7% higher than the calculated force. For the last study, the sample consisted of eight swimmers, who performed the same test described previously and one all-out 25-meter sculling motion trial. Important differences were found in hand’s speed and range of motion in the lateral direction between tethered and free conditions and that the tethered condition intensifies kinematic asymmetries.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of oral NaHCOa administration on the alteration of acid-base balance and performance of high-intensity interval swimming. Ten male college swimmers were studied on five test days within a two-week period. Each test day consisted of five 100-yd freestyle swims with a two-minute rest interval between each bout. Subjects received two NaHCO3, two placebo and one no-drink treatments for the five test days. One hour before the onset of swimming the subjects were given 300 ml of citric acid flavored solution containing either NaCl (placebo) or NaHC03 (experimental), or received no drink. The dose of NaHCO3 solution was 0.25 9/kg-1 body weight. Before the sprint trial test a 300-yd warmup swimming was performed followed by a nine-minute rest. Performance times for each 100-yd swim were recorded. Blood samples were obtained before and one hour after treatment, two minutes after warmup and the last bout of swim. Blood, pH, lactate, standard bicarbonate (SBC) and base excess (BE) were measured. After the statistical analysis had shown there were no differences between the corresponding values of two trials for the same treatment, the data for identical treatments were combined and reanalyzed statistically as one group. All the corresponding variables between placebo and no-drink revealed no differences. Performance times of the fourth and fifth swimming bouts were faster (P < 0.05) and blood lactate after exercise was higher (P < 0.05) in NaHCO3 condition. Blood pH, SBC, BE were higher (P < 0.05) at post-treatment, post-warmup and post-last bout of swim in NaHCO3 condition. The difference between NaHCO3 and the other two conditions on the increment of lactate (2.0 mM) was proportional to that on the decrement of SBC (2.2 meq/1) after exercise. The data from the placebo and NaHCO3 treatments shown a positive correlation between hydrogen ion and lactate concentrations (r = 0.923) and a negative correlation between SBC and lactate concentrations (r = -0.941) after warmup and exercise. These data are in agreement with previous findings that during repeated bouts of exercise pre-exercise administration of NaHCO3 improves performance, possibly by facilitating the efflux of lactate and hydrogen ions from working muscles and thereby delaying the onset of fatigue.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of ribose supplementation on swimming performance in collegiate male swimmers. Twenty trained collegiate male swimmers (mean ± SE; age: 19.7 ± 0.4 years; height: 182.6 ± 1.2 cm; weight: 75.9 ± 0.6kg) completed three randomly assigned trials; two prior to the supplementation period and one immediately after supplementation. The period between the first and the second trial was used as a control period and all subjects (n=20) participated. During the supplementation period the ribose group (n=10) received 20 g of ribose per day, while the placebo group (n=10) received 20 g of dextrose. The first day involved body composition, swim bench, and swim power measurements. The second day a test set consisting of 15x45.8 m freestyle swimming was performed. A blood sample was obtained from the antecubical vein prior to the swim and 1 minute after the completion of the last repeat. Swimming performance during the test set showed significant improvements for either group from T1 to T3. (mean ± SE 27.44 ± 0.32 and 27.55 ± 0.26 for the ribose and placebo groups respectively at T1). The times at the end of the supplementation period were 27.33 ± 0.28 and 27.36 ± 0.22 seconds. No significantdifferences were reported in swim power or swim bench. Lactate, uric acid, ammonia, and hypoxanthine did not significantly change for either group between the trials. The results from the study suggest that swimming performance does not appear to be enhanced with the supplementation of ribose during exhaustive exercise in collegiate male swimmers.
School of Physical Education

Growth and development were studied in turbot {Scophthalmus maximus L.) reared at 12° and 16° until 26 days after hatching. Muscle growth occurred by fibre hypertrophy and hyperplasia and was faster at 16°. In larvae, the sequence of organogenesis was altered by temperature. The influence of temperature on the swimming performance of settled stages of turbot and plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) was studied. Maximum swimming speed (Umax), elicited following an escape response, scaled similarly between 13 and 23°, for turbot, and could be fitted by the model: A comparison of Umax between wild caught and laboratory reared turbot showed that Umax for farmed turbot was lower than for wild fish filmed within 2 weeks of capture. 3 months after capture the average differences in escape performance were no longer significant, suggesting they were due to an acclimation. Standardised Umax for eighteen wild juvenile turbot was determined at 18° and over a temperature change. Repeatability of ranking of the experimental Umax of individuals was maintained over a 6 week period, and through temperature change. For plaice Umax scaled in proportion to TL0.65 between 5° and 13°. Umax did not increase at temperatures above 9°. There was no difference in Umax or tail beat frequency (f) between laboratory reared and wild caught plaice. Umax and f decreased after an acute temperature reduction from 9° to 5° and showed no compensation for the reduction temperature after a 29 days acclimation period. Stride length (X) was independent of temperature. After the 29 day period at 5°, raising the temperature to 9° resulted in an increase in Umax without a corresponding increase in f, although tail beat amplitude (A) was higher. The effects of temperature change during early development on locomotory performance and phenotype are discussed.

Background: To learn how to swim with proper technique takes fairly large amount of time and practice to learn and anelite swimmer spends 6-7 days training for improving aerobic capacity, anaerobic capacity and strength training for energy saving technique. Freestyle is the fastest swimming style and is performed in many different distances, 50m is classified as a sprint and the 400m as a middle-distance. The research is inconclusive if there is a correlation in the lower body and the time in 50m and 400m and mostly in the middle distance which gives this study the importance reducing these uncertainties. Aim: The aim of this study was to determine the strength of the correlation between the upper- and lower body muscle strengthwith time in 50m and 400m freestyle and to analyze which of the variables of height, sex, upper- and lower body strength contribute to velocity in sprint and middle distance in competitive swimmers. Method:A total of 14 participants (3 men and 11 women) participated in the study. The participants were tested at three occasions. The first was to determine their three-repetition maximum (3RM) in the squat and lat-pulldown. The second occasion was the collection the time in 50m freestyle and the third was to collect the time in 400m freestyle. Relative strength (kg/kg BW; %) and absolute strength (kg) in 1RM was calculated and correlated with the time in 50m and 400m freestyle. Analysis was done to see which variables of height, sex, relative strength in the squat and lat-pulldown contribute the most to the time in freestyle. Result: The result show that there was a high correlation between the absolute strength in the squat and the time in 50m (r=-0.769) a moderate correlation in the absolute strength in lat-pulldown and the 50m freestyle sprint (r=-0.513). There was also a moderate correlation for the relative strength in the lat-pulldown and 50m freestyle (r=-0.599). The 400m correlate with the relative strength in both lat-pulldown(r=-0.563) and the squat (r=-0.555). The lat-pulldown contributed most to the time in 50m freestyle as well as the male sex. Conclusions: The absolute strength in the squat had a high correlation to the time in 50m freestyle swim. The 400m there was a moderate correlation to the relative strength in the squat and lat-pulldown showing that for the overall performance in middle-distance the relative strength has the advantage over absolute strength. The relative and absolute strength in upper body correlated to both 50m and 400m freestyle and could therefore strengthen the importance of upper body strength in sprint and middle distance as previous researchers has stated. The upper body strength is the best predictor of time in 50m.

Formal long-term athlete development programmes emerged at the turn of the century and, despite some fierce criticisms, have evolved significantly since their inception. The first generation of athletes to grow up with these systems are now coming of age. The purpose of this thesis was to track a population of adolescent school-level swimmers between the ages of 12 and 18 years over an 8-year period so as to assess their performance progression as they matured under these athlete development programmes. The first study aimed to track the performances of the sub-elite athletes at an annual international school championship and to compare their progression with those of both junior elite and elite-level swimmers. In addition to narrowing the gender gap, the records of the sub-elite swimmers have continued to improve. In contrast, both of these factors remained relatively stable for junior elite and elite-level swimmers over the same period. Swimming affords athletes the possibility of within-sport specialisation. This almost unique aspect of swimming led to the two investigations of the second study. Firstly, the paired stroke combinations preferred by swimmers were determined using Cohen’s Kappa tests in a cross-sectional design. Secondly, the stability in the event selection of each swimmer during their adolescent years was explored longitudinally. Both males (33.9±5.8%) and females (36.9±6.5%) preferred to swim the 50 and 100 m freestyle events together over any other paired stroke combination. The majority of swimmers preferred to specialise in specific stroke techniques over distance specialisms with breaststroke being the only stroke in which swimmers of both sexes chose to specialise early. Most notable was that females specialised earlier than males. Studies three (males, n = 446) and four (females, n = 514) utilised mixed linear modelling to determine the quadratic functions of the performance progressions of adolescent swimmers (between the ages of 12 and 19 y) in seven individual competition events. Males progressed at more than twice the rate of females (3.5 and 1.7% per year, respectively) in all strokes over this age range. This was likely due to the fact that females reach puberty before males. Thresholds of peak performance occurred between the ages of 18.5±0.1 y (50 m freestyle and the 200 m individual medley) and 19.8±0.1 y (100 m butterfly) for males, but between the wider range of 16.8±0.2 y (200 m individual medley) and 20.6±0.1 y (100 m butterfly) for females. Using an independent sample of Dutch Junior national swimmers (n = 13), the fifth and final study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of the models developed in studies three and four as both target setting and talent identification tools. This was achieved through a mixed-methods approach where quantitative and qualitative data confirmed the applicability of the models for adolescent swimmers of any skill level. This thesis demonstrates that sub-elite swimmers have probably benefitted from first generation athlete development models. Longitudinal modelling of their data provides a valuable platform from which all adolescent swimmers can be compared and used to inform the next generation of bespoke swimming-specific youth development programmes.

The primary aim of this thesis was to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the human face so that it can be used to improve the design of swimming goggles with regards to comfort and fit. The secondary aim was concerned with vision and was to identify whether a curved lens could be plausible for use in a performance racing goggle.

The current study evaluated the effects of self-monitoring by swimmers to improve their performance at practice and assessed the effects of reactivity to observer presence on their performance. Additionally, it investigated the accuracy of the swimmers' self-reports. Seven public high school swim team members used program boards to self-monitor in order to increase the number of assigned laps completed at practice. Reactivity to observer presence was assessed by having a confederate record the number of laps completed during observer absent conditions. A series of AB replications and an ABAB reversal design were used. The percentage of assigned laps completed increased during the self-monitoring phases. The self-monitoring and feedback phase showed an additional increase in the percentage of assigned laps completed, and also showed an increase in the mean level of reporting accuracy by the participants. The effects from the reactivity assessment were mixed; the percentage of assigned laps completed was lower on days that the observer was absent compared to the days the observer is present for only some of the participants. More research is needed to examine reactivity effects in sport settings.

Many scientific studies have considered physiological aspects of swimming, but largely in the areas of endurance or strength and power. This thesis includes six studies that attempt to provide more information about the metabolic responses to single and repeated sprint swimming and the physiological mechanisms behind the limitation to sprint swimming performance. The first experimental chapter describes the metabolic responses to single and repeated sprinting in male and female swimmers. Peak blood lactate (male 18.7 and female 14.4 mmol 1-1;P <0.01) and ammonia (male 232.0 and female 154.3 ýtmol 1-1;P <0.05) values following repeated swimming (8 x 50 yards) were almost double those measured during a single 50 yards sprint and were significantly higher in males than females. It is likely that differences in body dimensions and composition between male and female swimmers account for the majority of the -12% performance differences and higher metabolic response in males than females. Energy contribution to single and repeated tethered swimming sprints was examined in chapter V. Determination of energy contribution by an accumulated oxygen deficit test found estimated anaerobic contribution of -67% in 30 s sprinting and -74%, -53%, -51% and -47% during four 30 s sprint bouts. These were much lower than values estimated previously and recommended to coaches and swimmers in popular swimming texts. Energy contribution to 55 s maximal tethered swimming in chapter VI found anaerobic contributions of -30-40%. Metabolic responses to Controlled frequency breathing (CFB) have been studied previously in endurance swimming, but not in splint swimming (chapter VI). There was increased hypercapnia, but no significant reduction in performance during 55 s maximal sprint tethered swimming between self-selected breathing and breathing every 10 strokes. Differences in metabolic responses (higher extraction of oxygen from inspired air and lower ventilation, oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide production and respiratory exchange ratio) suggest a greater efficiency during swimming with CFB. Swimmers who can train to overcome the urge to breath should not compromise performance, but benefit from avoiding an increase in drag resistance while turning the head to breath. Active recovery following intense swimming has been suggested to increase the speed of recovery and improve subsequent performance. Chapter VII illustrates that the timing and intensity of active recovery is crucial when prescribing repeated sets of repeated sprint training. Lower blood lactate was matched by a tendency for poorer performance in the trial using active recovery between repetitions. This demonstrates that the blood lactate concentration does not reflect the metabolic state of the muscle and therefore the ability to perform subsequent sprint swims. Chapters VIII and IX consider the effects of creatine supplementation on sprint swimming. No differences in single sprint swimming performance were found, but creatine supplementation improve times in a typical training set of 8x 50 yards by -4 s. Faster times recorded in the creatine group support the hypothesis that increasing resting levels of creatine and phosphocreatine will enhance recovery during repeated sprints. Supplementing with 3g creatine day-' for 22-27 weeks had no additional benefit to race performance than just 'loading' before the training period and immediately prior to the major swimming race of the year. It is likely that any enhanced training adaptation would have to be from creatine supplementation allowing swimmers to perform more training rather than just supplementation per se. The studies in this thesis describe the physiological and metabolic responses of elite male and female swimmers to single and repeated sprint swimming in detail for the first time. By manipulating breathing frequency during sprinting, metabolism altered but without compromising performance. Active recovery was successful in reducing blood lactate concentration, but performance was poorer. The blood metabolite and respiratory response to sprint training following interventions of this type allow us to determine the mechanisms behind the limitation to swimming performance. Creatine supplementation enhances repeated sprint swimming performance, but not training for success in competition. Results of this thesis suggest that phosphocreatine availability or energy supply are not limitations to sprint swimming training performance.

Projeto de Graduação apresentado à Universidade Fernando Pessoa como parte dos requisitos para obtenção do grau de Licenciada em Fisioterapia
Objetivo: verificar os efeitos imediatos da aplicação de Kinesiotape (KT) no complexo articular do ombro no desempenho do nadador de competição. Métodos: Estudo experimental transversal. Amostra composta por 20 nadadores de competição (16.0±2.6 anos de idade e 7.0±2.5 anos de prática), praticantes da modalidade na equipa de Natação Leixões Sport Clube. Após aquecimento de 15 minutos cada atleta nadou com máxima intensidade e desempenho 50 metros crawl sem a aplicação de KT. De seguida, e após período de descanso, os nadadores realizaram o mesmo percurso com aplicação de KT em ambos os ombros igualmente com intensidade e desempenhos máximos. Foram realizados 3 percursos de 50 metros para cada avaliação, posteriormente foi escolhido o melhor dos tês resultados. Resultados: Não foram encontradas diferenças estatisticamente significativas (p=0.940) no desempenho dos nadadores após a aplicação do KT no complexo articular do ombro. Conclusão: A aplicação do KT no complexo articular do ombro não alterou o desempenho dos nadadores de alta competição saudáveis da amostra em estudo.
Objective: To investigate the immediate effects of the application of Kinesiotape (KT) in shoulder complex in competitive swimmer's performance. Methods: Cross-sectional experimental study. Sample of 20 competitive swimmers (16.0 ± 2.6 years old and 7.0 ± 2.5 years of practice), all of them part of the swimming team Leixões Sport Club. After a warming up, of about 15 minutes, each athlete swam at maximum intensity 50 meters in crawl technique without shoulder KT application. Then, and after a period of rest, the swimmers performed the same route with application of KT on both shoulders also at high intensity and maximum performance. Results: No statistically significant differences were found (p = 0.940) in the performance of swimmers after the application of KT in shoulder complex. Conclusion: The application of KT in the shoulder joint complex did not affect the performance of high competitive healthy swimmers, in our sample.

Although artificially selected goldfish exhibit swimming performance decrements, with the most derived morphotypes more affected, they can be utilized to explore functional design and movement pattern principles in aquatic vertebrates. Drag, steady swimming kinematics (tailbeat frequency, amplitude, stride length), energetics (standard and active metabolic rate), fast-start performance (average and maximum velocity and acceleration), stability in yaw and roll and propulsive muscle ultrastructural characteristics (mitochondrial volume density and spacing, myofibril diameter and capillary to fibre ratio in red and white muscle) were measured for four morphotypes: common, comet, fantail and eggfish, of comparable length (≈ 5 cm). A performance “pairing” (common and comet; fantail and eggfish) was a recurrent theme for most performance parameters. Vertebral numbers (30), segment lengths (≈ 0.85 mm) and standard metabolic rates (≈ 140 mg O2 kg-1 hr-1) are exceptions where values are the same. Fantail and eggfish drag and drag coefficients (referenced to frontally projected area ≈ 0.6 - 0.9) were higher (requiring more thrust at any given velocity) than those for the more streamlined common and comet (≈ 0.3 - 0.6; P < 0.05). This is reflected in kinematics; tailbeat frequency and stride length at any given velocity for the common and comet are lower and higher respectively than that of the fantail and eggfish (P < 0.05). Common and comet fatigue times are not significantly different from that of their ancestor, Crucian carp (P > 0.05), and are lower than those of the fantail and eggfish (P < 0.05). The cost of transport of the common and comet (≈ 0.6 mg O2 kg-1 m-1) is accurately predicted from the mass scaling relationship for fish (P > 0.05), but values for the fantail and eggfish (≈ 1.3 mg O2 kg-1 m-1) are not (P < 0.05). Eggfish steady swimming (dorsal fin absent) was characterized by rolling and yawing motions associated with significant energy losses. Common and comet fast-start performance (average velocity ≈ 0.45 m s-1, maximum velocity ≈ 1.2 m s-1, average acceleration ≈ 7.5 m s-2, maximum acceleration ≈ 35 m s-2) was similar to that of other locomotor generalists (e.g. trout). Eggfish maximum acceleration (≈ 5 m s-2) is poor due to the absence of inertial and lifting contributions to thrust from the dorsal fin and energy wasting rolling motions. Artificially selected fish can bear upon fitness related adaptations associated with form and movement, providing insights into the “performance envelope” of natural systems subject to ecological speciation.

Freshwater teleost fish often experience natural and anthropogenic conditions that result in fluctuating energy availability, therefore the ability to acquire, transform and use energy is essential for the survival of these fish. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's) are recognized as physiological sources of stress to fish as they incite defense mechanisms that are generally costly in terms of metabolic resources. Over time, such responses may decrease individual performance and possibly fitness by changes in foraging, migration and escape behaviors, and the population in terms of reproductive capacity due to the alterations in energy allocation following an exposure. The main goal of this study was to determine if a sublethal exposure to PCB-126 affects the energy budget of the fish and can therefore be responsible for functional deficiencies associated with their locomotion. Fish were injected low (100 mug/kg) and high (400 mug/kg) concentrations of PCB-126 and swimming performance parameters including critical swimming speed, metabolic rate and recovery ratios were evaluated. EROD activity was also measured in the liver as an indication of PCB-126 intoxication while blood and white muscle tissue metabolites were analyzed to quantify the physiological disturbance levels associated with this exposure. A significant decrease was observed in the swimming performance of rainbow trout for the low and high PCB-126 treatments as well as an impaired recovery with increasing level of PCB exposure following exhaustive exercise. This study also showed the occurrence of physiological disturbance by a reduction in the hepatosomatic and spleen somatic indices and elevation of plasma cortisol and glucose levels, as well as white muscle reductions in glucose and glycogen indicating higher metabolic costs during recovery and muscle restoration for PCB-exposed fish. Overall, this research provides insights into the sublethal effects of toxic organic compounds on fish.

This dissertation characterizes the influences of water chemistry on the acute toxicity of lead (Pb) to two of the long-standing sentinel test organisms commonly employed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) and daphnid (Ceriodaphnia dubia), for parameterization of an acute Pb Biotic Ligand Model (BLM). In addition, a toxicogenomic approach was employed to identify genes that might serve as molecular markers of Pb exposure and long-term effects, as well as provide new insights as to the underlying toxic mechanisms of chronic Pb exposure in P. promelas. The endpoints of growth, reproduction, Pb accumulation, prey capture ability, and swimming performance of P. promelas were examined to assess the influences of water chemistry during chronic Pb exposures and to potentially link microarray-identified genes to outcomes of ecological significance. Importantly, this work revealed that calcium does not protect against acute toxicity to C. dubia or chronic Pb accumulation by P. promelas, indicating that current hardness-based regulations are inappropriate and provide further support for the need for alternative approaches to setting environmental regulations for Pb. The findings reported herein should facilitate the arrival of such an approach in the form of a new acute Pb BLM. However, different responses with respect to the influences of water chemistry on the acute toxicity of Pb were exhibited by these species suggesting that development of separate BLMs for P. promelas and C. dubia should be considered to ensure adequate protection for both species. Furthermore, the influences of water chemistry were found to be inconsistent during acute and chronic Pb exposures to P. promelas and thus caution against inferring chronic effects from acute exposures. A number of Pb-responsive genes were identified that exhibited a strong potential for serving as robust indicators of Pb exposure and accumulation in P. promelas. While these genes also provided insight as to the likely toxic mechanisms of Pb, additional work will be necessary to firmly link these genes to chronic outcomes of ecological relevance in the context of ambient water chemistry.

Orientador: Carlos Marcelo Pastre
Resumo: A imersão em água fria (IAF) é uma técnica comumente utilizada no âmbito esportivo no processo de recuperação pós-exercício. Na natação, este é um recurso utilizado principalmente entre provas, visando obter seus benefícios a curto prazo. Entretanto, os efeitos de sua aplicação de forma sistematizada e ajustada às demandas de treinamento, permanecem incertos, especialmente quando comparados à condição placebo. Objetivos: Avaliar os efeitos da imersão em água fria e sua condição placebo quando aplicadas de forma sistematizada e adequada a dinâmica de treinamento sobre parâmetros perceptivos, funcionais e de desempenho em atletas de natação. Métodos: Ensaio clínico randomizado do tipo cruzado, envolvendo 20 atletas de natação de ambos os sexos com idade entre 12 e 20 anos. O estudo foi realizado em seis semanas de treinamento do mesmo mesociclo. Durante os cinco dias da semana os participantes realizaram as sessões de treinamento, compostas por um treino físico em solo seguido do treino nadado. Aos sábados (após as cinco sessões) os atletas foram submetidos à uma sessão de testes. As intervenções recuperativas [imersão em água fria (14±1°C), imersão em água termo neutra (27±1°C) como condição placebo, e condição controle] foram aplicadas em três semanas (semanas 2, 4 e 6) às segundas, terças e sextas-feiras entre o treino físico e o treino nadado durante 12 minutos, enquanto as semanas 1, 3 e 5 foram consideradas basais. Os atletas foram randomizados de acordo com sexo e nível ... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo)
Abstract: Cold-water immersion (CWI) is a technique commonly used in sports in the post-exercise recovery process. In swimming, this is a tool used mainly between tests, aiming to obtain its short-term benefits. However, the effects of its systematic application and adjusted to the training demands remain uncertain, especially when compared to the placebo condition. Objectives: To evaluate the effects of cold-water immersion and its placebo condition when properly and systematically applied to training dynamics on perceptive, functional and performance parameters in swimming athletes. Methods: Randomized crossover clinical trial involving 20 male and female swimmers aged 12 to 20 years. The study was conducted in six weeks of training of the same mesocycle. During the five days of the week, the participants performed the training sessions, consisting of a physical training on the ground followed by the swim training. On Saturdays (after five sessions), the athletes were submitted to a testing session. The recovery interventions [cold water immersion (14 ± 1 ° C), term neutral water immersion (27 ± 1 ° C) as a placebo condition, and control condition] were applied at three weeks (weeks 2, 4 and 6) on Mondays, Tuesdays and Fridays between physical training and swimming training for 12 minutes, while weeks 1, 3 and 5 were considered baseline. Athletes were randomized according to gender and competitive level into distinct sequences (S1; S2; S3) in which they differed only by the order of ... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)
Mestre

Superior swimming stamina in adult fish is presumably passed on to their offspring, but the ontogeny of the appearance of superior stamina and the requisite enhanced cardio-respiratory support for locomotion in larval fishes has not been determined. Is the expression of the suite of parental traits enabling superior swimming stamina in their offspring dependent upon their achieving juvenile/adult morphology, or does it appear earlier in their larvae? To answer this, adults were classified into three groups based on swimming stamina, followed by measurement of length, mass, and width. Larval offspring from the two parental groups -high stamina larvae (HSL) and low stamina larvae (LSL)- were reared at 27°C in aerated water (21% O2). Routine and active heart rate, routine and active mass specific oxygen consumption were recorded through 21dpf, and cost of transport (COT) and factorial aerobic scope were derived from oxygen consumption measurements. Routine heart rate at 2dpf of LSL was 164 ± 1 b·min-1, compared to only 125 ± 2 b·min-1 for HSL. Routine heart rate subsequently peaked at 203 ± 1 b·min-1 at 5dpf in the HSL group, compared to 207 ± 1 b·min-1, at 4dpf in the LSP larvae. Active heart rate at 5 dpf of LSL was 218 ± 2 b·min-1 compared to 216 ± 2 b·min-1 for HSL. Active heart rate increased slightly to 227 ± 2 b·min-1 for LSL before decreasing again, while active heart rate remained relatively constant for HSL. Routine O2 consumption at 2dpf of HSL was 0.09 μmol·mg-1·hr-1, compared to 0.03 μmol·mg-1·hr-1 in LSL. Routine O2 consumption subsequently peaked at 0.70 μmol·mg-1·hr-1 at 9dpf in the HSL, compared to 0.71 μmol·mg-1·hr-1, at 9dpf in the LSL. These values dramatically decreased before leveling off at around 0.20 μmol·mg-1·hr-1 and 0.15 μmol·mg-1·h-1, respectively. Active O2 consumption at 5dpf for HSL was 0.38 μmol·mg-1·hr-1, compared to 0.57 μmol·mg-1·hr-1 for LSL. Active O2 consumption subsequently peaked at 0.97 μmol·mg-1·hr-1 at 10dpf in HSL, compared to 1.19 μmol·mg-1·hr-1 at 7dpf in LSL. These values also dramatically decreased and leveled off. Significant differences (p < 0.05) in heart rate and oxygen consumption persisted through 21dpf. The onset of differences observed in routine and active heart rate in early larvae, correlated with parent stamina, show that juvenile or adult features are not required as a precondition for the emergence of phenotypic physiological differences.

Les biologistes utilisent le poisson-zèbre comme modèle animal pour étudier les effets des facteurs génétiques ou environnementaux liés aux maladies locomotrices humaines afin de développer des traitements pharmacologiques. Les objectifs généraux du projet étaient 1) de développer un modèle numérique basé sur des données réelles capable de simuler avec précision la nage de fuite de l’eleuthéro-embryon de poisson-zèbre et 2) de fournir, en plus des paramètres cinématiques de nage, une estimation fine des performances énergétiques du comportement locomoteur pour enrichir les études expérimentales sur la locomotion. En outre, une modélisation numérique basée sur l'expérience pourrait améliorer la compréhension du comportement locomoteur. Pour cela, un code de calcul de dynamique des fluides décrivant l'écoulement des fluides autour d'un corps immergé, mobile et déformable a été utilisé pour reproduire in silico la réponse de fuite expérimentale d'un éleuthéro-embryon de cinq jours post-fécondation. La solution du modèle mécaniste, régie par les équations de Navier-Stokes incompressible et les lois de Newton, a été approchée sur un maillage cartésien tandis que le corps solide, représenté par une fonction level-set, a été décrit implicitement par une méthode de pénalisation. Quant à la cinématique de déformation, elle a été estimée directement à partir de vidéos expérimentales de locomotion par une Procrustes analysis. Une première approche a été envisagée pour en extraire la vitesse de déformation, en deux dimensions, basée sur le transport optimal. Afin d'être fidèle à la physique tridimensionnelle (3D), la morphologie de l’eleuthéro-embryon de poisson-zèbre et la cinématique de fuite expérimentale ont été reconstruites en 3D, par le suivi de marqueurs lagrangiens à la surface du corps du poisson-zèbre. Ainsi, une nouvelle approche a été développée pour estimer la vitesse de déformation à partir de données réelles expérimentales obtenues par imagerie ultra-rapide après stimulation par impulsion de champ électrique. L’eleuthéro-embryon de poisson-zèbre présente un comportement de fuite très stéréotypé et complexe, composé de trois modules de nage : courbure en C, contre-courbure et phase de nage cyclique rapide. L'approche développée permet de réaliser des simulations numériques haute-performance et réalistes de la locomotion réelle. Après avoir effectué une validation numérique du modèle qui repose sur chacune de ses composantes, une étude a été menée sur la performance énergétique de la réponse de fuite du poisson-zèbre, altérée par un changement de la viscosité du fluide. Une réponse linéaire du coût du transport, associée à une dépense d’énergie constante, indépendamment du milieu, a ainsi été montrée. Cette étude énergétique peut être étendue à tout corps immergé, en mouvement et déformable, et en particulier à toute expérience biologique comme l'exposition à un neuro-toxique, qui altérerait le comportement locomoteur de l’éleuthéro-embryon. Ainsi, la simulation numérique peut enrichir l’évaluation quantitative des conditions biologiques et des traitements pharmacologiques qui conduisent à perturber ou à restaurer le comportement locomoteur
Biologists use zebrafish as an animal model to study the effects of genetic or environmental factors related to human locomotor diseases in order to develop pharmacological treatments. The general objectives of the project were 1) to develop a numerical model based on real-world data capable of accurately simulating the escape swimming of the zebrafish eleuthero-embryo and 2) to provide, in addition to swimming kinematic parameters, a fine estimate of the energetic performance of locomotor behavior to enrich experimental studies on locomotion. Furthermore, an experiment-based numerical modeling might enhance the understanding of locomotor behavior. For this purpose, a computational fluid dynamics code describing the fluid flow around a moving and deforming immersed body was used to reproduce in silico the experimental escape response of a five-day post-fertilization eleuthero-embryo. The solution of the mechanistic model, governed by the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations and Newton's laws was approximated on a Cartesian mesh while the solid body represented by a level-set function, was described implicitly by a penalization method. As for the deformation kinematics, it was estimated directly from experimental locomotion videos by a Procrustes analysis. A first approach has been considered to extract the deformation velocity, in two dimensions, based on optimal transportation. In order to be faithful to three-dimensional (3D) physics, the morphology of the zebrafish eleuthero-embryo and the experimental escape kinematics were reconstructed in 3D, by tracking Lagrangian markers on the surface of the zebrafish body. Thus, a new approach has been developed to estimate the deformation velocity from experimental real data obtained by ultra-high-speed imaging after electric field pulse stimulation. Zebrafish eleuthero-embryo exhibits a highly stereotyped and complex escape behavior consisting of three swimming modules: C-bend, counter-bend and fast-swimming cyclic phase. The developed approach enables high-performance and realistic numerical simulations of real locomotion. After performing a numerical validation of the model based on each component, a study was conducted on the energetic performance of the zebrafish's escape response, challenged by a change in fluid viscosity. A linear response of the cost of transport, associated with a constant energy expenditure, regardless the fluid environment, was thus demonstrated. This energy study can be extended to any immersed, moving and deformable body and in particular, to any biological experiment such as exposure to a neuro-toxicant, which would alter the locomotor behavior of the eleuthero-embryo. Thus, numerical simulation may enrich the quantitative assessments of biological conditions and pharmacological treatments which lead to disturbing or recovering the locomotor behavior

Thesis (M.S.)--Joint Program in Physical Oceanography (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences; and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution), 2006.
Bibliography: p. 74-75.

One way culverts become barriers to the upstream movement of fish is by creating excessive velocities exceeding a fish's swimming ability. FishXing, a common tool for indirectly assessing fish passage, uses fish swimming ability information with one-dimensional culvert hydraulics to predict barrier status of culverts. However, since fish swimming ability data is scarce for many fish species, predictions of a culvert's barrier status can be inaccurate and overly conservative, possibly leading to misclassification or uneconomical design. Additional fish swimming ability research is necessary to strengthen these models. The primary goal of this study was to determine the effects of different swimming ability algorithms on velocity barrier flow rates predicted by one-dimensional culvert hydraulics models. A one-dimensional culvert hydraulics model was created in Visual Basic. This model was designed to mimic FishXing's fish swimming algorithm, or use more complex fish swimming algorithms. Three diverse test culverts were selected to show how varying culvert properties (length, geometry, flow regime, and embedment) influences which fish swimming ability algorithm most affects the predicted velocity barrier flow rate. A "test fish" was designed based upon fish swimming ability literature. Each culvert was subjected to six tests, each testing the sensitivity of a particular fish swimming algorithm. This study determined that for different types of culverts, different components of fish swimming ability algorithms substantially affect the velocity barrier flow rate. The study needed only three test culverts to show that accurate quantification of the fish species' burst speed, burst duration, the burst speed/duration relationship, prolonged swimming speed, and constant deceleration time from burst to prolonged speed is necessary to model diverse fish passage situations. This study also showed that if a fish has a substantial deceleration time, a constant deceleration is probably sufficient to model it. In the future, if programs like FishXing adapt to include deceleration in fish swimming models, constant deceleration is an adequate addition. With this analysis, fish swimming ability variables substantially affecting fish passage were determined. The study can be used to guide further research so swimming ability studies can gather swimming data that is most crucial to predicting fish passage.

The aim of this study is to increase the depth of data available to swimming coaches in order to allow them to make more informed coaching decisions for their athletes in front crawl swimming. A coach’s job is to assist with various factors of an individual athlete to allow them to perform at an optimum level. The demands of the swimming coach require objective data on the swim performance in order to offer efficient solutions (Burkett and Mellifont, 2008). The main tools available to a coach are their observation and perceptions, however it is known that these used alone can often result in poor judgment. Technological progress has allowed video cameras to become an established technology for swim coaching and more recently when combined with software, for quantitative measurement of changes in technique. This has allowed assessment of swimming technique to be included in the more general discipline of sports performance analysis. Within swimming, coaches tend to observe from the pool edge, limiting vision of technique, but some employ underwater cameras to combat this limitation. Video cameras are a reliable and established technology for the measurement of kinematic parameters in sport, however, accelerometers are increasingly being employed due to their ease of use, performance, and comparatively low cost. Previous accelerometer based studies in swimming have tended to focus on easily observable factors such as stroke count, stroke rate and lap times. To create a coaching focused system, a solution to the problem of synchronising multiple accelerometers was developed using a maxima detection method. Results demonstrated the effectiveness of the method with 52 of 54 recorded data sets showing no time lag error and two tests showing an error of 0.04s. Inter-instrument and instrument-video correlations are all greater than r = .90 (p < .01), with inter-instrument precision (Root Mean Square Error; RMSE) ≈ .1ms−2, demonstrating the efficacy of the technique. To ensure the design was in line with coaches' expectations and with the ASA coaching guidelines, interviews were conducted with four ASA swim coaches. Results from this process identified the factors deemed important: lap time, velocity, stroke count, stroke rate, distance per stroke, body roll angle and the temporal aspects of the phases of the stroke. These factors generally agreed with the swimming literature but extended upon the general accelerometer system literature. Methods to measure these factors were then designed and recorded from swimmers. The data recorded from the multi-channel system was processed using software to extract and calculate temporal maxima and minima from the signal to calculate the factors deemed important to the coach. These factors were compared to video derived data to determine the validity and reliability of the system, all results were valid and reliable. From these validated factors additional factors were calculated, including, distance per stroke and index of coordination and the symmetry of these factors. The system was used to generate individual profiles for 12 front crawl swimmers. The system produced eight full profiles with no issues. Four profiles required individualisation in the processing algorithm for the phases of the stroke. This was found to be due to the way in which these particular swimmers varied in the way they fatigued. The outputs from previous systems have tended to be either too complicated for a coach to understand and interpret e.g. raw data (Ohgi et al. 2000), or quite basic in terms of output e.g. stroke rate and counts (Le Sage et al. 2011). This study has added to the current literature by developing a system capable of calculating and displaying a breadth of factors to a coach. The creation of this system has also created a biomechanical research tool for swimming, but the process and principles can be applied to other sports. The use of accelerometers was also shown to be particularly useful at recording temporal activities within sports activities. Using PC based processing allows for quick turnaround times in the processing of detailed results of performance. There has been substantial development of scientific knowledge in swimming, however, the exchange of knowledge between sport science and coaches still requires development (Reade et al. 2008; Williams and Kendall 2007). This system has started to help bridge the gap between science and coaching, however there is still substantial work needed. This includes a better understanding of the types of data needed, how these can be displayed and level of detail required by the coach to allow them to enact meaningful coaching programmes for their athletes.

Características antropométricas, biomecânicas e fisiológicas são considerados fatores determinantes do desempenho em natação. A prova de 200 m nado livre apresenta condições energéticas singulares que oferecem interessantes desafios para nadadores, treinadores e cientistas do esporte. Os objetivos deste estudo foram identificar a importância de cada fator relacionado ao desempenho na prova de 200 m nado livre, e suas interrelações. Foram voluntários neste estudo 12 nadadores do sexo masculino (idade: 18,3 ± 2,9 anos; estatura: 174,3 ± 5,8 cm; envergadura: 181,1 ± 7,5 cm; massa corporal total: 66,4 ± 6,3 kg; somatório de quatro dobras cutâneas: 31,9 ± 8,2 mm), federados e nadando 37 ± 7 km por semana, cujo melhor tempo na prova de 200 m nado livre era 125,2 ± 2,7 s. Além das variáveis antropométricas, foram obtidos, de 200 m nado crawl, executados em piscina de 25 m, sob máxima intensidade, desempenho em s, transformados em valores pontuais (DESP), considerando o recorde mundial da prova como 1000 pontos e variáveis cinemáticas distância média percorrida por ciclo de braçadas (DC), freqüência média de ciclo de braçadas (FCL) e velocidade média de nado (VN), dos oito trechos de 25 m dos 200 m. Variáveis cinemáticas foram obtidas empregando-se um sistema digital para videogramatria. Antes da realização dos 200 m foram identificados o consumo de oxigênio (VO2r) e a concentração de lactato, ambos de repouso ([LAr]). Após os 200 m foram identificados o consumo de oxigênio pós esforço (VO2e), pelo método de retroextrapolação e o pico de concentração de lactato P[LA]. Para identificar os valores de VO2 foi utilizado um analisador de gases portátil e para os valores de [LA] um lactímetro portátil. Dos valores de VO2 e [LA] foram calculados os valores líquidos dos mesmos (VO2l e [LAL] e a energia total (Etot) gasta na realização dos 200 m. A realização de um teste de nado estacionário, de 30 s de duração, possibilitou a identificação do impulso total (IMP) e da taxa de variação do impulso (TIMP), com a utilização de célula de carga de tração. Foram calculados os coeficientes de variação (cv) das variáveis e aplicados testes estatísticos de medidas repetidas, de comparação de médias e modelos de regressão linear múltipla, estes em cinco modelos: antropométrico, cinemático, fisiológico, cinético e geral. O desempenho dos nadadores avaliados foi de 130,2 ± 2,8 s (711,8 ± 29,1 pontos). Respectivamente valores médios de DC, FCL e VN foram: 2,10 ± 0,11 m, 0,69 ± 0,07 Hz e 1,45 ± 0,11 m·s-1. Já valores de VO2l, [LA]L e Etot foram de, respectivamente, 55,5 ± 5,5 ·kg-1·min-1, 11,15 ± 1,17 mmol·l-1 e 67,2 ± 5,5 ml·kg-1·min-1. Valores de IMP e TIMP foram de, respectivamente, 2648,4 N·s e – 25,1 ± 3,7 N. No modelo geral de regressão linear múltipla entraram as variáveis que puderam, de modo significativo, explicar o desempenho nos modelos por grupos de variáveis (DC, cvVN, VO2l e IMP) exceto a envergadura (ENV), que não responde a estímulos de treinamento. O modelo geral conseguiu explicar até 72,2% da variação do DESP, com as variáveis DC e VO2l entrando de modo significativo no modelo de regressão múltipla (DESP = 67,09DC – 3,048VO2l + 733,4). De maneira geral, os resultados indicaram que envergadura, distância média percorrida por ciclo de braçadas e impulso total em nado estacionário de 30 s correlacionam–se positivamente com o desempenho, já o consumo de oxigênio líquido e o coeficiente de variação da velocidade média de nado, negativamente. Para o melhor desempenho na prova de 200 m nado livre, espera-se que o nadador apresente uma maior DC e um nado mais econômico.
Anthropometrics, biomechanics and physiological characteristics have been considered determining factors of swim performance. Two-hundred meters freestyle event shows unique metabolic energetic conditions offering a challenge for swimmers, coaches and researchers. The aims of this study were to identify each performance determinant factor importance and its interrelations with the 200 m freestyle swimming event. Twelve male swimmers (age: 18.3 ± 2.9 years; stature: 174.3 ± 5.8 cm; arm limb span: 181.1 ± 7.5 cm; total body mass: 66.4 ± 6.3 kg; four skin folds sum: 31.9 ± 8.2 mm, weekly training 37.7 ± 7 km, best time in the event: 125.2 ± 2.7 s) participated in this study. In addition to anthropometrics variables were obtained, from the 200 m freestyle performed in a 25 m pool at maximal intensity, performance in seconds, transformed in points values (DESP) – considering the world record as 1000 points – and kinematics variables: mean stroke length (DC), stroke rate (FCL) and swimming velocity (VN) during all eight laps of the 200 m. A two dimension digital motion system was used to obtain the kinematics variables. Prior to the 200 m test resting oxygen consumption and lactate concentrations were determined. After the 200 m test post oxygen consumption, by the backward extrapolation method, and lactate concentration peak P[LA] were evaluated. To identify the oxygen consumption values (VO2) and the lactate concentration ([LA]) a portable respiratory gas analyzer and a lactate meter, respectively, were used. From the VO2 and [LA] were calculated the net values (VO2l and [LAL]) and the total expended energy (Etot) during the 200 m. A 30 s tethered swim test allowed for the evaluation of the total impulse (IMP) and the impulse variation ratio (TIMP). The coefficients of variation (cv) of the variables were calculated and applied statistical tests using repeat measurements, mean comparison and multiple linear regression models, in five different models: anthropometric, kinematics, physiological, kinetic and general. The swimmers’ performance was 130.2 ± 2.8 s (711.8 ± 29.1 points). DC, FCL and VN were: 2.10 ± 0.11 m, 0.69 ± 0.07 Hz e 1.45 ± 0.11 m·s-1, respectively. Whereas VO2l, [LAL] and Etot were, respectively, 55.5 ± 5.3 ml·kg-1·min-1, 11.15 ± 1.17 mmol·l-1 and 67.2 ± 5.5 ml·kg-1·min-1. IMP and TIMP values were, respectively, 2648.4 N·s e – 25.1 ± 3.7 N. On the general multiple linear regression model only the variables that could, in a statistical way, explain the performance on the variable group models (DC, cvDC, VO2l and IMP) were used, except for one’s arm limb span which will obviously not respond to any training stimulus. The general model explained up to 72.2% of the DESP variation with the DC and VO2l variables, by the multiply regression model (DESP = 67.09DC – 3.048VO2l + 733.4). The results indicated that arm limb span, mean distance covered per stroke cycle and the total impulse at 30 s tethered swim test showed a positive correlation with performance. Whereas net oxygen consumption and coefficient of variation of the mean swim speed presented a negative correlation. For a better performance during the 200 m freestyle is expecting a bigger DC and a more economical swim.

Introdução e Objetivos: considerando a complexidade da natação, o objetivo geral desta dissertação foi investigar o desempenho em 400 m nado crawl (T400), a partir de parâmetros antropométricos, biomecânicos e fisiológicos. Materiais e Métodos: O estudo foi avaliado e aprovado pelo Comitê de Ética em Pesquisa da UFRGS. Participaram 14 nadadores competitivos (21,2 ± 4,15 anos de idade) de nível regional e nacional, que foram avaliados em relação à: (i) antropometria e somatotipo; (ii) parâmetros biomecânicos (frequência média de ciclos de braçadas - FB, distância média percorrida pelo corpo a cada ciclo de braçadas - DB, velocidade média de nado - VN; variação intracíclica da velocidade do centro de massa nos três eixos - VIVx, VIVy, VIVz, índice de coordenação - IdC, duração das fases propulsivas e não propulsivas - Fprop e Fnprop, e tempo propulsivo - Tprop); e (iii) parâmetros fisiológicos (consumo de oxigênio – VO2, concentração sanguínea de lactato – [LA], e percepção subjetiva de esforço – PSE). Dados foram obtidos antes, durante (M1, M2, M3 e M4) e após o T400. Parâmetros biomecânicos de nado foram obtidos por cinemetria 3D e método e-zone para cálculo da localização do centro de massa. VO2 foi mensurado respiração por respiração utilizando o ergoespirômetro K5 e esnorquel Aquatrainer (ambos Cosmed). Foi utilizada estatística descritiva e inferencial (comparativa e correlacional). Resultados: (i) nadadores de 400 m possuem somatotipo meso-ectomórfico; (ii) não houve mudanças nos parâmetros biomecânicos ao longo do teste (exceto maior FB no M4); (iii) o VO2 do M1 foi o menor em comparação a M2, M3 e M4, sendo que o maior valor de VO2 (pico: 67,6 ± 8,9 ml·kg-1·min-1) foi identificado nos últimos trechos do T400; após o termino do teste a [LA] foi de 9,03 ± 0,04 mmol.l-1 e PSE de 17,6 ± 1,2 pontos. Entre as variáveis fisiológicas, a [LA] correlacionou-se inversamente com o desempenho (r = -0,61). Conclusão: Nadadores incrementam a FB ao fim do teste, buscando, pelo menos, incrementar a VN. Mesmo que a VN tenha se mantido constante, os maiores valores foram encontrados ao final do teste. Ao mesmo tempo, o consumo de oxigênio incrementou no último quarto do teste, possivelmente de acordo com o aumento da FB.
Introduction and Objectives: considering the swimming complexity, the general objective of this study was to investigate the performance in 400 m front crawl (T400) with anthropometric, biochemical and physiological parameters. Materials and Methods: the Ethics Committee of the UFRGS approved the study. Fourteen competitive swimmers (21.2 ± 4.15 years old) of regional and national level were assessed in relation to: (i) anthropometry and somatotype; (ii) biomechanical parameters (mean rate of stroke cycles - SR, mean stroke length - SL, mean swimming speed - SS; center of mass intracyclic velocity variation in the three axes - VIVx, VIVy, VIVz; index of coordination - IdC, duration of the propulsive and non-propulsive phases - Fprop and Fnprop; and propulsive time - Tprop); and (iii) physiological parameters (oxygen consumption - VO2, blood lactate concentration - [LA], and perceived exertion - PE). Data were obtained before, during (M1, M2, M3 and M4) and after T400. Biomechanical parameters of swimming were obtained by kinematics and 3D method e-zone for calculating the center of mass location. VO2 was breath-by-breath measured using the K5 ergospirometer and snorkels Aquatrainer (both Cosmed). It used descriptive and inferential statistics (comparative and correlational). Results: (i) 400 m swimmers are meso-ectomorphic somatotype; (ii) no changes in biomechanical parameters during the test (except increased SR in the M4); (iii) VO2 in the M1 was lower when compared to M2, M3 and M4, and the largest VO2 value (peak: 67.6 ± 8.9 ml·kg-1·min-1) was identified in the last T400 part; after the end of the test the [LA] was 9.03 ± 0.04 mmol·l-1 and PE was17.6 ± 1.2 points. Among the physiological variables, [LA] correlated inversely with performance (r = -0.61). Conclusion: Swimmers increase SR in the end of the test, seeking, at least, to increase the SS. Even the VN has remained constant, the highest values were found at the end of testing. At the same time, the increased VO2 in the last in the T400’s final part possibly is in accordance with the SR increased.

Globally, there is growing concern about energy consumption and its diverse effects on the environment. In South Africa, the current status quo is unfavourable in the domain of energy, hence the Department of Energy, Eskom and NERSA have embarked on supporting energy efficiency technologies nationwide as a strategic goal in reducing demand on the national grid. Due to the non conservative consumption of electricity from the grid and the insufficient supply to meet its demand, the importation of crude oil is very certain. In addition, the current and most popular technology for pool water heating in the said country is the resistive element which is inefficient and non-cost-effective. The energy consumption of residential swimming pool water heating is very massive, and tariff structure shows a constant rise. Furthermore, there's a current electricity crisis during the Eskom evening peak. Hence, a reliable, efficient, cost-effective and renewable energy technology such as an air source heat pump is required as a retrofit to the existing resistive element. Furthermore, mathematical modelling is a tool that can be used to mimic the dynamic behaviour of a physical or process system. It is a computational language or mathematical equation used to predict the dynamic behaviour of physical systems [Tangwe et al., 2015]. Various methods such as numerical methods have been considered as the particular types of mathematical modelling which have been employed to predict the performance of swimming pool ASHP water heater. However, they were unreliable and expensive. Consequently, this research focused on the experimental determination of the viability and development of a mathematical model to predict the performance of swimming pool ASHP water heater. The benefit of the development and building of this model was attributed to its low cost and credibility to forecast the performance of swimming pool ASHP water heater. Also, this robust mathematical model can be used by an energy service company and system manufacturer to compute the dynamic coefficient of performance of the swimming pool ASHP water heater. Following the above-mentioned information, the research sought to provide a permanent solution to the Eskom evening peak constraint. This is because energy-efficiency, serves as the bridging block between conventional and renewable energy sources needed by Eskom in a bid to provide a balance energy mix and sustainable energy. The implementation of a swimming pool ASHP water heater guaranteed a conducive environment for the population due to the reduction in environmental pollution.

Introdução: A respiração é um importante processo fisiológico, onde a musculatura inspiratória tem papel fundamental no desempenho de atletas nadadores. O aumento da resistência e força muscular inspiratória, adquiridos a partir do treinamento, tem sido associado a um melhor desempenho em diversas modalidades esportivas. Sendo assim, os objetivos deste estudo foram: descrever parâmetros de função pulmonar, teste de desempenho, espessura do diafragma e metaborreflexo muscular, suas correlações entre os nadadores de elite e suas especificidades nas modalidades de natação e analisar o efeito de um programa de doze semanas de treinamento muscular inspiratório(TMI), avaliando parâmetros de função pulmonar, espessura do diafragma e teste de desempenho em nadadores de elite. Desenho dos Estudos: Estudo transversal e quase experimento Métodos: 24 nadadores de elite, 16 homens e 8 mulheres, com idade (18±2 anos) entre velocistas, meio-fundistas e fundistas foram selecionados para mensuração de pressões inspiratórias, espessura de diafragma por ultrassonografia, testes de funções pulmonares, metaborreflexo inspiratório e número de respirações durante o teste. Os dados foram comparados entre os diferentes tipos de nadadores e suas diferentes provas natatórias. Para avaliar o efeito do Treinamento muscular inspiratório(TMI), foram recrutados 12 nadadores de elite. Os nadadores realizaram o TMI durante 12 semanas e foram repetidos os testes após TMI, a fim de averiguar as possíveis diminuição nos tempos nas provas de 50m e 200m, na espessura do diafragma e nos testes de função pulmonar. Resultados: O metaboreflexo muscular inspiratório não foi ativado durante 60% da pressão inspiratória máxima nos atletas. Os nadadores apresentaram força do volume expirado no 1s (VEF1s) e capacidade vital observada (CVF) superiores às estimativas de indivíduos não treinados; e as pressões respiratórias máximas (PI e PE) se correlacionaram com VEF1s e CVF destes atletas. Além disso, foi observado que, no teste de 50 metros, o menor número de respirações estava associado a uma maior pressão inspiratória, maior CVF e uma maior espessura diafragmática na posição deitada. Os velocistas apresentavam uma capacidade vital e a espessura do diafragma maior quando comparados a meio-fundistas e fundistas. Diferenças significativas foram observadas na avaliação após o TMI: aumento da capacidade funcional (p ≤0,005); aumento do VEF1s (p =0,019); e aumento do volume corrente (p ≤0,004). O TMI não alterou significativamente a espessura do diafragma. Também foi observada diminuição no número de respirações durante o teste de 50m após o TMI (p≤ 0,002). Já na avaliação do tempo de prova, não foram observadas diferenças após o treinamento. Conclusão: O TMI parece melhorar parâmetros de função pulmonar, o que foi evidenciado pelo menor número de respirações durante o teste de desempenho na prova de 50m de atletas submetidos ao TMI. A fadiga inspiratória (metaborreflexo inspiratório) não foi ativada durante 60% da carga da PIMáx dos nadadores. Nossos achados sugerem que o diafragma e os músculos inspiratórios acessórios podem ser relacionados com a melhora de desempenho de nadadores. Portanto, o treinamento muscular inspiratório poderia ser um recurso ergogênico útil a ser usado em modalidades esportivas, como parte importante a ser acrescentada no treinamento de atletas de elite em períodos pré-competitivos.
Introduction: Breathing is an important physiological process, where the inspiratory muscles has a fundamental role in the performance of swimmers. Increased endurance and muscle strength, acquired from training, has been associated with better performance in several sports. Thus, the objectives of this study were to describe pulmonary function parameters, performance testing, and thickness of the diaphragm muscle metaboreflex, their correlations among elite swimmers and their specificities in terms of swimming and analyze the effect of a twelve-week program inspiratory muscle training (IMT) evaluated pulmonary function parameters, thickness of the diaphragm and test performance in elite swimmers. Study Design: Cross-sectional study and experiment almost. Methods: 24 elite swimmers, 16 men and 8 women, aged (18 ± 2 years), between sprinters and distance runners, and runners were selected for measurement of airway pressures, diaphragm thickness by ultrasound, pulmonary function tests, inspiratory metaboreflex and number of breaths during the test. Data were compared between the different types of swimming, and different their swim tests. To evaluate the effect of inspiratory muscle training (IMT), 12 elite swimmers were recruited. The swimmers performed IMT for 12 weeks and the tests were repeated after TMI, to ascertain the possible decrease in time in the 50m and 200m evidence, the thickness of the diaphragm and lung function tests. Results: The inspiratory muscle metaboreflex was not activated for 60% of maximal inspiratory pressure in athletes. The swimmers showed strength of expiratory volume in 1s (VEF1s) and higher observed vital capacity (FVC) estimates of untrained subjects; and maximal respiratory pressures (PI and PE) correlated with FVC and VEF1s these athletes. Furthermore, it was observed that in the 50-meter test, the minimum number of breaths were associated with a higher inspiratory pressure and higher FVC increased diaphragm thickness in the lying position. The sprinters had a vital capacity and increased diaphragm thickness as compared to the middle and bottom runners. Significant differences were observed in the evaluation after the TMI: increased functional capacity (p ≤0,005); VEF1s increased (p = 0.019); and increased tidal volume (p ≤0,004). The IMT did not significantly alter the thickness of the diaphragm. Was also observed decrease in the number of breaths during the test 50m after IMT (p ≤ 0.002). Already at the time of trial, no differences were observed after training. Conclusion: The TMI seems to improve pulmonary function parameters, which was evidenced by the lower number of breaths during the performance test in the test of 50m of athletes submitted to TMI. The inspiratory fatigue (inspiratory metaboreflex) was not activated for 60% of the burden of MIP swimmers. Our findings suggest that diaphragm and accessory inspiratory muscles may be related to the improved performance of swimmers. Therefore, inspiratory muscle training, could be a useful ergogenic aid to be used in sports as important to be added in elite athletes training at periods of pre-competitive.

Orientador: Orival Andries Junior
Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Educação Física
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Resumo: O triatlo é uma modalidade olímpica que envolve três etapas consecutivas: natação, ciclismo e corrida. As pesquisas científicas recentes demonstraram que a intensidade da etapa natação tem forte relação com o desempenho final no triatlo. O principal objetivo desta pesquisa foi comparar o desempenho entre o teste submáximo (T-tri80) e máximo (T-tri100) de triatlo. A amostra deste estudo foi composta por 8 triatletas amadores do sexo masculino com idade média de 27±5 anos e experiência de treinamento de 36±20 meses. O teste consistia em 375 metros de natação em piscina semi-olímpica, 10 quilômetros de ciclismo estacionário e 2500 metros de corrida em pista de atletismo com esforço máximo em todas as etapas, exceto para a etapa natação no T-tri80, onde a velocidade foi controlada em 80% através de pacing. Os dados obtidos sobre desempenho (TEMPO), concentração de lactato sangüíneo (LAC), frequência cardíaca (FC) e percepção subjetiva de esforço (PSE) foram coletados ao final da natação, após o ciclismo e ao término da etapa corrida. A análise estatística foi realizada através de ANOVA para medidas repetidas e teste-t pareado com um nível de significância adotado em p<0.05. Os principais resultados na comparação entre os testes revelam diferenças significantes nas seguintes variáveis em T-tri80 e T-tri100, respectivamente: TEMPO na etapa natação (429±89 e 363±114 s) e corrida (604±65 e 634±56 s); FC na natação (127±11 e 162±10 bpm), no ciclismo (155±19 e 162±15 bpm) e no teste completo (151±17 e 163±13 bpm); e também para PSE (9.5±2.6 e 14.5±3.9) e LAC (5.2±1.5 e 8.8±2.2 mmoloL-1) na etapa natação. A ANOVA em T-tri80 revelou diferenças significantes para FC, LAC e PSE em todas as etapas, enquanto que T-tri100 apresentou diferenças estatísticas significantes apenas na FC entre a etapa ciclismo e corrida. As principais conclusões indicam que o T-tri80 não apresentou desempenho superior ao T-tri100 (p=0.0419), ao contrário da etapa corrida em T-tri80 onde foi encontrado melhor desempenho em relação ao T-tri100 (p=0.012). As evidências apontam que a intensidade executada durante a etapa natação tem efeito residual sobre o desempenho nas etapas subsequentes, especialmente sobre a etapa corrida. Além disso, acredita-se que o teste de triathlon seja uma maneira prática de avaliação do desempenho em triathlon na distância super sprint
Abstract: Triathlon is an Olympic sport including three consecutive phases: swimming, cycling and running. Recent researches showed that swimming phase has a strong relationship with final performance. The main purpose of this study was to compare a submaximal (T-tri80) with a maximal triathlon trial (T-tri100). Eight amateur male triathletes with 27±5 years-old and 36±20 months of training experience were recruited as voluntaries. The trial consisted on a 375-m swimming, 10-km stationary cycling simulation and 2.5-km running track maximal effort trial for all phases, except for T-tri80 swimming phase which speed was controlled at 80% by pacing. Data for elapsed time (TIME), blood lactate (BL), heart rate (HR) and rating of perceived exertion scale (PES) were collected at the end of each phase. A statistical evaluation was conducted through variance analysis for repeated measures (ANOVA) and paired sample (t-test) with p <0.05. The main findings of t-tests showed significance differences in the following variables for T-tri80 and T-tri100, respectively: swimming TIME (429±89 vs. 363±114 sec) and running TIME (604±65 vs. 634±56 sec); swimming HR (127±11 vs. 162±10 bpm), cycling HR (155±19 vs. 162±15 bpm) and overall HR (151±17 vs. 163±13 bpm); and also for swimming PES (9.5±2.6 vs. 14.5±3.9) and swimming BL (5.2±1.5 e 8.8±2.2 mmoloL-1). The ANOVA comparison of HR, BL and PES showed significant differences in T-tri80 for all phases, whereas T-tri100 had significant differences only for cycling and running HR. The main conclusions of this study revealed that T-tri80 did not allow better performance than T-tri100 (p=0.0419). However, T-tri80 had better running performance than T-tri100 (p=0.012). These evidences demonstrated swimming intensity has a detrimental effect on subsequent performance, especially for the running phase. Moreover, we believe that triathlon trial is a practical way to evaluate super sprint triathlon performance
Mestrado
Biodinamica do Movimento e Esporte
Mestre em Educação Física

The ability to apply force is crucial in competitive swimming, particularly in short distances. Accordingly, literature has shown that high values of upper-body strength and power are determinant to succeed in competitive swimming. Thus, dry-land Strength and Conditioning (S&C) is a common practice in swimming prescription in order to improve performance or prevent injuries. Nevertheless, research over the effects of S&C training in swimming performance is scarce and far from consensus. The main purpose of this thesis was to analyze the effect of S&C training programs on swimming performance in age group swimmers. Additionally, the reliability of tethered swimming evaluation with age group swimmers was verified, as a methodology to evaluate S&C training effects in swimming performance. For the accomplishment of these purposes the following sequence was used: (i) reviewing the available literature; (ii) examination of the reliability of tethered swimming evaluation; (iii) analyzing the effects of S&C programs in dry-land strength and swimming performance; (iv) proposing a practical S&C program to swimming prescription. The main conclusions drawn were: (i) there is limited research on S&C training effects in competitive swimming and the existent was mainly conducted with older and experienced swimmers; (ii) tethered swimming is a reliable test to evaluate force exerted in water by swimmers familiarized with the test; (iii) tethered swimming evaluations throughout the season may allow coaches to control swimmers’ ability to exert inwater force and evaluate the effects of S&C training programs, in age group swimmers; (iv) 6 weeks of a complementary S&C training allow improvements in dry-land strength, in age group swimmers; (v) a 4-week adaptation period is suggested to allow transferability of S&C improvements to swimming performance; (vi) explosiveness should be the goal of S&C training in order to allow swimming performance enhancement in short distance swimming, with age group swimmers. These findings can be used by coaches and researches as a starting point to future S&C training programs in age group swimmers.
Em Natação, a capacidade de aplicar força é crucial, especialmente em provas mais curtas. A investigação mostrou-nos ainda que, elevados valores de força e potência nos membros superiores são fundamentais. Assim, o treino de força e condição física em seco é uma prática comum no planeamento, tendo como objetivo o incremento do rendimento ou a prevenção de lesões. Ainda assim, a investigação sobre os efeitos do treino de força e condição física em seco no rendimento dos nadadores é escassa e inconclusiva. Assim, o objetivo principal desta tese foi analisar os efeitos de um programa de treino de força e condição física em seco no rendimento do estilo crol, em nadadores jovens. Adicionalmente, foi analisada a fiabilidade das avaliações do nado amarrado em nadadores jovens, de forma a validar o nado amarrado como uma metodologia de avaliação de força. Para atingir estes objetivos foi seguida a seguinte sequência: (i) revisão de literatura disponível; (ii) verificação da fiabilidade do nado amarrado em nadadores jovens; (iii) análise dos efeitos de dois treinos de força e condição física em seco no rendimento de nadadores jovens; (iv) apresentação de uma proposta prática de treino de força e condição física em seco. As principais conclusões alcançadas foram: (i) há pouca investigação sobre os efeitos de programas de treino de força e condição física em seco em natação e os que existem foram, na sua maioria, conduzidos com nadadores mais velhos e experientes; (ii) o nado amarrado é uma metodologia fiável para avaliar a aplicação de força em nadadores jovens familiarizados com o teste; (iii) avaliações de nado amarrado ao longo da época podem auxiliar os treinadores no controlo da capacidade de aplicação de força dos nadadores, bem como na avaliação dos efeitos de programas de treino de força e condição física em seco; (iv) 6 semanas de um treino complementar de força e condição física em seco permitiram o incremento da força em seco; (v) um período de 4 semanas é necessário para permitir a transferência dos ganhos de força em seco para a capacidade de aplicação de força na água e consequente melhoria do rendimento; (vi) em nadadores jovens e em distâncias de nado curtas, a potência máxima deve ser a base do treino de força e condição física em seco para permitir o incremento do rendimento. Os resultados desta tese podem configurar-se como um ponto de partida para futuros programas de treino de Força e Condição Física em seco, em nadadores jovens.
En natación, la capacidad de aplicar fuerza es crucial, en particular en pruebas más cortas. Además, la investigación pone de relieve que elevados valores de fuerza y de potencia en los miembros superiores son determinantes. El entrenamiento de fuerza y condición física en seco es habitual en la planificación de la natación, siendo su objetivo el incremento del rendimiento en la prevención de lesiones. Con todo, se puede afirmar que los estudios sobre los efectos del entrenamiento de fuerza y condición física en el rendimiento de los nadadores no son concluyentes. Así, el objetivo principal de esta tesis ha sido de analizar los efectos de programas de entrenamiento de fuerza y condición física en el rendimiento de los nadadores jóvenes. Además, se ha analizado la fiabilidad de las evaluaciones del nado amarrado, de modo a confirmar la validez del nado amarrado en tanto que metodología de evaluación de fuerza. Afín de alcanzar estos objetivos, se ha seguido la secuencia siguiente: (i) revisión de la literatura disponible; (ii) comprobación de la fiabilidad del nado amarrado en nadadores jóvenes; (iii) análisis de los efectos de dos entrenamientos de fuerza y condición física en el rendimiento de nadadores jóvenes; (iv) presentación de una propuesta práctica de un programa de entrenamiento de fuerza y condición física. La principales conclusiones a las que se ha llegado son: (i) la escasa investigación en cuanto a los efectos de lo entrenamiento de fuerza y condición física en la natación - los existentes, en su mayoría, se han llevado a cabo con nadadores con más edad y experimentados; (ii) el nado amarrado constituye una metodología fiable para evaluar la aplicación de la fuerza en nadadores jóvenes familiarizados con la prueba; (iii) evaluaciones de nado amarrado a lo largo de la temporada pueden ayudar a los entrenadores para controlar la capacidad de aplicación de la fuerza de los nadadores; (iv) 6 semanas de un entrenamiento complementario de fuerza y condición física han permitido el incremento de la fuerza en seco de nadadores jóvenes; (v) se necesita un período de 4 semanas para poder transferir el aumento de fuerza en seco hacia la capacidad de aplicación de fuerza en el agua y la consecuente mejoría del rendimiento; (vi) en nadadores jóvenes, y en distancias de nado cortas, la potencia máxima debe constituir la base del entrenamiento de fuerza y condición física, para permitir el incremento del rendimiento. Estos resultados podrán ser utilizados por entrenadores e investigadores como un punto de partida para la aplicación de programas de entrenamiento de fuerza y condición física en nadadores jóvenes.

碩士
正修科技大學
運動健康與休閒所
101
Background: Elite athletes must possess excellent physical condition. It has become a prerequisite outstanding of performance that fitness training increases swimming performance by scientific intervention and the varied training methods. Objective: To study the effects of dynamic crosscore training on physical fitness and swimming performance. Methods: 26 adolescent swimmers were collected. They completed 6 weeks dynamic cosscore training programs (CT), fixed TRX training programs (T) or traditional weight training programs (WT). Before and after experimental training programs, we recorded isokinetic muscular strength, lower limb power and swimming performance (stroke frequency, distance per stroke, and swimming speed). Results: (1) There were significantly increased in elbow strength extension relative peak torque (76%), elbow strength endurance flexion relative peak torque (53%) and hip strength extension relative peak torque (12.2%). (2) There were significantly increased in lower limb power output including squat jump (12%), counter movement jump (11.8%) and continuous jumps bent knee (9.9%) in CT. (3) No significant change were found on swimming performance. Conclusions: Dynamic crosscore -training might enhance the core strength and lower limb performance for swimmer. Keyword: Swimming, Performance, Dynamic crosscore–training, Core strength