Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Pétrochimie'
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Shalileh, Manouchehr. "Les nouvelles règles de la concurrence dans la pétrochimie mondiale." Paris 13, 1985. http://www.theses.fr/1985PA131017.
Full textOmbé, Ndzana Vianney. "Capital, travail et travailleurs dans la pétrochimie camerounaise : cas de Sonara." Paris, EHESS, 1987. http://www.theses.fr/1987EHES0041.
Full textRovere, Renata Lèbre La. "Trajectoires de modernisation industrielle : une approche sectorielle." Paris 7, 1990. http://www.theses.fr/1990PA070094.
Full textThe thesis studies industrial modernization in brazil, adopting a sectoral approach which stems from a critical analysis of both the neo-shumpeterian theory of technical progress and the regulation theory. The concept of modernization trajectories is introduced and developed for the analysis of the industries studied, which are the petrochemicals industry, the vehicles industry and the leather -shoemaking industry. These industries were choosed on account of their different attributes concernign modernization determinants. The study provides elements to propose amodernization typology, which identifies three main kinds of modernization : negotiated, imposed and competitive
Blondiaux, Enguerrand. "Recyclage du CO2 : Une alternative à la pétrochimie pour la synthèse de molécules azotées." Thesis, Paris 11, 2015. http://www.theses.fr/2015PA112151/document.
Full textThe fossil carbon resources (oil, coal, gas) cover 85% of world energy portfolio and serve as raw materials for 95% of organic chemicals consumables (plastics, fertilizers, pesticides...). The decrease of oil resources and the accumulation of CO2 arising from their use thus pose environmental, energetic and availability of raw materials problems for the chemical industry. In this context, it is appropriate to propose new methods of chemical synthesis to build a sustainable industry based on the use of renewable carbon resources. Bypassing petrochemicals and valorize its carbon waste, CO2, to build molecular structures without energy purposes (polymers, fertilizers, synthetic textiles ...) represents a leading scientific challenge. From this perspective, new nitrogen molecules synthetic processes have been developed from CO2 as a carbon source, amines as nitrogen source and mild reductant such as hydrosilanes and hydroboranes as a hydrogen source. These processes are accelerated by the use of metal-free catalysts and enable the production of formamides, formamidines, aminals and methylamines, which are basic molecules of the chemical industry
Ngulube, Alimasi Dieudonné. "La pegmatite de Manono (Zaïre) et sa place dans la métallogénie kibarienne : pétrochimie et paléogéodynamique." Nancy 1, 1994. http://www.theses.fr/1994NAN10351.
Full textEl, Khorassani Houda (1971. "Caractérisation d'effluents industriels par spectrophotométrie ultraviolette appliquée à l'industrie pétrochimique." Aix-Marseille 1, 1998. http://www.theses.fr/1998AIX11090.
Full textMaradei-Garcia, Maria-Paola. "Modèle cinétique regroupé, basé sur la génération du réseau d'étapes élémentaires, du reformage catalytique régénératif." Poitiers, 2004. http://www.theses.fr/2004POIT2262.
Full textCatalytic reforming is one of the main processes in petrochemical refining. It allows to obtain gasolines with high octane number. In petrochemical industry, it is significant to be able to control the processes in order to obtain high quality products at an acceptable economic cost. The knowledge of chemical reactions implied in the process is the response to this industrial problem. This knowledge coupled with the interest to optimize the industrial process allows the good prediction of the yields and thus a better quality control ; therefore, the use of kinetic models is essential. The "single events" method allows to kinetic modeling of a process while taking into account the interaction between molecules ; therefore, the chemical reactions are defined like elementary steps by using the chemistry of the carbocations. The kinetic constants are defined as independent of the symmetry of the molecules implied in an unspecified reaction. The experimental data obtained from the heptan or octan isomers feeds allowed us to study, on one hand, the influence of the operating conditions on the yield and selectivity of the main products and, on another hand, to estimate the kinetic parameters of the model. Otherwise, we could determine the influence of the aromatic compounds in the feed on the catalyst activity and selectivity. This influence has been taken into account in the model by introducing an adsorption constant on the acid phase for those aromatic species, what had not been done previously
Vendeuvre, Colombe. "Analyse détaillée de coupes pétrolières par chromatographie en phase gazeuse multidimensionnelle." Paris 6, 2006. http://www.theses.fr/2006PA066096.
Full textBesson, Nicole. "Mises en oeuvre de réactions de craquage avec solides caloporteurs." Paris 6, 1989. http://www.theses.fr/1989PA066051.
Full textMa, Bufeng. "Epuration des eaux résiduaires de l'industrie pétrolière par hydrocyclonage : Mise au point d'un nouveau hydrocyclone triphasique." Toulouse, INSA, 1993. http://www.theses.fr/1993ISAT0011.
Full textRoques, Yves. "Caractérisation hydrodynamique d'un réacteur fluidisé ultra-rapide." Paris 6, 1994. http://www.theses.fr/1994PA066689.
Full textRoussel, Martial. "Hydrocraquage d'alcanes sur des systèmes catalytiques amorphes : étude des paramètres régissant l'activité et la sélectivité des catalyseurs." Poitiers, 2002. http://www.theses.fr/2002POIT2300.
Full textThe aim of this work was to develop catalysts allowing to transform selectively the vacuum distillates into gasoil. The catalysts used in this work were Ni and W sulfides supported on silica-alumina. Hydrocracking of vacuum distillates was modelized by the hydrocracking of n-decan. The acidic function played a very small role in the reaction scheme due to the weak acidity of the support. The main reaction observed was the isomerization of n-decan into monobranched isomers. Owing to the small importance of the bifunctional cracking reaction, a direct cracking reaction of n-decan was evidenced. This reaction took place on the hydro-dehydrogenating function, through abstraction of a proton by a basic sulfur atom. A NiW content half of the habitual one did not modify the activity and the selectivity of the catalyst. The unpromoted W/silica-alumina catalyst was as active as the promoted NiW/silica-alumina catalyst, produced more multibranched isomers and less cracking products
Chu, Pao-Ching. ""L'évolution des relations industrielles dans la transformation politique à Tai͏̈wan : le cas de l'industrie pétrochimique"." Paris, EHESS, 1996. http://www.theses.fr/1996EHES0095.
Full textThe frame of this research is about the period between the lifting of martial law in 1987 and the end of 1995, in which some grant social conflicts had happened, in ordre to observe with a new point of view the taiwanese society. Our problematic is that : why should we wait until the lifting of martial law to have these social conflicts happened in a society where there was few conflicts during 40 years ? what is the relation between these social conflicts and the political transform ? why these social conflicts disappeared graduelly after 1990 ? all these conflicts are treated in the frame of indutrial relations. Just like a. Touraine said, it is about "a historical action in the social field"-- social actors strike for the 'totality'. So, that is why we place these conflicts in the context of social relations. Besides, all the theories of industrial relations show us one thing : it is all included in a employer's thinking system. But, since the research of the strike appeared in the 50, social sciences consider more seriously the problem of strike and social mouvement. This correspond to what a. Touraine called a 'subjectivity'. But does the evolution of industrial relations in taiwan follow the same path ? that is to say a processus of subjectivity
Smaili, Farida. "Contribution de la simulation dynamique à la conception optimale des réseaux d'échangeurs de chaleur : application à un procédé industriel." Châtenay-Malabry, Ecole centrale de Paris, 1997. http://www.theses.fr/1997ECAP0657.
Full textChakraborty, Samayita. "Biovalorization of liquid and gaseous effluents of oil refinery and petrochemical industry." Thesis, Paris Est, 2019. http://www.theses.fr/2019PESC2036.
Full textLiquid effluents of oil refinery contain toxic selenium oxyanions and phenol, while gaseous effluents contain toxic CO/syngas. To remove the phenol and simultaneously reduce the selenite oxyanions, a fungal-bacterial co-culture of Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Delftia lacustris was developed. Two modes of co-cultures of the fungus and the bacterium were developed. The first being a freely growing bacterium and fungus (suspended growth co-culture), the second being the growth of the bacterial biomass encircling the fungal biomass (attached growth co-culture). Both types of fungal-bacterial co-cultures were incubated with varying concentrations of phenols with a fixed selenite concentration (10 mg/L). The suspended growth co-culture could degrade up to 800 mg/L of phenol and simultaneously reduce 10 mg/L of selenite with production of nano Se (0) having a minimum diameter of 3.58 nanometer. The attached growth co-culture could completely degrade 50 mg/L of phenol and simultaneously reduce selenite to nano Se(0) having a minimum diameter of 58.5 nm.In order to valorize the CO/syngas by bioconversion techniques an anaerobic methanogenic sludge was acclimatized to use CO as sole carbon substrate for a period of 46 days in a continuous stirred stank reactor, supplied with CO at 10 ml/min. 6.18 g/L acetic acid, 1.18 g/L butyric acid, and 0.423 g/L hexanoic acid were the highest concentrations of metabolites produced. Later, acids were metabolized at lower pH, producing alcohols at concentrations of 11.1 g/L ethanol, 1.8 g/L butanol and 1.46 g/L hexanol, confirming the successful enrichment strategy. The next experiment focused on the absence of trace element tungsten, and consecutively selenium on the previously CO acclimatized sludge under the same operating conditions. An in-situ synthesized co-polymeric gel of N-ter-butyl-acrylamide and acrylic acid was used to recover ethanol, propanol and butanol from a synthetic fermentation broth. The scope of repeated use of the gel for the alcohol recovery was investigated and every time approximately 98% alcohol was recovered
Sorbier, Loïc. "Apport de la simulation dans l'optimisation de l'analyse quantitative par microsonde électronique de catalyseurs hétérogènes." Montpellier 2, 2001. http://www.theses.fr/2001MON20180.
Full textPinheiro, Machado Denise Barcellos. "Le troisième pôle pétrochimique brésilien : étude de l'implantation industrielle et ses impacts sur le milieu local d'insertion." Paris 12, 1986. http://www.theses.fr/1986PA120020.
Full textThis work refers to the local insertion impacts of one major industrial implantation in southern brazil (the third brazilian petrochimical pole-projet created in 1976 and implanted by both federal and regional government in the 80's). The matter is to understand the relationships between industrial activity and urban environment passing through the state action - which at the same time is the planner and the manager. Hence, on the one hand we analyse the specific features of that undertaking : a) firstly, planning as a whole within the context as a national policys of industrial development; b) secondly, different power levels articulation (federal, regional and local instances) in both decision process, planning and projet execution; c) thirdly, the indus- trial activity particularities and the foreign exchanges required. On the other hand we study the characteristics of the local environment of this projet, but also the influences that one suffered by it. The research carried out showed that this industrial implantation brought positive effects in the federal level by its integration in the natio- nal industrial and economic system. This contrasts with negative effects and or difficulties brought to light at local level. Those constraints are the result of : firstly, the disarticulation between the different power spheres; secondly, of the politic, financial and technical local fragility; thirdly of local conditions to receive the specific indus- trial activity chosen. Besides the structural questions above mentioned we still find conjunctural problems inherent to the period of economic crisis. Therefore, it difficults the expected petrochimical complex growth and development. Urban planning is analysed in this specific case in order to estimate how a foreign planning process can be adequate to the city reality and local council possibilities of management
Harnafi, Tarik. "Revenus pétroliers, placements financiers et industrialisation dans les pays du Golfe : essai sur les choix économiques des régimes rentiers." Paris 10, 1989. http://www.theses.fr/1989PA100076.
Full textAccording to the main theory put forward in this essay, the arabian gulf countries have to create a development area extended to the whole arab world, in order to cope with conflicting economic choices. The economic structures of the gulf countries seem to be the pure type of unearned income economy. It is therefore important to analyse oil incomes and thier corollary : huge financial excesses which affect the banking structures and system and reinforce policies concerning industry. The present size of the industrial sector reflects the contradictions of development based on unearned incomes and the ambiguities of the policies implemented for 25 years. This means that the future of the arabian gulf economy depends upon their ability to coordinate their economic regional cooperation other than on their oil incomes
Parsafar, Saeed. "Les modèles de planification stratégique en contexte local relatifs aux nouveaux investissements et au développement de projets dans les industries iraniennes du pétrole, du gaz et de la pétrochimie." Bordeaux 4, 2010. http://www.theses.fr/2010BOR40019.
Full textRecognition of the strategic importance of project management we use a case study methodology to examine the aligning project management with business strategy in Iranian oil, gas and petrochemical projects. Regarding topics in the strategic and also project management literature, we start with theoretical framework of aligning project management with business strategy, those highlight the impact of business strategy on project management (and vice versa) and emphasis on the role of Project Management elements (e. G. , strategy, organization, process, tools, metrics, and culture), and then find that : 1 - Project management element acts as an interrelation balanced system in this reciprocal relation. 2 - In an Emergent stuck in the middle strategic situation, in addition to the project management elements, we have consider the role of management style, as an additional significant moderate variable in the framework. Multiple sources of data of interviews, document reviews, observations and focus group were utilized to triangulate information of our studies, covering 67 cases in 12 programs
Cervo, Hélène. "Development of a methodology enabling the identification of industrial symbiosis opportunities and their assessment in the petrochemical industry." Thesis, Aix-Marseille, 2020. http://www.theses.fr/2020AIXM0135.
Full textIndustrial symbiosis consists of dissimilar entities sharing and valorizing underutilised resources such as materials, energy, information, services, or technologies in view of increasing the industrial system’s circularity. However, despite all efforts and benefits brought by industrial symbiosis, barriers hindering a wide outreach of industrial symbiosis remain unsolved. This thesis targets one of the main barriers to industrial symbiosis: the lack of information sharing. The main research question can be expressed as follow: how to formalise and systematise the exchange of information between industrial partners to facilitate the identification and the assessment of new industrial symbiosis opportunities? The concept of blueprint is developed as a solution for the industry to enable different process sectors to overcome the burden of data confidentially and the challenge of sharing information. A blueprint is constituted of a series of profiles providing insights into key inputs and outputs of a given industry in terms of thermal and electrical energy, materials, and services. A methodology is presented, describing a step-by-step approach for defining the type of data required and for building the plant profiles. To demonstrate the feasibility of the method, it is applied to a typical refinery. Finally, a number of examples is given, demonstrating how blueprints of different process sectors can be combined and evidencing their ability to detect industrial symbiosis. Likewise, considerations are made on their limitations
Sarlon, Vincent. "Risques humains liés aux explosions pouvant survenir dans l'industrie pétro-chimique : application à une plateforme de la zone industrialo-portuaire de Dunkerque." Lille 2, 1992. http://www.theses.fr/1992LIL2M154.
Full textPonthus, Jérémie. "Exploration de la technique d' ionisation MAB (Metastable Atom Bombardment) dans le cadre de l' analyse de composés de l' industrie pétrochimique." Paris 6, 2005. http://www.theses.fr/2005PA066539.
Full textSaaidi, Ahmad Adham. "Modélisation de l’intensité lumineuse d'un plasma d'argon induit par haute fréquence en vue de l'inversion d'Abel." Lyon, INSA, 1986. http://www.theses.fr/1986ISAL0037.
Full textAissani, Nassima. "Pilotage adaptatif et réactif pour un système de production à flux continu : application à un système de production pétrochimique." Phd thesis, Valenciennes, 2010. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00553512.
Full textMechraoui, Salah-Eddine. "Étude et développement du contrôle par émission acoustique des phénomènes de corrosions et de fuites appliqué au stockage des produits pétroliers : cas des bacs de stockage." Compiègne, 2007. http://www.theses.fr/2007COMP1728.
Full textLn the petrochemical industry the storage tanks under operation are very often subjected to high mechanical stress, fatigue, aging and corrosion phenomena reducing their lifespan. These phenomena deteriorate these structures severely and lead generally to catastrophic leaks for nature and significant economic lasses. Therefore, the question of security and safety of such installations became a real priority and the monitoring with different non-destructive testing techniques (NDT) is necessity, such as the acoustic emission (AE). This innovative technique has major advantages in the detection of leaks and corrosion in storage tanks. It’s a global technique which can be applied on line without significant immobilization of the structure. However, to succeed a correct diagnosis, the mastery of this technique is very important for a good results interpretation. Lt is in this way that this thesis was realised. The main objective is to study and analyse separately, in the laboratory scale, the different phenomena sources of the AE in storage tanks such as : new corrosion, old corrosion and leaks. The new corrosion tests are realised on low carbon steel S235JR used in real crude oil manufacturing. The old corrosion tests have been carried out on real steel specimen cut from a real storage tank. Finally leaks are simulated on a S235JR mini-structure. Two type of data classification are used for the treatment : classification by a neural networks classification and a pattern recognition classification of AE events collected from laboratory tests. Based on these results, an approach to the industrial scale problem is proposed, applied and analysed
Hamrour, Abderrahmane. "L'industrie pétrochimique et le développement des pays exportateurs de pétrole membres de l'OPAEP." Dijon, 1991. http://www.theses.fr/1991DIJOE008.
Full textFayolle, Jean. "Validation de données et diagnostic des procédés industriels." Nancy 1, 1987. http://www.theses.fr/1987NAN10171.
Full textMacarie, Hervé. "Traitement anaérobie des effluents d'une usine pétrochimique produisant un composé aromatique, l'acide téréphtalique (acide benzène-1,4 dicarboxylique)." Aix-Marseille 1, 1992. http://www.theses.fr/1992AIX11006.
Full textUzoukwu, E. Emeka. "Le Secteur pétrochimique dans le concept de développement global du Nigéria : les branches d'applications : polypropylene - linear alkyle benzene - carbon black." Paris, EHESS, 1990. http://www.theses.fr/1990EHES0018.
Full textThe petrochemical instrutory of nigeria that we propose to analyse poresents certain number of specificitises which indeed motivated our research. The apprehension of these principal specificities were observed by analysing the existence of a section of petrochemical industry in the context of general development of nigeria through the theory of "inductible industries" (industrie motrices). But at the same time our studies reveals through its analysis that the historical development of nigeria presents limits of pertinents condition of this theory. Withen petrochemical industry itself, the major concept of calculation * of linkage and induction effect show corresponding application. * on the level of general development of nigeria, the concept of "inductibility" or "linkage" industires meet lots of handicorp in its methodological application, in the sense that the other other concept of the theory : that of "triangulation" does not have its objective correspondance in the strategic planing, by nigerian decision makers. Thus nigeria did not opte for this concept as to it's development, not for the fact that it does not have a modern administrative society, nor was it for the fact it's decision. .
Benali, Tahar. "Optimisation énergétique des procédés : application à la distillation atmosphérique du pétrole." Thesis, Université de Lorraine, 2012. http://www.theses.fr/2012LORR0085.
Full textThe objective of this thesis is to demonstrate, on thermodynamic grounds, that introducing a flash in the preheating train of an atmospheric oil distillation process , together with an appropriate feeding of the resulting vapors into the column, could potentially bring substantial energy savings by reducing the duty of the preheating furnace and by reducing the distillation column irreversibilities. This idea has been expended by showing how this can be done while keeping the throughput and the product characteristics unchanged. The outcome is that placing several flashes after the heat exchangers and feeding the corresponding vapor streams to the appropriate trays of the column, reduces the pumparound flows and then the heat brought to the preheating train. The resulting heat deficit may then be compensated in additional heat exchangers by using low level heat recuperated from the products of the distillation and/or imported from other processes. The use of this residual heat reduces the furnace duty by approximately an equivalent amount and could be as high as 21%. The approach can be applied in the design of news processes or in the revamping of existing ones
Buniazet, Zoé. "Vers une meilleure connaissance des propriétés acides des catalyseurs hétérogènes en présence d’eau : application à la déshydratation d’alcools biosourcés en oléfines." Thesis, Lyon, 2016. http://www.theses.fr/2016LYSE1217.
Full textThe use of biomass to obtain platforms molecules such as olefins for the polymer industry, require an adaptation of the catalysts already used in petrochemical processing for the conversion of highly hydrated compounds. During this project we developed a method for acid catalysts characterization in the presence of water and in reaction conditions. This method combines an analysis of catalytic properties by studying the effect of water on parameters such as contact time, temperature, or aging of the catalyst, but also of physicochemical properties in studying the structure and texture of spent catalysts and a study of the acid sites in the presence of water and temperature. The acid sites evolution of was measured by FTIR in situ under continuous flow of NH3 and H2O. The possible competition of adsorption between H2O and NH3 but also between H2O and the reactant were estimated by measuring the heat of adsorption of these species. Oxides of interest (SnO2 / SiO2, WO3/SiO2, TiO2/SiO2 and H4SiW12O40 / SiO 2) were synthesized. These oxides have been finely characterized, particularly in terms of their acidity (using four different probes molecules)
Caudal, Jean. "Simulation numérique du reformage autothermique du méthane." Phd thesis, Ecole Centrale Paris, 2013. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00862538.
Full textBoulhout, Mohammed. "Etude de l'adsorption de composés organiques sur des matériaux poreux de type Metal Organic Framework (MOF)." Thesis, Aix-Marseille, 2012. http://www.theses.fr/2012AIXM4824/document.
Full textIn order to meet the industrials requirements, new porous materials are tested for new applications or to improve existing processes. The Metal Organic Frameworks (MOFs) are hybrids crystalline compounds made up of clusters (or chains) of metal ions coordinated by organic linkers to form three dimensional structures. The ability to vary these two entities offers to MOFs a wide variety of organized structure with pore sizes controlled. The aim of this thesis was to evaluate the MOF performances for the adsorption of organic compounds and also understand the related adsorption mechanism. The two selected issues are of interest for the petrochemical industry. The para-xylène separation from the other xylene isomers (ortho, meta) and ethylbenzene, allows to meet the demand for raw materials in the polyethylene terephthalate (PET) synthesis. The nitrogen and sulphur compounds adsorption allows the purification of fuels (sulphur content set by legislation). We present a thermodynamic study of adsorption from solution based on the determination of adsorption isotherms by depletion method and adsorption enthalpies by microcalorimetry. The pure xylenes vapour adsorption was also studied to understand the solvent effect. A wide variety of behaviour has been observed depending on MOF structures. For example we demonstrated the effect of xylene isomers molecular packing on MOF selectivity. Furthermore we have shown that the MOF structure flexibility influence the interactions involved during xylene isomers adsorption. We also demonstrated that MOF with unsaturated metallic centres present selectivity for nitrogen compounds (Lewis acid/base)
Elia, Marc. "Etude de la stabilité thermique dans les réacteurs chimiques." Thesis, Aix-Marseille, 2013. http://www.theses.fr/2013AIXM4707/document.
Full textIn refining and petrochemistry process safety is a major issue. For highly exothermic processes it is necessary to ensure in a rigorous way the safe that the process operates in safe conditions, hence avoiding thermal runaway. The objective of this thesis was to develop a methodology to determine the operating conditions of reliable operation of chemical reactors. The methodology relies on stationary and dynamic analysis. The stationary stability analysis based on the Van Heerden criterion was generalized to complex chemical systems. The dynamic analysis applies the perturbation theory to definitely determine if a stationary point is stable according to eigenvalue analysis.The methodology was applied to ebullated-bed technology for residue hydroconversion at pilot and industrial scale. Two comprehensive dynamic models that accurately represent the ebullated-bed pilot plant and industrial process were developed for the study. The models take into account a detailed description of the reactive system and the configuration of the pilot and industrial plants: three phases, kinetics and flow characterization. A stationary and dynamic thermal stability analysis was carried out for both configurations and stable/unstable operating regions were identified. The study showed that the pilot plant reactor can operate in a larger domain of operating conditions compared to the industrial reactor while the parameters have the same effect on both reactors. The resulting reactor operation diagrams are a essential guide for engineers in the reactor design and operation practice
Ferrani, Farid. "Calculs couplés de transferts thermiques et de réactions physico-chimiques : application à l'encrassement des échangeurs." Paris 6, 1986. http://www.theses.fr/1986PA066110.
Full textMoisan, Annie. "Pétrochimie des grès de la formation de Bordeleau, Chibougamau, Québec." Thèse, 1992. http://constellation.uqac.ca/1457/1/1473201.pdf.
Full textVila, Freyer Ana Beatriz. "Protective Liberalization : the state and the Mexican petrochemical industry 1958-2000." Thèse, 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/1866/4245.
Full textCette thèse évalue et analyse la participation des acteurs sociaux et de l'État dans la transformation industrielle du Mexique. Alors que durant plusieurs décennies ces acteurs on été des partenaires stratégiques dans le développement de l’économie mexicaine, avec la crise de la dette de 1982 et spécialement suite à la réforme structurelle de 1986, le modèle de leur participation a changé. Néanmoins, ce changement a été plus limité que prévu et l‘État n‘a pas abandonné sa participation dans certains secteurs industrielles clés. Cette thèse démontre que le rôle de l’État n’a pas perdu de son importance pendant le transfert vers un paradigme du développement orienté vers l’exportation et que même si l ́État a continué à participer dans la structuration des relations sociales, cela c’est fait d’une nouvelle manière que l'on pourrait dénommer “libéralisation protective”.