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Journal articles on the topic 'Petroleum – Toxicology'

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Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 1 February 2022

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1

McKee, Richard H., Deborah Herron, Patrick Beatty, Paula Podhasky, Gary M. Hoffman, James Swigert, Carol Lee, and Diana Wong. "Toxicological Assessment of Green Petroleum Coke." International Journal of Toxicology 33, no. 1_suppl (October 31, 2013): 156S—167S. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1091581813504187.

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Green petroleum coke is primarily inorganic carbon with some entrained volatile hydrocarbon material. As part of the petroleum industry response to the high production volume challenge program, the potential for reproductive effects was assessed in a subchronic toxicity/reproductive toxicity screening test in rats (OECD 421). The repeated-dose portion of the study provided evidence for dust accumulation and inflammatory responses in rats exposed to 100 and 300 mg/m3 but there were no effects at 30 mg/m3. In the reproductive toxicity screen, the frequency of successful matings was reduced in the high exposure group (300 mg/m3) and was not significantly different from control values but was outside the historical experience of the laboratory. The postnatal observations (external macroscopic examination, body weight, and survival) did not indicate any treatment-related differences. Additional tests conducted to assess the potential hazards to aquatic (fish, invertebrates, and algae) and soil dwelling organisms (earthworms and vascular plants) showed few effects at the maximum loading rates of 1000 mg coke/L in aquatic studies and 1000 mg coke/kg soil in terrestrial studies. The only statistically significant finding was an inhibition of algal growth measured as either biomass or growth rate.

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2

McKee, Richard H., Deborah Herron, Mark Saperstein, Paula Podhasky, Gary M. Hoffman, and Linda Roberts. "The Toxicological Properties of Petroleum Gases." International Journal of Toxicology 33, no. 1_suppl (October 31, 2013): 28S—51S. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1091581813504225.

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To characterize the toxicological hazards of petroleum gases, 90-day inhalation toxicity (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD] 413) and developmental toxicity (OECD 414) tests were conducted with liquefied propane gas (LPG) at concentrations of 1000, 5000, or 10 000 ppm. A micronucleus test (OECD 474) of LPG was also conducted. No systemic or developmental effects were observed; the overall no observed adverse effect concentration (NOAEC) was 10 000 ppm. Further, there was no effect of LPG exposure at levels up to 10 000 ppm on micronucleus induction and no evidence of bone marrow toxicity. Other alkane gases (ethane, propane, n-butane, and isobutane) were then evaluated in combined repeated exposure studies with reproduction/development toxicity screening tests (OECD 422). There were no toxicologically important changes in parameters relating to systemic toxicity or neurotoxicity for any of these gases at concentrations ranging from 9000 to 16 000 ppm. There was no evidence of effects on developmental or reproductive toxicity in the studies of ethane, propane, or n-butane at the highest concentrations tested. However, there was a reduction in mating in the high-exposure group (9000 ppm) of the isobutane study, which although not significantly different was outside the range previously observed in the testing laboratory. Assuming the reduction in mating to have been toxicologically significant, the NOAEC for the isobutane reproductive toxicity screening test was 3000 ppm (7125 mg/m3). A method is proposed by which the toxicity of any of the 106 complex petroleum gas streams can be estimated from its composition.

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3

McKee, Richard H., and Russell White. "The Mammalian Toxicological Hazards of Petroleum-Derived Substances." International Journal of Toxicology 33, no. 1_suppl (December 18, 2013): 4S—16S. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1091581813514024.

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Petroleum-derived substances are complex and composed of aliphatic (normal-, iso-, and cycloparaffins), olefinic, and/or aromatic constituents. Approximately 400 of these complex substances were evaluated as part of the US Environmental Protection Agency voluntary High Production Volume (HPV) Challenge program. The substances were separated into 13 groups (categories), and all available data were assessed. Toxicology testing was conducted as necessary to fully address the end points encompassed by the HPV initiative. In a broad sense, volatile hydrocarbons may cause acute central nervous system effects, and those that are liquids at room temperature pose aspiration hazards if taken into the lungs as liquids and may also cause skin irritation. Higher boiling substances may contain polycyclic aromatic constituents (PACs) that can be mutagenic and carcinogenic and may also cause developmental effects. Substances containing PACs can also cause target organ and developmental effects. The effects of aliphatic constituents include liver enlargement and/or renal effects in male rats via an α-2u-globulin-mediated process and, in some cases, small but statistically significant reductions in hematological parameters. Crude oils may contain other constituents, particularly sulfur- and nitrogen-containing compounds, which are removed during refining. Aside from these more generic considerations, some specific petroleum substances may contain unusually toxic constituents including benzene, 1,3-butadiene, and/or n-hexane, which should also be taken into account if present at toxicologically relevant levels.

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4

Sadurska, B., W. Zieliński, E. Skalska-Hilgier, B. Tudek, M. Szczypka, and T. Szymczyk. "Urine mutagenicity of petroleum plant workers." Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology 224, no. 2 (October 1989): 147–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0165-1218(89)90149-3.

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5

Lalchev, S., E. Mirkova, and T. Lozanova. "Cytogenetic biomonitoring of petroleum industry workers." Mutation Research/Environmental Mutagenesis and Related Subjects 216, no. 5 (October 1989): 317. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0165-1161(89)90170-2.

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6

Martone, J. A. "USAF Toxicology Research on Petroleum and Shale-Derived Aviation Gas Turbine Fuels." Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 108, no. 2 (April 1, 1986): 387–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.3239916.

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As one of the nation’s largest users of aircraft turbine fuels, the USAF has interest in assuring the safe use of these hydrocarbons by its military and civilian workers. This concern stimulated research to define potential adverse health effects and develop criteria for safe exposure limits for military aviation fuels. The first inhalation exposure to JP-4, the primary fuel used in USAF aircraft, was conducted in 1973. Since this initial subchronic study, the USAF has conducted numerous subchronic and one-year oncogenic inhalation studies to establish health criteria for aviation fuels. This paper summarizes the status of studies to define the toxicity of petroleum and shale-derived aircraft turbine engine fuels and discusses the preliminary findings of toxic nephropathy and primary renal tumors observed in male Fischer 344 rats.

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7

BRODDLE, WILLIAM D., MICHAEL W. DENNIS, DONALD N. KITCHEN, and EDMOND H. VERNOT. "Chronic Dermal Studies of Petroleum Streams in Mice." Toxicological Sciences 30, no. 1 (1996): 47–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/30.1.47.

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8

Broddle, W. "Chronic Dermal Studies of Petroleum Streams in Mice." Fundamental and Applied Toxicology 30, no. 1 (March 1996): 47–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/faat.1996.0042.

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9

Broje, Victoria, Will Gala, Tim Nedwed, and Joe Twomey. "A Consensus on the State of the Knowledge and Research Recommendations on the Fate and Effects of Deep Water Releases of Oil, Dispersants and Dispersed Oil." International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings 2014, no. 1 (May 1, 2014): 225–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.7901/2169-3358-2014.1.225.

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ABSTRACT American Petroleum Institute (API) and its member companies have initiated a multi-year research program to generate information that can be used in subsea dispersant application decision-making. An important part of this program is the evaluation of biodegradation and toxicity of oil, dispersants and dispersed oil in a deepwater environment. The available scientific literature was reviewed by a panel of international experts in deepwater ecology, toxicology, microbiology, and petroleum chemistry, who summarized the state of the knowledge on these topics and recommended additional studies that would inform subsea dispersants decision-making. The recommended research projects have been funded by API. This paper summarizes findings to-date on toxicity and biodegradation of oil, dispersants and dispersed oil in deep water environments.

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10

Ruberg, Elizabeth J., Tony D. Williams, and John E. Elliott. "Review of petroleum toxicity in marine reptiles." Ecotoxicology 30, no. 4 (March 16, 2021): 525–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10646-021-02359-9.

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AbstractWorldwide petroleum exploration and transportation continue to impact the health of the marine environment through both catastrophic and chronic spillage. Of the impacted fauna, marine reptiles are often overlooked. While marine reptiles are sensitive to xenobiotics, there is a paucity of petroleum toxicity data for these specialized fauna in peer reviewed literature. Here we review the known impacts of petroleum spillage to marine reptiles, specifically to marine turtles and iguanas with an emphasis on physiology and fitness related toxicological effects. Secondly, we recommend standardized toxicity testing on surrogate species to elucidate the mechanisms by which petroleum related mortalities occur in the field following catastrophic spillage and to better link physiological and fitness related endpoints. Finally, we propose that marine reptiles could serve as sentinel species for marine ecosystem monitoring in the case of petroleum spillage. Comprehensive petroleum toxicity data on marine reptiles is needed in order to serve as a foundation for future research with newer, unconventional crude oils of unknown toxicity such as diluted bitumen.

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11

Biles, R. W., R. H. McKee, S. C. Lewis, R. A. Scala, and L. R. DePass. "Dermal carcinogenic activity of petroleum-derived middle distillate fuels." Toxicology 53, no. 2-3 (December 1988): 301–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0300-483x(88)90222-3.

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12

Clark, Charles R., Paul W. Ferguson, Mark A. Katchen, Michael W. Dennis, and Douglas K. Craig. "Comparative Acute Toxicity of Shale and Petroleum Derived Distillates." Toxicology and Industrial Health 5, no. 6 (December 1985): 1005–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/074823378900500608.

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In anticipation of the commercialization of its shale oil retorting and upgrading process, Unocal Corp. conducted a testing program aimed at better defining potential health impacts of a shale industry. Acute toxicity studies using rats and rabbits compared the effects of naphtha, Jet-A, JP-4, diesel and “residual” distillate fractions of both petroleum derived crude oils and hydrotreated shale oil. No differences in the acute oral (> 5 g/kg LD50) and dermal (> 2 g/kg LD50) toxicities were noted between the shale and petroleum derived distillates and none of the samples were more than mildly irritating to the eyes. Shale and petroleum products caused similar degrees of mild to moderate skin irritation. None of the materials produced sensitization reactions. The LC50 after acute inhalation exposure to Jet-A, shale naphtha, (> 5 mg/L) and JP-4 distillate fractions of petroleum and shale oils was greater than 5 mg/L. The LC50 of petroleum naphtha (> 4.8 mg/L) and raw shale oil (> 3.95 mg/L) also indicated low toxicity. Results demonstrate that shale oil products are of low acute toxicity, mild to moderately irritating and similar to their petroleum counterparts. The results further demonstrate that hydrotreatment reduces the irritancy of raw shale oil.

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13

Dalbey, Walden E., Richard H. McKee, Katy Olsavsky Goyak, Jeffrey H. Charlap, Craig Parker, and Russell White. "Subchronic and Developmental Toxicity of Aromatic Extracts." International Journal of Toxicology 33, no. 1_suppl (January 2014): 136S—155S. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1091581813517724.

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Aromatic extracts (AEs; distillate AEs [DAEs] and residual AEs [RAEs]) are complex, highly viscous liquid petroleum streams with variable compositions derived by extraction of aromatic compounds from distillate and residual petroleum fractions from a vacuum distillation tower, respectively. The DAEs generally contain significant amounts of polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) and are carcinogenic. The RAEs typically contain lower concentrations of biologically active PACs. The PACs in refinery streams can cause effects in repeated-dose and developmental toxicity studies. In a 13-week dermal study, light paraffinic DAE had several dose-related effects involving multiple organs; no-observed-effect level was <5 mg/kg/d, with no overt toxicity. Predicted dose-responses at 10% (PDR10s), modeled doses causing a 10% effect on sensitive end points based on PAC content, ranged from 25 to 78 mg/kg/d for untested paraffinic DAEs. The no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) for developmental toxicity for light paraffinic DAE was 5 mg/kg/d. Statistically significant developmental effects at higher doses were associated with maternal effects. The PDR10s for developmental toxicity of paraffinic DAEs ranged from 7 to >2000 mg/kg/d, reflecting differences due to variation in PACs. The NOAELs for RAEs were 500 mg/kg for 90-day studies and 2000 mg/kg for developmental toxicity. Reproductive toxicity is not considered to be a sensitive end point for AEs based on the toxicity tests with DAEs, RAEs, and other PAC-containing petroleum substances. In vivo micronucleus tests on heavy paraffinic DAE, RAEs, and a range of other petroleum substances have been negative. The exception to this general trend was a marginally positive response with light paraffinic DAE. Most DAEs are considered unlikely to produce chromosomal effects in vivo.

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14

Ruberg, E. J., J. E. Elliott, and T. D. Williams. "Review of petroleum toxicity and identifying common endpoints for future research on diluted bitumen toxicity in marine mammals." Ecotoxicology 30, no. 4 (March 24, 2021): 537–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10646-021-02373-x.

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AbstractLarge volumes of conventional crude oil continue to be shipped by sea from production to consumption areas across the globe. In addition, unconventional petroleum products also transverse pelagic habitats; for example, diluted bitumen from Canada’s oilsands which is shipped along the Pacific coast to the United States and Asia. Therefore, there is a continuing need to assess the toxicological consequences of chronic and catastrophic petroleum spillage on marine wildlife. Peer-reviewed literature on the toxicity of unconventional petroleum such as diluted bitumen exists for teleost fish, but not for fauna such as marine mammals. In order to inform research needs for unconventional petroleum toxicity we conducted a comprehensive literature review of conventional petroleum toxicity on marine mammals. The common endpoints observed in conventional crude oil exposures and oil spills include hematological injury, modulation of immune function and organ weight, genotoxicity, eye irritation, neurotoxicity, lung disease, adrenal dysfunction, metabolic and clinical abnormalities related to oiling of the pelage, behavioural impacts, decreased reproductive success, mortality, and population-level declines. Based on our findings and the body of literature we accessed, our recommendations for future research include: 1) improved baseline data on PAH and metals exposure in marine mammals, 2) improved pre- and post-spill data on marine mammal populations, 3) the use of surrogate mammalian models for petroleum toxicity testing, and 4) the need for empirical data on the toxicity of unconventional petroleum to marine mammals.

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15

Gupta, V. K., P. K. Jain, R. K. Gaur, M. Lowry, D. P. Jaroli, and U. K. Chauhan. "Bioremediation of Petroleum oil Contaminated Soil and Water." Research Journal of Environmental Toxicology 5, no. 1 (January 1, 2011): 1–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.3923/rjet.2011.1.26.

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16

McKee, Richard H., Ceinwen A. Schreiner, Mark J. Nicolich, and Thomas M. Gray. "Genetic toxicity of high-boiling petroleum substances." Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 67, no. 2 (November 2013): S75—S85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2013.05.004.

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17

Toshio, Kawai, Yamaoka Kazutoshi, Uchida Yoko, and Ikeda Masayuki. "Benzene exposure in a Japanese petroleum refinery." Toxicology Letters 52, no. 2 (July 1990): 135–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-4274(90)90147-e.

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18

Okoro, Israel O. "Effects of Extraction Solvents on the Antioxidant and Phytochemical Activities of Manihot Esculenta Leaves." Iranian Journal of Toxicology 14, no. 1 (January 10, 2020): 51–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.32598/ijt.14.1.51.

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Background: Plants contain diverse phytochemicals with different solubility levels, depending on their molecular charges and polarity. This study was conducted to examine the effects of three extraction solvents in their pure and aqueous forms: absolute petroleum ether, acetone and ethanol on the phytochemical profile and antioxidant activities of Manihot esculenta leaves extracts. Methods: The preliminary phytochemical investigations were performed, using standard procedures. The in vitro antioxidant properties were estimated by: 1,1-Diphenyl-2-Picryl-Hydrazyl (DPPH), Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) scavenging activity, Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) and Ferric Thiocyanate (FTC). Results: The phytochemical analyses revealed the occurrence of an array of compounds: alkaloids, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, tannin phenols, saponins and anthraquinones, the concentration of which varied with the solvent type. A considerable presence of all phytochemicals was found in the aqueous ethanol. The extracts from pure solvents were much less effective against DPPH synthetic radical than those 50% diluted. The petroleum ether extract provided the least antiradical activity, while the aqueous ethanol was the richest. The scavenging effect of the extracts on H2O2 varied in this order: 50% ethanol > absolute ethanol > ascorbic acid > 50% acetone > absolute acetone > 50% petroleum ether > absolute petroleum ether. Similarly, the results of the FRAP and FTC methods agreed largely with those of the DPPH and H2O2. Thus, the results of antioxidant activity positively correlated with the phytochemical results, with the aqueous ethanol showing the maximum activity overall. Conclusion: The results indicated that the extraction solvents considerably affected the phytochemical contents and the antioxidant activities of the tested extracts. These extracts can potentially serve as the alternative sources of natural antioxidant preparations.

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19

Wernersson, Ann-Sofie. "Predicting petroleum phototoxicity." Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 54, no. 3 (March 2003): 355–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0147-6513(02)00083-0.

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20

Jongeneelen, Frans, Rob Anzion, Jack Theuws, and Robert Bos. "Urinary 1-hydroxypyrene levels in workers handling petroleum coke." Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A 26, no. 1 (January 1989): 133–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15287398909531238.

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21

Akhmadeyeva, E. N. "Health of newborns of workers in the petroleum-chemical industries." Reproductive Toxicology 7, no. 5 (September 1993): 491–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0890-6238(93)90107-i.

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22

Seymour, F. K., and J. A. Henry. "Assessment and management of acute poisoning by petroleum products." Human & Experimental Toxicology 20, no. 11 (November 2001): 551–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1191/096032701718620918.

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Petroleum products are highly complex chemical mixtures consisting predominantly of hydrocarbons. Their composition varies with source and intended use of the product. Virtually all are blended products that come into contact with man in a wide range of circumstances. Their toxicity for man is generally low and the use of additives rarely affects the toxicity of the final product. Because products are blended to meet performance, and not chemical specifications, their composition varies significantly. Management of toxicity benefits from simplified guidelines that consider the product by its type. Management in most cases is symptomatic, but the doctor needs to be aware of the potential for development of sequelae such as aspiration pneumonia and central nervous system (CNS) depression. Local and systemic effects of exposure to hydrocarbons are reviewed, as are immediate assessment and recommended management of acute exposure to petroleum products. Because of the large scope of this subject, this paper limits itself to acute toxicity of petroleum products encountered inthe public domain. It does not address topics such as chronic toxicity, solvent abuse, petrochemicals, or pesticides.

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23

Eisman, Mary Pat, S. Landon-Arnold, and C. M. Swindoll. "Determination of petroleum hydrocarbon toxicity with Microtox®." Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 47, no. 6 (December 1991): 811–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01689508.

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24

Shriadah, M. A. "Petroleum Hydrocarbon Concentrations in Arabian Gulf Fish Tissues." Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 67, no. 4 (October 16, 2001): 560–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s001280160.

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25

Oke, Samson Adeleke. "ALTERNATIVE DESIGNS FOR PETROLEUM PRODUCT STORAGE TANKS FOR GROUNDWATER PROTECTION." Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A 67, no. 20-22 (October 2004): 1717–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15287390490492304.

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26

Henry, John A. "Composition and toxicity of petroleum products and their additives." Human & Experimental Toxicology 17, no. 2 (February 1998): 111–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/096032719801700206.

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1 All petroleum based products are highly complex chemical mixtures. Although almost exclusively composed of hydrocarbons, the composition varies with the crude oil source. 2 Their toxicity for man is generally low but there are exceptions. Although irritancy and sensitization to specific ingredients may be demonstrated in animals, animal experiments are not a reliable indicator of sensitization potential in man. 3 Both product complexity and commercial considerations can make acceptable and meaningful compositional disclosures difficult. A nomenclature system exists which solves these problems. 4 Frame formulations would have some value to poisons centres dealing with petroleum product enquiries. 5 As legislation for the European Union is developed, the balance must be reached between disclosure of the (often confidential) precise chemical composition of products and a practical and useful composition for the guidance of users and medical personnel. This is a key issue with some petroleum products, mainly due to the additives used in them. 6 For several reasons, such as climatic conditions or logistics of supply, the various components, including additives, used in a branded product may vary because the final product composition is determined not by chemistry but by performance in service. 7 Lubricants may contain between 10 and 20% of additives; fuels contain additives only at parts per million levels. However, for both fuels and lubricants, toxicity from additives is rarely a matter of concern.

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27

Kinkead, E. R., R. E. Wolfe, and S. A. Salins. "Acute Irritation and Sensitization Potential of Petroleum-Derived Diesel Fuel Marine." Journal of the American College of Toxicology 11, no. 6 (November 1992): 703. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/10915819209142096.

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28

GERHART, J. M., N. S. HATOUM, C. A. HALDER, T. M. WARNE, and S. L. SCHMITT. "Tumor Initiation and Promotion Effects of Petroleum Streams in Mouse Skin." Toxicological Sciences 11, no. 1 (1988): 76–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/11.1.76.

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29

Onyije, Felix M., Bayan Hosseini, Kayo Togawa, Joachim Schüz, and Ann Olsson. "Cancer Incidence and Mortality among Petroleum Industry Workers and Residents Living in Oil Producing Communities: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 8 (April 20, 2021): 4343. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18084343.

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Petroleum extraction and refining are major sources of various occupational exposures and of air pollution and may therefore contribute to the global cancer burden. This systematic review and meta-analysis is aimed at evaluating the cancer risk in petroleum-exposed workers and in residents living near petroleum facilities. Relevant studies were identified and retrieved through PubMed and Web of Science databases. Summary effect size (ES) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were analysed using random effect models, and heterogeneity across studies was assessed (I2). Overall, petroleum industry work was associated with an increased risk of mesothelioma (ES = 2.09, CI: 1.58–2.76), skin melanoma (ES = 1.34, CI: 1.06–1.70 multiple myeloma (ES =1.81, CI: 1.28–2.55), and cancers of the prostate (ES = 1.13, Cl: 1.05–1.22) and urinary bladder (ES = 1.25, CI: 1.09–1.43) and a decreased risk of cancers of the esophagus, stomach, colon, rectum, and pancreas. Offshore petroleum work was associated with an increased risk of lung cancer (ES = 1.20; 95% CI: 1.03–1.39) and leukemia (ES = 1.47; 95% CI: 1.12–1.92) in stratified analysis. Residential proximity to petroleum facilities was associated with childhood leukemia (ES = 1.90, CI: 1.34–2.70). Very few studies examined specific exposures among petroleum industry workers or residents living in oil producing communities. The present review warrants further studies on specific exposure levels and pathways among petroleum-exposed workers and residents living near petroleum facilities.

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30

Li, Xingchun, Wei He, Meijin Du, Jin Zheng, Xianyuan Du, and Yu Li. "Design of a Microbial Remediation Inoculation Program for Petroleum Hydrocarbon Contaminated Sites Based on Degradation Pathways." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 16 (August 20, 2021): 8794. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168794.

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This paper analyzed the degradation pathways of petroleum hydrocarbon degradation bacteria, screened the main degradation pathways, and found the petroleum hydrocarbon degradation enzymes corresponding to each step of the degradation pathway. Through the Copeland method, the best inoculation program of petroleum hydrocarbon degradation bacteria in a polluted site was selected as follows: single oxygenation path was dominated by Streptomyces avermitilis, hydroxylation path was dominated by Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b, secondary oxygenation path was dominated by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, secondary hydroxylation path was dominated by Methylococcus capsulatus, double oxygenation path was dominated by Acinetobacter baylyi ADP1, hydrolysis path was dominated by Rhodococcus erythropolis, and CoA path was dominated by Geobacter metallireducens GS-15 to repair petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated sites. The Copeland method score for this solution is 22, which is the highest among the 375 solutions designed in this paper, indicating that it has the best degradation effect. Meanwhile, we verified its effect by the Cdocker method, and the Cdocker energy of this solution is −285.811 kcal/mol, which has the highest absolute value. Among the inoculation programs of the top 13 petroleum hydrocarbon degradation bacteria, the effect of the best inoculation program of petroleum hydrocarbon degradation bacteria was 18% higher than that of the 13th group, verifying that this solution has the best overall degradation effect. The inoculation program of petroleum hydrocarbon degradation bacteria designed in this paper considered the main pathways of petroleum hydrocarbon pollutant degradation, especially highlighting the degradability of petroleum hydrocarbon intermediate degradation products, and enriching the theoretical program of microbial remediation of petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated sites.

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31

Henry, J. A. "Composition and toxicity of petroleum products and their additives." Human & Experimental Toxicology 17, no. 2 (February 1, 1998): 111–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1191/096032798678908350.

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32

Luo, Yu-Syuan, Kyle C. Ferguson, Ivan Rusyn, and Weihsueh A. Chiu. "In Vitro Bioavailability of the Hydrocarbon Fractions of Dimethyl Sulfoxide Extracts of Petroleum Substances." Toxicological Sciences 174, no. 2 (February 10, 2020): 168–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfaa007.

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Abstract Determining the in vitro bioavailable concentration is a critical, yet unmet need to refine in vitro-to-in vivo extrapolation for unknown or variable composition, complex reaction product or biological material (UVCB) substances. UVCBs such as petroleum substances are commonly subjected to dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) extraction in order to retrieve the bioactive polycyclic aromatic compound (PAC) portion for in vitro testing. In addition to DMSO extraction, protein binding in cell culture media and dilution can all influence in vitro bioavailable concentrations of aliphatic and aromatic compounds in petroleum substances. However, these in vitro factors have not been fully characterized. In this study, we aimed to fill in these data gaps by characterizing the effects of these processes using both a defined mixture of analytical standards containing aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, as well as 4 refined petroleum products as prototypical examples of UVCBs. Each substance was extracted with DMSO, and the protein binding in cell culture media was measured by using solid-phase microextraction. Semiquantitative analysis for aliphatic and aromatic compounds was achieved via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Our results showed that DMSO selectively extracted PACs from test substances, and that chemical profiles of PACs across molecular classes remained consistent after extraction. With respect to protein binding, chemical profiles were retained at a lower dilution (higher concentration), but a greater dilution factor (ie, lower concentration) resulted in higher protein binding in cell medium, which in turn altered the ultimate chemical profile of bioavailable PACs. Overall, this case study demonstrates that extraction procedures, protein binding in cell culture media, and dilution factors prior to in vitro testing can all contribute to determining the final bioavailable concentrations of bioactive constituents of UVCBs in vitro. Thus, in vitro-to-in vivo extrapolation for UVCBs may require greater attention to the concentration-dependent and compound-specific differences in recovery and bioavailability.

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33

Kinkead, E. R., S. A. Salins, and R. E. Wolfe. "Acuta Irritation and Sensitization Potential of Petroleum-Derived Jp-4 Jet Fuel." Journal of the American College of Toxicology 11, no. 6 (November 1992): 699. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/10915819209142092.

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Kinkead, E. R., R. E. Wolfe, and S. A. Salins. "Acute Irritation and Sensitization Potential of Petroleum-Derived JP-5 Jet Fuel." Journal of the American College of Toxicology 11, no. 6 (November 1992): 706. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/10915819209142099.

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Kinkead, E. R., R. E. Wolfe, and S. A. Salins. "Acute Oral and Inhalation Toxicity of Petroleum-Derived JP-4 Jet Fuel." Journal of the American College of Toxicology 12, no. 6 (November 1993): 635. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/10915819309142062.

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Kinkead, E. R., R. E. Wolfe, and S. A. Salins. "Acute Oral and Inhalation Toxicity of Petroleum-Derived JP-4 Jet Fuel." Journal of the American College of Toxicology 12, no. 6 (November 1993): 635. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/109158189301200656.

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GERHART, J. "Tumor initiation and promotion effects of petroleum streams in mouse skin*1." Fundamental and Applied Toxicology 11, no. 1 (July 1988): 76–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0272-0590(88)90272-2.

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Kim, Yang Jee, Yoon Hee Cho, Domyung Paek, and Hai Won Chung. "DETERMINaTION OF CHROMOSOME ABERRATIONS IN WORKERS IN A PETROLEUM REFINING FACTORY." Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A 67, no. 23-24 (December 2004): 1915–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15287390490513319.

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Hewstone, R. K. "Environmental health aspects of additives for the petroleum industry." Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 5, no. 3 (September 1985): 284–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0273-2300(85)90043-1.

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Hutcheson, Michael S., Dana Pedersen, Nicholas D. Anastas, John Fitzgerald, and Diane Silverman. "Beyond TPH: Health-Based Evaluation of Petroleum Hydrocarbon Exposures." Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 24, no. 1 (August 1996): 85–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/rtph.1996.0066.

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Metcalfe, C. D., R. A. Sonstegard, and M. A. Quilliam. "Genotoxic activity of particulate material in petroleum refinery effluents." Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 35, no. 1 (July 1985): 240–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01636505.

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Al-Hassan, J. M., M. Afzal, C. V. N. Rao, and S. Fayad. "Petroleum Hydrocarbon Pollution in Sharks in the Arabian Gulf." Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 65, no. 3 (September 1, 2000): 391–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s001280000140.

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Hunt, Lillian J., Daiana Duca, Tereza Dan, and Loren D. Knopper. "Petroleum hydrocarbon (PHC) uptake in plants: A literature review." Environmental Pollution 245 (February 2019): 472–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.11.012.

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Kuehn, Ronald L., K. Darrell Berlin, William E. Hawkins, and Gary K. Ostrander. "Relationships among petroleum refining, water and sediment contamination, and fish health." Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 46, no. 1 (September 1995): 101–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15287399509532020.

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Kuromoto, M., R. Nakagawa, K. Horikawa, and H. Tokiwa. "Identification of mutagens generated from gas- and liquefied-petroleum gas burners." Mutation Research/Environmental Mutagenesis and Related Subjects 147, no. 5 (October 1985): 263. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0165-1161(85)90087-1.

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Twerdok, Lorraine E. "Development of Toxicity Criteria for Petroleum Hydrocarbon Fractions in the Petroleum Hydrocarbon Criteria Working Group Approach for Risk-Based Management of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Soil." Drug and Chemical Toxicology 22, no. 1 (January 1999): 275–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/01480549909029736.

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WITSCHI, H. P., L. H. SMITH, E. L. FROME, M. E. PEQUET-GOAD, W. H. GRIEST, C. H. HO, and M. R. GUERIN. "Skin Tumorigenic Potential of Crude and Refined Coal Liquids and Analogous Petroleum Products." Toxicological Sciences 9, no. 2 (1987): 297–303. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/9.2.297.

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Cevoli, Chiara, Emiliano Basso, Antonella Testa, Maddalena Papacchini, Giovanna Tranfo, Antonella Mansi, Matteo Vitali, and Giuseppina Ines Togna. "Cytogenetic monitoring of occupationally exposed workers in a petroleum refinery." Toxicology Letters 180 (October 2008): S195. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2008.06.212.

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Vrabie, C. M., A. J. Murk, H. van den Berg, and M. T. O. Jonker. "Specific in vitro toxicity of crude and refined petroleum products." Chemico-Biological Interactions 169, no. 2 (August 2007): 142. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cbi.2007.06.027.

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Jørgensen, K. S., J. Puustinen, and A. M. Suortti. "Bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon-contaminated soil by composting in biopiles." Environmental Pollution 107, no. 2 (February 2000): 245–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0269-7491(99)00144-x.

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