Academic literature on the topic 'Persian calligraphy'

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Journal articles on the topic "Persian calligraphy"

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Kermani, Amir Hossein, Reza Shahbazi, and Ali Reza Fard. "Exploring Innovations in Techniques and Media in Contemporary Persian Calligraphy and Their Impacts on Aesthetics and Cultural Interpretation." Studies in Art and Architecture 3, no. 2 (2024): 57–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.56397/saa.2024.06.12.

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This paper explores the rich history and evolution of Persian calligraphy, tracing its development from a practical tool for recording information to a sophisticated art form that embodies the cultural and spiritual heritage of Iran. It examines the transformation of Persian calligraphy through various historical epochs, particularly focusing on the significant changes that occurred during the 20th century as modern influences were integrated. The study highlights how contemporary Persian calligraphers have embraced both traditional techniques and modern innovations, such as digital tools and mixed media, to expand the art form’s boundaries. This paper not only reflects on how these adaptations have helped Persian calligraphy remain relevant in the modern art scene but also considers the cultural implications of these evolutions. Through this analysis, the enduring relevance and adaptability of Persian calligraphy are celebrated as a mirror of the dynamic cultural shifts within Iran and as a significant contributor to the global dialogue on art and expression.
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Ghelichkhani, Hamid Reza. "Idea of the Just Ruler and the Art Patron in Persianate Calligraphy." Manazir Journal 5 (October 9, 2023): 206–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.36950/manazir.2023.5.10.

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Jaʿfar Tabrizi (1383–1455) is one of the most famous Timurid calligraphers and was the chief of prince Baysonqor’s (1397–1433) library. Under his supervision, some of the most prestigious Herati manuscripts were created. Muhammad Hussein Shirazi (1825-1900) is one of the Qajar calligraphy masters, honored with the title Katib al-Sultan (the King’s calligrapher). He copied some of the most prestigious Persian masterpieces during his lifetime. In the colophons of their numerous manuscripts, both calligraphers praised their respective princes and kings, providing a resource from which one may learn about the ideas of the just ruler as the governor and as the patron of the arts in the Timurid and Qajar periods. In reviewing these colophons, this article aims to identify the idea of kingship, especially in the patronage of the arts of the book and calligraphy, narrated and praised in two different historical and social contexts in the Timurid and Qajar periods; widely considered the golden ages of Persian calligraphy. This study shows how the tradition of patronage did endure for some five centuries.
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Sadikoglu, Fahreddin, and Behzad Soroush. "Intelligent System for Persian Calligraphy Learning." Procedia Computer Science 102 (2016): 555–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2016.09.442.

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Teece, Denise-Marie. "“Compassionate Companion, Familiar Friend”: The Turin Safīna (Biblioteca Reale Ms. Or. 101) and Its Significance." Muqarnas Online 36, no. 1 (2019): 61–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22118993-00361p04.

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Abstract This article examines some of the more significant aspects of Turin Safīna manuscript Biblioteca Reale Ms. Or. 101. One of these is its unique and important six-page preface, which refers to the manuscript as a safīna (ship or vessel) and explains in poetic language why some Persian manuscripts are referred to using this term. In addition to this significant preface, which is translated and analyzed in the first half of the article, the manuscript also exhibits delicate illuminations and calligraphy work that may be connected to a network of artist-families active in western Persia (primarily in the region of Shiraz) around the time of its completion. The second half of this article revisits the careers of some of these artists, and discusses the broader artistic context for the creation of the Turin safīna manuscript. Special attention will be given to the careers of the illuminator known as Ruzbehan al-Modhahheb, and his calligrapher father Naʿim al-Din al-Kateb.
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Kostikyan, Kristine, and Mohammad Mehdi Baghi. "Three Pahlavi manuscripts in the Matenadaran." ARAMAZD: Armenian Journal of Near Eastern Studies 11, no. 1-2 (2017): 293–305. http://dx.doi.org/10.32028/ajnes.v11i1-2.884.

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About 450 manuscripts containing the works of Persian rich culture, science, and history are preserved in the Arabic script collection of the Matenadaran. Many of these manuscripts contain fine works of Persian art and calligraphy. The Persian manuscripts of the Matenadaran evoke the strong historical ties between Iran and Armenia and reflect the interest of Armenians towards Persian history, science, literature, and art. Apart from these manuscripts, three handwritten works referring to the Pre-Islamic Iranian culture are kept in the Non-Armenian Manuscript Collection of the Matenadaran. These manuscripts were bequested to the Matenadaran in 1970 by Mihrdat Tiryakyan, a poet and translator of a portion of Firdawsi’s Shahnamah into Armenian. The latter gifted to the Matenadaran two Persian manuscripts as well, in 1963 and 1973. The study of these five manuscripts granted to Matenadaran by Mihrdat Tiryakyan show that they had been earlier in possession of his father Harutyun and were related to his life and works.
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Simpson, Marianna Shreve. "A Handbook of Persian Calligraphy and Related Arts by Hamid Reza Ghelichkhani." Manuscript Studies: A Journal of the Schoenberg Institute for Manuscript Studies 8, no. 1 (2023): 156–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mns.2023.0010.

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Ahmadian, Amirhossein, Kazim Fouladi, and Babak Nadjar Araabi. "Model-based Persian calligraphy synthesis via learning to transfer templates to personal styles." International Journal on Document Analysis and Recognition (IJDAR) 23, no. 3 (2020): 183–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10032-020-00353-1.

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Mohammad Hassan, Mozafari. "A Study on Persian and Andalusian Contributions to the Development of Islamo-Arabic Calligraphy." Institute of Middle Eastern Affairs 19, no. 2 (2020): 61–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.52891/jmea.2020.19.2.61.

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Pshevorska, Liana. "Through the Translingual Lens: Persian Calligraphy in Mana Neyestani’s L’Araignée de Mashhad." Contemporary French and Francophone Studies 28, no. 2 (2024): 284–301. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17409292.2024.2311538.

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Amiri, Lida. "Atiq Rahimi’s Exophonic Entanglements: Multilingual and Multimodal Poetics." Journal of Literary Multilingualism 1, no. 2 (2023): 200–224. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2667324x-20230205.

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Abstract In 2008, first-generation Afghan migrant novelist-artist Atiq Rahimi published his first translingual work in French, Syngué Sabour: Pierre de patience. This article interrogates his multilingual and multimodal aesthetics across his translingual oeuvre. In his exophonic novel Les Porteurs d’eau (2019), Rahimi valorizes a polyvocal and culturally diverse Central Asian history. The Prix Goncourt–awarded author introduces Afghanistan’s past and present beyond its intracultural challenges. The epitome of the Rahimi-esque aesthetic is the author’s publication L’Invité du miroir (2020), which acts as a revolt, a transnational dialectic crossroads where multilingual fiction meets classical Persian calligraphy and nonfiction to explore the human spirit.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Persian calligraphy"

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Rashti, Sogol. "Persian in practice." Thesis, University of Iowa, 2015. https://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/2003.

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Since the beginning of humankind, architecture has been a sacred source for all civilizations, and that has provided a gateway for man to reach the heavens above. In terms of concept and value, Persian art and architecture is considered as a rich source to be acknowledged. Within Persian architecture, the emphasis was placed strongly on beauty and sacred geometry; Persians calculated the proportions of heaven reflected upon them in the dimensions of buildings on the earth. Iranian culture has utilized the written word as an art form; this goes beyond normal means of communication. Iranian calligraphers produced eloquent styles and patterns through their divine talent, and this was displayed in the architecture. Parviz Tanavoli, as the greatest contemporary artist of Iran, has a strong tendency to be attracted to words and letters which has a long history in Iranian culture. Experimenting through aspects of cultural interaction in fine and applied arts has led to the understanding that when aesthetic elements of cultures are used to create a new design, it leads to both a new aesthetic creation and a fresh understanding of the cultures involved. This collection was designed and manufactured by concentrating on organic and curved forms and utilizing them in the design practice, while having a touch on cultural elements such as patterns and alphabets. The curved abstract shapes create a conceptual harmony, depicted in Persian patterns via functional three dimensional pieces.
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Jackson, Cailah. "Patrons and artists at the crossroads : the Islamic arts of the book in the lands of Rūm, 1270s-1370s." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2017. https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:2d687f25-fb80-4470-b259-72714ba24386.

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This dissertation is the first book-length study to analyse the production and patronage of Islamic illuminated manuscripts in late medieval RÅ«m in their fullest cultural contexts and in relation to the arts of the book of neighbouring regions. Although research concerning the artistic landscapes of late medieval Rūm has made significant progress in recent years, the development of the arts of the book and the nature of their patronage and production has yet to be fully addressed. The topic also remains relatively neglected in the wider field of Islamic art history. This thesis considers the arts of the book and the part they played in artistic life within contemporary scholarly frameworks that emphasise inclusivity, diversity and fluidity. Such frameworks acknowledge the period's ethnic and religious pluralism, the extent of cross-cultural exchange, the region's complex political situation after the breakdown in Seljuk rule, and the itinerancy of scholars, Sufis and craftsmen. Analyses are based on the codicological examination of sixteen illuminated Persian and Arabic manuscripts, none of which have been published in depth. In order to appropriately assess the material and to partially redress scholarly emphases on the constituent arts of the book (calligraphy, illumination, illustration and binding), the manuscripts are considered as whole objects. The manuscripts' ample inscriptions also help to form a clearer picture of contemporary artistic life. Evidence from further illuminated and non-illuminated manuscripts and other textual and material primary sources is also examined. Based on this evidence, this dissertation demonstrates that Rūm's towns had active cultural scenes despite the frequent outbreak of hostilities and the absence of an effective centralised government. The lavishness of some manuscripts from this period also challenges the often-assumed connection between dynastic patronage and sophisticated artistic production. Furthermore, the identities and affiliations of those involved in the production and patronage of illuminated manuscripts reinforces the impression of an ethnically and religiously diverse environment and highlights the role that local amīrs and Sufi dervishes in particular had in the creation of such material.
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Hosseini, Rad Abdolmajid. "Miniature persane : analyse plastique - source d'inspiration." Rennes 2, 1997. http://www.theses.fr/1997REN20008.

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La miniature persane est remarquablement liée à la littérature iranienne et à la poésie romanesque, épique, mystique. . . Traditionnelle en Iran, elle est puissamment vivante et participe à l'expression plastique contemporaine. Les miniaturistes d'aujourd'hui s'appuient sur l'espace "imaginal" de la tradition en développant le fantastique des émotions sensorielles intégré à la scénographie naturaliste. Mais les créateurs iraniens contemporains cherchent à inventer une nouvelle pensée plastique. Ecrite avec une synchronie visuels - textes rigoureuse "miniature persane : analyse plastique - source d'inspiration", est une étude appuyée sur la lecture contemporaine de la plastique visuelle. La première partie évoque l'esthétique et la symbolique du monde "imaginal" liées aux sources littéraires. Elle analyse le traitement graphique de la figuration humaine jusqu'au XXe siècle. La seconde partie examine le système d'expression de l'espace lié à la combinaison des points de vue familiers ainsi que la qualité du paysage paradisiaque. Elle approfondit la poétique des rythmes animant les scénographies sans ombre portée et l'expressivité des couleurs saturées. Sont également étudiés le fantastique des ornementations ainsi que les modes d'intégration de la calligraphie iranienne dans la miniature. La troisième partie tente une réflexion sur la miniature contemporaine en cherchant a savoir si la belle tradition des persans peut encore être à la source d'une expression bien vivante ? Des travaux personnels issus des rythmes à vivre de la miniature sont présentés dans les dernières pages de cette partie, accompagnes d'une brève représentation de leur structure. Enfin une chronologie générale de la peinture persane est proposée ainsi qu'un glossaire<br>The Persian miniature is remarkably linked to Iranian litterature and to romantic, epic, mystical poetry. Traditional in Iran, strongly alive, it takes part in the contemporary plastic expression. Miniaturists of today lean on the "imaginal" space of tradition by developing the fantastic of sensory emotions, that is integrated to the naturalist scenography. But the creative Iranian contemporaries seek to invent a new plastic thought. Written with a rigorous synchrony visual-texts "Persian miniature : plastic analysis - source of inspiration", is a study insisting on the contemporary perusal of visual plastic. The first section evokes esthetics and symbolic of the "imaginal world" related to literary sources. It analyzes the graphic processing of human figuration until the XXe century. The second section examines the system of expression of the space concerning the familiar viewpoint combination as well as the quality of the heavenly landscape. It deepens the poetical of rhythms animating shadeless scenographies and the expressivity of saturated colors. Also, the fantastic of ornamentations and integration modes of the Iranian calligraphy in the miniature are studied. The third section is devoted to a reflection on the contemporary miniature by trying to find whether the beautiful tradition of Persians can still be the source of a well alive expression ? Personal works respring from lively rhythms of the miniature are presented in the last pages of this section, with short representation of their structure. Finally, a general chronology and a glossary of the persian paint are proposed
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Rettig, Simon. "La production manuscrite à Chiraz sous les Aq Qoyunlu entre 1467 et 1503." Thesis, Aix-Marseille 1, 2011. http://www.theses.fr/2011AIX10196.

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La production de copies littéraires connaît un important développement à Chirâz en Iran sous la dynastie des Turkmènes Aq Qoyyûnlû entre 1467 et 1503. Peut-on cerner des caractéristiques de cette production ? Se différencie-t-elle de celles d’autres centres contemporains, notamment Tabrîz et Hérât ? En examinant un corpus de soixante manuscrits datés, cette étude vise à analyser les différentes composantes du codex de Chirâz (papier, mise en page et réglure, écritures, reliure, …) ainsi que les décors (enluminures et illustrations) mis en œuvre afin d’en dégager les spécificités. Héritiers de la tradition de livres décorés timourides, des artisans du livre deviennent les experts de ce qu’il convient une production en série d’items finement calligraphiés, toujours enluminés et souvent ornés d’illustrations. La présente étude permet de montrer l’évolution d’une production de cour à une conception de copies par des ateliers privés, à un moment où la gestion du pouvoir passe d’un système princier à un gouvernorat de généraux turkmènes vers 1480. Cette période est alors marquée par des changements visuels importants, notamment l’usage d’un style particulier d’écriture nasta‘lîq, employé par les copistes de la ville, des formes d’enluminures stéréotypées, ainsi que l’emploi de styles de peintures qualifiés de « commerciaux ». Il en résulte une forte identité visuelle des manuscrits réalisés à Chirâz dans le dernier tiers du XVe siècle, qui sont largement exportés à travers le monde iranien. La pérennité sera assurée au cours du siècle suivant sous la dynastie safavide par les mêmes familles d’artisans, mais aussi sur une plus grande échelle, dans le domaine ottoman notamment<br>The production of belletristic copies encountered an important development in the city of Shiraz in Iran between 1467 and 1503. Is it possible to determine characteristics of this production? Are differences visible with manuscripts made in other centres, such as Tabriz and Herat? By examining a corpus of sixty dated manuscripts, this study aims to analyse the physical components of the Shiraz codex (paper, layout and ruling, binding…) as well as decorations (illuminations and illustrations) in order to identify specificities.The book craftsmen inherited their skills and the styles they use from the former Timurid period. They specialized in a mass production of neatly copied items, always adorned with illuminations, and often illustrated. The present research underlines the interactions between this manuscript production and the historical events in Shiraz, in a time when the governorate of Turkmen generals replaced the rule of the prince. The transfer of production from the court atelier to private workshops echoes this change of power. At the same time profound visual changes distinguish the book production, notably a peculiar writing style of nasta‘lîq, only used by Shiraz copyists, as well as stereotyped forms of illuminations and various “commercial” styles of paintings.As a result, a strong visual identity characterises the Chiraz manuscripts. As they were exported to various parts of the Persianate sphere, they had a strong impact on local productions, notably in the Ottoman realm. Furthermore, the same artisans families in Shiraz ensured the permanency of Aq Qoyyunlu models in the first third of the 16th century under the Safavid dynasty
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Rodrigues, Ubirajara Alencar 1966. "O colar perdido da caligrafia." [s.n.], 2011. http://repositorio.unicamp.br/jspui/handle/REPOSIP/251132.

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Orientador: Milton Jose de Almeida<br>Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Educação<br>Made available in DSpace on 2019-01-04T15:20:10Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Rodrigues_UbirajaraAlencar_D.pdf: 41150719 bytes, checksum: dd62e343c9b0c326b696000c59b681f4 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011<br>Resumo: Este é um estudo e uma pesquisa sobre imagens em literatura, cinema, letras e textos em manuscritos e miniaturas árabes e persas. O estudo passa pela novela O colar da pomba, de Ibn Hazm, andaluz do século XI, e suas aparições nem sempre claras no filme de Nacer Khemir, O colar perdido da pomba. O estudo aqui apresentado está relacionado ao meu estudo central sobre as letras e a caligrafia árabes, e sobre o modelo de biblioteca árabe medieval, nos séculos 8 e 9, o Bayt ak-Hikma, A casa da sabedoria, como designavam os persas, e depois os árabes.<br>Abstract: This is a study and a research of images in literature, film, letters and texts in Arabic and Persian manuscripts and miniatures. The study permeates the novel The Ring of the Dove by the Andalusian Ibn Hazm, written about the eleventh century, and how it implicity appears in Nacer Khemir's film, The Dove Lost Necklace. The study presented here relates to my study on the letters and Arabic calligraphy, and a model of medieval Arabic library of the 8th/9th, the Bayt al-Hikma, the House of Wisdom, as denominate by the Persian and the Arabs.<br>Doutorado<br>Educação, Conhecimento, Linguagem e Arte<br>Mestre em Educação
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Mohsen, Shahab. "The Problem of Stretching in Persian Calligraphy and a New Type 3 PostScript Nastaliq Font." Thesis, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/10012/4974.

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This research is about a typeface for implementing Persian calligraphy called Nastaliq. The main purpose for developing this font was to handle stretching of letters in order to achieve line justification through a dynamic font. Therefore, a PostScript Type 3 font was developed. However, as the research progressed, it came clear that Nastaliq’s stretching cannot be implemented in a dynamic font. Therefore, the research’s purpose changes to implementing a font containing all the needed glyphs of all needed stretchings of all stretchable letters to allow achieving line justification. For this propose a mathematical formulation to model handwritten Nastaliq was necessary. The result was a PostScript font containing more than 1200 glyphs. To make it possible to use this font in the future, a regular expression grammar was developed to identify and name each glyph as a positioned letter in a particular context. This thesis describes all the steps taken to build the font.
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Mozafari, Ardavan. "Desire of Union." Thesis, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/10012/5207.

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In our modern world, a signifi cant number of traditional values have been dramatically manipulated, taking on new meanings and definitions quite diff erent from their original or natural signifi cance. Moreover, these traditional values are being replaced by new ones deemed more suitable to today’s world. Ideas such as selfl essness, humility, and longing, among others, have seemingly lost value as a consequence of the frantic pace of modern life and replaced by self-centredness, greed,aridity, exteriority, which will have a direct impact on our surrounding environment. Let’s imagine a land in which selfi shness is not a priority. Instead, replace it with a society driven by humane preferences. Would the architecture of that society still look like ours does today? Would it be as unsociable as it is in our so-called advanced civilization? This thesis investigates this query through a juxtaposition of the traditional values of a Persian art with the demands of modern life. It is a study of the calligraphic art of Iran as a transcendental practice, highly intertwined with strong emotions, wherein the intention of the research is to discover the relationship between Persian calligraphy and architecture. Presenting calligraphy as a context for understanding architecture has the potential to get beyond ourselves in the spaces we author. This research aims to allow the essence of Persian calligraphy into modern space as a means to revive the true essence of architecture: reunion of feeling and space, a concept that is given too little attention in our current architecture.
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Books on the topic "Persian calligraphy"

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Emâd, Mir. Moraga'-i-Khotut: Album of calligraphy and single leaves. Golestan Palace Pub., 1999.

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Reid, Mehry. Persian calligraphic designs. Stemmer House Publishers, 1995.

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Khānī, Ghulām Ḥusayn Amīr. Bahār dar pāʼīz: Safīnah-ʼi 77 rubāʻī. Intishārāt-i Amīr Khānī, 2005.

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Khvānsārī, Yad Allāh Kābulī. Kilk-i shaydāʾī: Naqsh-i shiʻr dar chalīpā-yi khaṭṭ-i shikastah. Yad Allāh Kābulī Khvānsārī, 1990.

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Rāhjīrī, ʻAlī. Tārīkh-i mukhtaṣar-i khaṭṭ va siyar-i khvush'nivīsī dar Īrān. Kitābkhānah-i Markazī, 1986.

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Bayānī, Mahdī. Aḥvāl va ās̲ār-i khushnavīsān. 2-ге вид. Intishārāt-i ʻIlmī, 1985.

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Īrānī, ʻAbd al-Muḥammad. Paydāyish-i khaṭṭ va khaṭṭāṭān. Intishārāt-i Yasāvulī, Farhangsarā, 1990.

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Īrānī, ʻAbd al-Muḥammad. Paydāyish-i khaṭṭ va khaṭṭāṭān. Intishārāt-i Yasāvulī, Farhangsarā, 1990.

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Falsafi, Amir. Yād-i yār-i mihrabān. Intishārāt-i Yasāvulī, 2000.

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Vakīlī, ʻAzīz al-Dīn. Rahnamāʾi-i khaṭṭ-i jadīd =: Da Afghānistān khaṭṭāṭī = (Khaṭṭāṭī-i Afghānistān dar ʻaṣr-i ḥāz̤ir). Maktabah-i ʻIlmīyah, 1990.

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Book chapters on the topic "Persian calligraphy"

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Zekrgoo, Sadra. "Script, Calligraphy, and Poetry." In Tradition and Science of Persian Ink Making. Springer Nature Switzerland, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52071-6_1.

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Richard, Francis. "Calligraphy." In Persian Prose. I.B.Tauris, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9780755617821.ch-005.

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Meidani, Mahdiyeh. "Introduction." In Persian Calligraphy. Routledge, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429264047-1.

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Meidani, Mahdiyeh. "Corpus analysis." In Persian Calligraphy. Routledge, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429264047-2.

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Meidani, Mahdiyeh. "Graphetic analysis." In Persian Calligraphy. Routledge, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429264047-3.

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Meidani, Mahdiyeh. "Toward semiotics of Nastaliq calligraphy." In Persian Calligraphy. Routledge, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429264047-4.

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Meidani, Mahdiyeh. "Holliday’s triple metafunctions." In Persian Calligraphy. Routledge, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429264047-5.

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Meidani, Mahdiyeh. "Toward a distinct feature analysis." In Persian Calligraphy. Routledge, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429264047-6.

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Meidani, Mahdiyeh. "Conclusion." In Persian Calligraphy. Routledge, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429264047-7.

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"M. Calligraphy." In Arabic and Persian Manuscripts in the Birnbaum Collection, Toronto. BRILL, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004389670_015.

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Conference papers on the topic "Persian calligraphy"

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Mash'al, Mohamadreza, and J. Sadri. "Persian calligraphy using genetic algorithm." In 2013 First Iranian Conference on Pattern Recognition and Image Analysis (PRIA). IEEE, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/pria.2013.6528427.

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Boroujeni, M. M., and A. Meghdari. "Haptic Device Application in Persian Calligraphy." In 2009 International Conference on Computer and Automation Engineering. ICCAE 2009. IEEE, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/iccae.2009.55.

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Afshār, Īraj. "Persian manuscripts with special reference to Iran." In The Significance of Islamic Manuscripts. Al-Furqān Islamic Heritage Foundation, 1992. http://dx.doi.org/10.56656/100130.03.

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Before considering the work being done on Persian manuscripts and the places where they are kept, attention should first be focused upon two related topics. First, the place where the manuscripts were written. By looking at colophons where the place of origin is indicated, and in some cases, by assessing the style of the calligraphy, we discover that over a period of six or seven centuries, Persian manuscripts were written in all the lands where people either spoke Persian or were familiar With Persian literature. There are numerous Persian manuscripts which have been written in Arabic- speaking lands such as Syria, Iraq, and Egypt, and the European dominions of the Ottoman Empire, a number of which still remain in these countries. Moreover, the existence of Persian manuscripts in public libraries and private collections in India, Pakistan, and Turkey is an indication of the prevalence of the Persian language at the courts and at literary gatherings in those lands. The style of the calligraphy and illumination of these manuscripts was specific to these various regions, and one can distinguish them at a glance.
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