Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Pharmaceutical chemistry – Research'

This thesis is a study of research linkage between industry and academia. It concentrates on the industrial side of these interactions and, in particular, the impact of information flows from academia industrial innovation. Specifically, the study explores the proposition that linkage varies - in extent and nature according to the stage of development of the research field involved. A review of the literature suggested that linkage should be particularly strong in a nascent technology, such as that unfolding currently in biotechnology. The field study involved face-to-face interviews with industrial researchers from UK pharmaceutical companies and from new start-up companies. It was designed in order to ascertain the relative strength of linkages in the new biotechnology; to characterize these linkages; and to explore how they might change as the technology develops. It is ~emonstrated that linkage is indeed strong here, involving lntensive 'search' activities and often substantial formal collaboration with academia. The background material collected - concerning the role of linkage in innovation and in corporate strategies for biotechnology confirm that companies are obliged to 'plug in' to academic research precisely because 'of the dynamism and uncertainty which characterizes a new technological field. It is argued that those pharmaceutical companies which are interacting most with academic research are also those which are most likely to succeed commercially with the new techniques. The start-up companies in biotechnology are shown to have extremely close links with both academia and the large established companies active in the field. It is argued that the very presence of such companies is itself symptomatic of the proximity of academic science and industrial technology in this new field. In conclusion, it is suggested that the pattern of linkage found in biotechnology may well ~ertain in other new science-based fields; some policy lmplications are discussed.

Imaging of biomolecules in biological substrates by mass spectrometry or spectroscopic imaging techniques plays a major role in biomedical, clinical, and pharmaceutical research. The work presented in this thesis investigates the capabilities of three imaging techniques, liquid extraction surface analysis (LESA) mass spectrometry imaging (MSI), matrix assisted laser desorption ionisation (MALDI) MSI and stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy. A method for combined LESA and MALDI analysis was developed and results provided high resolution imaging of multiple analyte classes (proteins, lipids and small molecule drugs) in thin tissue sections. SRS microscopy was used for the quantitative imaging of MALDI sampling effects and sample preparation, providing insight into fundamental processes of MALDI MS. Multimodal SRS, LESA and MALDI imaging was executed on a single tissue sample revealing the complementarity between the three approaches. Specific challenges for LESA were further explored, namely quantification, improved spatial resolution and alternative biological substrates. A quantitative LESA method based on the production of mimetic tissue models containing stable isotope-labelled proteins was developed. An alternative platform, the Flow-Probe™, with the potential to achieve higher spatial resolution was assessed. Finally, a LESA method for the direct analysis of proteins from live bacterial colonies was developed.

This thesis presents the development of chlorophyll, cholic acid, aflatoxin B1 molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) particles and cholic acid MIP nanofibers for application as selective solid phase extraction (SPE) sorbents. The particles were prepared by bulk polymerization and the nanofibers by a novel approach combining molecular imprinting and electrospinning technology. The AFB1 MIP particles were compared with an aflatoxin specific immunoextraction sorbent in cleaning-up and pre-concentrating aflatoxins from nut extracts. They both recorded high extraction efficiencies (EEs) of > 97 % in selectively extracting the aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2). High reproducibility marked by the low %RSDs of < 1% and low LODs of ≤ 0.02 ng/g were calculated in all cases. The LODs were within the monitoring requirements of the European Commission. The results were validated with a peanut butter certified reference material. The chlorophyll MIP on the other hand selectively removed chlorophyll that would otherwise interfere during pesticide residue analysis (PRA) from > 0.6 to <0.09 Au in green plants extracts. The extracted chlorophyll was removed to far below the level of ≥ 0.399 Au that is usually associated with interference during PRA. Furthermore, the MIP demonstrated better selectivity by removing only chlorophyll (> 99%) in the presence of planar pesticides than the currently employed graphitized carbon black (GCB) that removed both the chlorophyll (> 88%) and planar pesticides (> 89%). For the interfering cholic acid during drug residue analysis, cholic acid MIP electrospun nanofibers demonstrated to be more sensitive and possessing higher loading capacity than the MIP particles. 100% cholic acid was removed by the nanofibers from standard solutions relative to 80% by the particles. This showed that the nanofibers have better performance than the micro particles and as such have potential to replace the particle based SPE sorbents that are currently in use. All the templates were optimally removed from the prepared MIPs by employing a novel pressurized hot water extraction template removal method that was used for the first time in this thesis. The method employed only water, an environmentally friendly solvent to remove templates to ≥ 99.6% with template residual bleeding of ≤ 0.02%.

The main objective of this work was to develop Poloxamer 407 (Pluronic F127)-based formulations for controlled ocular delivery of pilocarpine as a model drug. Various additives such as polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinylpyrrolidone, methylcellulose (MC) and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), were incorporated into formulations containing 25% PF127, 1% pilocarpine hydrochloride (PHCL) alone or containing one of the additives. The release of PHCL from the PF127 formulations and the dissolution profile of the formulations are obtained simultaneously at RT and 34°C. The formulations with 25% PF127, 1% PHCL and either 5% MC or 3% HPMC showed the slowest dissolution and also released the drug the slowest of the formulations evaluated in vitro. The PHCL release from the two formulations exhibited a zero-order release and the mechanism of PHCL release seem to be dissolution controlled. Therefore the MC- and HPMC-containing PF127 formulations of PHCL were selected for further in-vivo studies. The miotic response to equal administered volumes of an isotonic solution of 1% PHCL and the MC-containing PF127 formulation of PHCL was measured. The PF127 formulation showed a statistically significant increase in the duration of miosis and the intensity of the miotic response (i.e., higher ocular bioavailability) compared to the same instilled volume of the Isotonic PHCL solution. In the next phase of this work pilocarpine-incorporated polyisobutylcyanoacrylate nanocapsules (PIBCA-NC) were prepared, characterized in vitro and evaluated in vivo in albino rabbit eyes. Here the PIBCA-NC of PHCL containing 1% pilocarpine, of which about 13.5% was incorporated into the nanocapsules, were administered alone or using the aforementioned MC-containing PF127 formulation with 25% PF127 and 5% MC as a vehicle. The in vivo results indicated that the PIBCA-NC dispersion of 1% pilocarpine, when administered using the MC-containing PF127 gel vehicle, significantly improved the duration and the intensity of the miotic response compared to the administration of the same volume of the PIBCA-NC dispersion of 1% pilocarpine alone. Therefore, the PF127 formulations of pilocarpine developed and evaluated thus far, offer considerable promise in terms of their potential to be used for the controlled release ocular delivery of pilocarpine.

Prodigiosins and tambjamines are natural compounds from bacterial and marine sources belonging to a family containing a common 4-methoxy-2,2'-bipyrrole core. These compounds have received a lot of interest due to their promising biological activities. Studies have suggested DNA as a potential therapeutic target for the natural prodigiosin and tambjamine due to their ability to facilitate oxidative DNA cleavage in the presence of Cu2+. Based on this we sought to study the metal binding activity of new prodigiosin and tambjamine analogues. A new prodigiosin analogue was synthesized and complexed with Cu2+. This revealed 1:1 complex formation between the tripyrrole and Cu2+ that was confirmed by mass spectra and NMR spectra analysis. In addition in situ studies also revealed that our new analogues of prodigiosin cannot bind Zn2+ when the methoxy group on ring B is replaced by an alkyl group or when one of the ring nitrogens is methylated. Our UV-Vis experiments with calf thymus DNA showed that prodigiosins and tambjamines bind DNA mainly through an external mode, suggesting that hydrogen bonding between the pyrrole ring nitrogens and the bases of DNA takes precedence over stacking interactions. For the new Cu2+ complex synthesized however, we observed spectral changes that suggest intercalation into DNA. DNA cleavage experiments revealed that the prodigiosin-Cu complex is able to convert supercoiled DNA into its linear form. The data from the gel shift assays fit well to a first-order consecutive reaction model. In addition to preformed metal complexes, we showed DNA cleavage by in situ complexation of the ligands in the presence of Cu2+. However, although we showed Zn2+ complex formation with prodigiosin analogues, in situ studies did not show induction of DNA cleavage by Zn2+ complexes under our experimental conditions.

Sildenafil citrate (SC) is a phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitor that is used to treat pulmonary hypertension (PH) in paediatric patients. The purpose of these studies was to develop a formulation and manufacture an orodispersible tablet (ODT) that can be easily administered to neonates and children with PH. The advantages of ODT dosage forms include ease of administration, rapid dissolution of the API, SC. Furthermore the dosage form can be taken without water which is beneficial to patients without immediate access to potable fluids. A simple, rapid, accurate, precise and selective reversed-phase HPLC method was developed and validated in accordance with International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) guidelines and was successfully used for the analysis of SC as raw material and in SC containing pharmaceutical dosage forms. Preformulation studies were performed on SC, alone and in combination with potential excipients that could be used to make tablets. Investigations into potential interactions between SC and the excipients were performed using Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and Infrared Spectroscopy (IR). DSC results revealed that SC was compatible with all potential excipients except mannitol and magnesium stearate. However these interactions were not observed with IR and therefore it was concluded that the interactions were induced by the high temperatures that DSC operates at. Particle size and shape was also established by use of Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and flow properties were monitored by calculating Carr’s Index (CI) and the Hausner Ratio (HR). Direct compression was used as the method of manufacture for SC tablets as this approach is simple and the most economic production approach. The powder blends were assessed for bulk and tapped density and the CI and HR were used to determine the flowability of the blends. The quality attributes of the resultant tablets that were monitored included uniformity of weight, friability, crushing strength, tensile strength, disintegration, wetting and in vitro dispersion times. Design of Experiments is an efficient statistical approach that has become a popular tool used in the pharmaceutical industry to optimize formulation compositions, as it allows for the investigation of several input factors at the same time whilst not using the tedious and traditional “ modification of one variable at a time” approach. A Central composite experimental design was chosen as the most appropriate means to optimize the formulation as it produces more accurate results as opposed to other experimental designs approaches as input factors are investigated at five different levels. Through the use of mathematical modelling, optimum concentrations of disintegrant(s) and an appropriate blending time were established. Analysis of the data from the experimental design and mathematical modelling studies reveal that no changes in disintegrant concentration or blending time altered the disintegration time of the formulation to any significant extent. This result is most likely due to the fact that the critical disintegrant concentration has been reached and increasing the disintegrant concentration further has no effect on disintegration time. It was also established that a change in the concentration of CMS and CRP altered the wetting time of the tablet significantly. Finally it was noted that there was a linear relationship between blending time and the uniformity of content of the tablets produced in these studies. The optimized product was a white tablet with a diameter of 7.31 mm with a thickness of 2.80mm.The dosage form had no visible cracks or evidence of picking or sticking. The tablet exhibits suitable friability and tensile strength while exhibiting a disintegration time of only 8s. Therefore an orodispersible tablet containing SC intended for paediatric use has been successfully developed, manufactured and optimized through the use of preformulation studies, appropriate quality control monitoring and mathematical modelling. These formulations require further optimization in respect of addition of flavours and or additional sweetening agents.

Water soluble platinum complexes are a recent area of emphasis of cisplatin chemistry. The water soluble complexes could have a reduced toxicity compared with cisplatin. Oxaliplatin, which has an oxalate leaving group, has previously been shown to have less nephro-toxicity and higher water solubility than cisplatin. [Pt(en)(oxalate)] (en = ethylenediamine) has been prepared from Pt(en)Cl2 and silver oxalate. This complex has been reacted with methionine and N-acetylmethionine at different molar ratios. At high Pt: methionine ratios, chelates with the sulfur and nitrogen atoms of the methionine are dominant; at lower Pt: methionine ratios, a bis-methionine product is formed. The en ligand is displaced by methionine but not N-acetylmethionine.

As a part of the overall program in the Grandy laboratory at Oregon Health & Science University (OHSU), studying the underlying chemical biology of methamphetamine (Meth) addiction, this dissertation reports on the development of six new thyronamine analogs which were synthesized and assayed against trace amine associated receptor 1 (TAAR1), giving preliminary results consistent with the analogs being inverse agonists. Due to highly variable TAAR1 expression levels in the assays, based on inter-assay response to control Meth stimulation as well as other possible factors, kinetic models were developed to qualitatively explain the assay results. The models set approximate limits on the analogs' binding and disassociation rates relative to those of Meth. Analysis of the assays also provides more evidence of TAAR1's basal activity. Based on the models, the conversion rate of ligand-free inactive TAAR1 to ligand-free active TAAR1 is less than 6% of the binding rate of Meth to TAAR1. The models also suggest that the inverse agonists bind to the inactive ligand-free form of TAAR1 between 10 and 100 times faster than Meth binds to the inactive ligand-free form of TAAR1. Three of the new analogs, G5-110s8, G5-112s5, and G5-114s5, bind to the ligand-free active form of TAAR1 faster than they bind to the inactive ligand-free form of TAAR1. The models do not suggest an upper limit on the binding rate of those 3 analogs to the ligand-free active form of TAAR1. A control assay lacking TAAR1 revealed an electrophysiological off-target effect caused by G5-109s8. Also, a novel synthetic route was developed for ET-92, the lead compound for this project, which reduced the number of synthetic steps from 14 to 5 and improved the overall yield from 15.3% to 18.3% (77.4 mg) with the hope that further improvements in yield are possible.

Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) influences many physiological processes, such as brain and vascular development. It is associated with several diseases including ovarian cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer, colorectal cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, multiple myeloma atherosclerotic diseases, cardiovascular diseases, pulmonary inflammatory diseases and renal diseases. LPA plasma and serum levels have been reported to be important values in diagnosing ovarian cancer and other diseases. However, the extraction and quantification of LPA in plasma are very challenging because of the low physiological concentration and similar structures of LPA to other phospholipids. Many previous studies have not described the separation of LPA from other phospholipids, which may make analyses more challenging than necessary. We developed an SPE extraction method for plasma LPA that can extract LPA at high purity. We also developed an HPLC post-column fluorescence detection method that allows the efficient quantification of LPA. These methods were used in a clinical study for ovarian cancer diagnosis to help validate LPA as a biomarker of ovarian cancer. Moreover, molecular imprinted polymers (MIPs) were designed and synthesized as material for the improved extraction of LPA. Compared to the commercially available materials, the MIP developed shows enhanced selectivity for LPA. The extraction was overall relatively more efficient and less labor-intensive.

The detection of disease and abnormal pathology by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been aided significantly by the use of gadolinium (Gd3+)-based contrast agents (CAs) over the past three decades. MRI and MRI CAs play a critical role in diagnosing tumors and diseases of the central nervous system. The agents used clinically have been shown to safely increase MRI contrast despite the toxicity of Gd3+, owing to the high kinetic and thermodynamic stability of these chelates. However, current CAs enhance contrast at a small fraction of what is theoretically possible. This leads to the necessity of introducing high CA doses in practice in order to afford sufficient contrast. Lanthanide (Ln3+) chelates based on 1,4,7,10–tetraazacyclododecane–1,4,7,10–tetraacetate (DOTA) have been shown to be particularly stable and effective. Chelates of DOTA exist in two interconverting coordination geometries which have varying water exchange rates. Researchers have envisioned a way to increase the per-dose efficacy both by control of the Gd3+–inner–sphere water exchange rate and via binding specificity (i.e. to tumors). The efficacy gains using these approaches have thus far been modest. A thorough structural characterization of europium (Eu3+) chelates of a DOTA-derivative which cannot undergo conformational exchange was carried out. These studies show that a single enantiomer of the ligand (S)–2–(4-nitrobenzyl)–1,4,7,10–tetraazacyclododecane–1,4,7,10–tetra(α–methyl)acetate (NB–DOTMA) can yield chelates which are both diastereoisomeric (previously reported) and regioisomeric (not previously speculated). Molecular mechanics simulations generated from the characterization data indicate that the nitrobenzyl (NB) substituent is oriented in different directions for the two possible regioisomers. The NB group can be chemically converted to confer macromolecular binding capability, and the orientation of the NB substituent may have a significant impact on the binding and/or relaxation behavior of a prototypical CA. The nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra of Eu–NB–DOTMA at various temperatures were compared. Unexpectedly, the chelates showed time-averaged structures which differ with a change in water exchange rate — the faster the rate, the greater the deviation from the expected structure. Consideration of the structures of Ln3+ chelates without accounting for their dynamic behavior does not yield an accurate value for the time-averaged hydration state. These observations suggest the "optimal" water exchange rate calculated using Solomon-Bloembergen-Morgan (SBM) theory may not lead to the highest-efficacy CAs. Binding and relaxometric studies of macromolecule-targeting derivatives of Gd–NB–DOTMA both by the author and in another lab showed that the coordination isomer with the slower water exchange rate should lead to more effective contrast, in direct opposition to the prevailing view of water exchange in the MRI community. Preliminary data do not indicate that regioisomeric chelates have significantly different relaxivity or macromolecular binding behavior. The ratios between regioisomeric Ln–NB–DOTMA chelates formed were shown to be dependent on the concentration and pH of the chelation reaction, but conditions were not found which led to the production of a single regioisomer. Attempts to carry out an efficient synthesis of a Ln3+ chelate with no potential for regioisomerism were unsuccessful.

Introduction: Genetic rearrangements in Ewing sarcoma, prostate, and leukemia cells result in activation of oncogenic ETS transcription factor fusions. Mithramycin (MTM) has been identified as an inhibitor of EWS-FLI1 transcription factor, a gene fusion product responsible for oncogenesis in Ewing sarcoma. Despite preclinical success, a phase I/II clinical trial testing MTM therapy in refractory Ewing sarcoma was terminated. Liver and blood toxicities resulted in dose de-escalation and sub-therapeutic exposures. However, the promise of selectively targeting oncogenic ETS transcription factors like EWS-FLI1 prompted us to undertake the discovery of more selective, less toxic analogues of MTM. MTM is a potent inhibitor of ubiquitous SP1 transcription factor, likely inducing non-specific toxicity. In collaboration with two medicinal chemistry groups, two semi-synthetic efforts were implemented to develop novel analogues of MTM. The first effort utilized the biosynthetic product mithramycin SA (MTMSA) to modify C3-side chain. The second effort utilized an oxime linker directly formed on MTM’s C3-side chain (MTM-oxime; MTMox). Here I present the pharmacological assessment of over 75 novel MTM analogues towards selectively targeting oncogenic ETS transcription factors, like EWS-FLI1, over ubiquitous transcription factors, like SP1. Methods: Novel MTM analogues were evaluated for selective cytotoxicity against ETS fusion-dependent cell lines. Selectively cytotoxic analogues were evaluated for inhibitory effects on several gene promoters in TC-32 reporter cell lines, a Ewing sarcoma cell line dependent on EWS-FLI1, transfected with luciferase reporter vector. Cloned reporter vectors incorporated NR0B1 (EWS-FLI1 binding), β-actin (SP1 binding) and CMV (non-specific) gene promoters. Furthermore, gene (mRNA) and protein expression changes of EWS-FLI1 and SP1, as well as regulated target genes, namely NR0B1, VEGFA and BCL-2 were evaluated with MTM analogue treatments. The MTM analogues with most selective activity in vitro were administered to mice by intravenous bolus dose for pharmacokinetic analysis. The MTM analogues with highest systemic exposure from each semi-synthetic effort, namely MTMSA-Trp-A10 and MTMox-24, were further evaluated. Metabolic stabilities in whole blood, plasma, and tumor cell matrices, and across multiple species were compared with MTM. Moreover, intrinsic hepatic clearances were estimated using mouse liver microsomes. Tumor and liver distributions were estimated in tumor bearing mice. Additionally, the effect of organic anionic transporter polypeptides (OATP) on distribution of MTM was investigated. Maximum tolerated doses were evaluated for lead MTM analogues, having both selective activities in vitro and high systemic exposure, compared to MTM. Complete blood cell counts and plasma alanine aminotransferase activity were measured to evaluate dose-dependent blood and liver toxicities, respectively. ETS fusion-dependent and non-dependent cell lines were implanted subcutaneously into immunocompromised mice for efficacy studies. Average tumor volumes and survival were tracked for mice receiving treatment, compared to MTM and vehicle treatment. Results: Evaluation of MTM analogues from both semi-synthetic efforts revealed that conjugation of MTM C3-side chain with tryptophan (Trp) and/or phenylalanine (Phe) improved selective cytotoxicity against ETS fusion-dependent cell lines. This was highlighted by MTMSA-Trp-A2 (also refer to as MTMSA-Phe-Trp) and MTMSA-Trp-A10 (also refer to as MTMSA-Trp-Trp), with selective indices of 19.1 and 15.6, respectively, compared to MTM (1.5). Similarly, MTMox-23 (also refer to as MTMox-Phe-Trp) and MTMox-20 (also refer to as MTMox-Trp) had selectivity indices of 4.6 and 4.5, respectively. These selectively cytotoxic MTM analogues inhibited EWS-FLI1-mediated transcription 10-fold more effectively than both non-specific CMV-mediated and SP1-mediated (via β-actin promoter) transcription in TC-32 reporter cell lines. Moreover, gene (mRNA) and protein expression of EWS-FLI1 and regulated gene, NR0B1, were inhibited with MTM analogue treatment (GI50, 6-hour) in TC-32 cells. Similarly, SP1 and target genes, VEGFA and BCL-2, gene (mRNA) and protein expressions were also inhibited with MTM analogue treatment (GI50, 6-hour) in TC-32 cells. Conjugation of Trp and/or Phe to C3-side chain of MTM increased systemic exposure in vivo. Most impressively, the addition of two Trp residues, namely MTMSA-Trp-A10 and MTMox-24 (also refer to as MTMox-Trp-Trp), resulted in systemic exposure increases of 218- and 42-fold, respectively, after intravenous (IV) bolus dose. Metabolically, tryptophan/phenylalanine conjugated MTM analogues are liable to esterase activity on carboxy-methyl functional group. Very rapid de-methylation in biological matrix was observed with MTMox-24, compared to MTMSA-Trp-A10, suggesting a regiospecific effect. However, esterase activity was limited to rodent matrices and demethylation occurred at significantly diminished rates in non-human primate and human plasma. MTM analogues were not susceptible to p450-mediated metabolism, with negligible loss in mouse liver microsome assay compared to verapamil control. MTM (1mg/kg) and MTMox-24 (6mg/kg) were detected in subcutaneously implanted (flank) LL2 tumors and liver homogenates after IV bolus dose. Interestingly, MTMSA-Trp-A10 (2mg/kg) was not. Despite a 3-fold increase in systemic exposure with rifampin oral pretreatment, an OATP inhibitor, exposure of MTM was unaffected in Oatp knockout mouse model. Exposure of MTM in liver tissue was 8.4-fold higher compared to tumor tissue with low tissue clearance. This agrees with the lack of metabolism observed in liver microsomes and may provide a mechanism for clinically observed liver toxicity. MTMSATrp-A10 had a single maximum tolerated dose (MTD) of 0.75mg/kg, compared to 1mg/kg for MTM, administered by IV bolus. In contrast, MTM-oxime analogues (MTMox-20, -23, -24 and -25) had single maximum tolerated doses of 20 – 25mg/kg. These increased tolerances are the result of additive differences in whole blood stability, cytotoxicity and systemic exposure. At a dose of 0.75mg/kg, administered every 3 days, MTMSA-Trp-A10 did not result in an efficacious result in tumor xenograft studies. These studies remain under further investigation, but the result may indicate high plasma protein binding of MTMSA-Trp-A10 and lack of free fraction available within tumor. The most selective MTM-oxime analogue in vitro, MTMox-23, significantly inhibited TC-32 (EWS-FLI1+) tumor xenograft growth (p=0.0025, day 16, one-way ANOVA multiple comparisons test) compared to MTM (p=0.1174, day 16) and extending survival for 17 days out of 48 days on study (p=0.0003, Log Rank (Mantel-Cox) single comparison test) with treatment at MTD every 3 days, compared to vehicle. Additionally, the MTM-oxime analogue with highest systemic exposure, MTMox-24, also significantly inhibited TC-32 (EWS-FLI1+) tumor xenograft growth (p=0.0003, day 21, one-way ANOVA multiple comparisons test) compared to MTM (p=0.032, day 21) and extending survival for 12 days out of 37 days on study (p=0.0004, Log Rank (Mantel-Cox) single comparison test) with treatment, compared to vehicle. Conclusion: These studies in whole highlight the importance of exposure (pharmacokinetics; PK), toxicity and efficacy (pharmacodynamics; PD) relationships. The cytotoxicity and high systemic exposure of MTMSA-Trp-A10 directly contributes to its lower tolerated dose. However, despite a similar tolerated dose to MTM, systemic exposure remains 163-fold higher at the MTD. High systemic exposure may be attributed to high plasma protein binding, but also reduces the exposure of free MTMSA-Trp-A10 within the tumor tissue, which drives the efficacious response. In contrast, the less cytotoxic and rapidly de-methylated MTM-oxime analogues allow for 25-fold higher tolerances in mice. This unique metabolism and clearance may prevent exposures required to induced systemic blood and liver toxicities induced by MTM. Moreover, at these highly tolerated doses, the initial systemic exposure at MTD is highest among analogues tested, which resulted in an efficacious response with MTMox-23 and MTMox-24 treatment in tumor xenograft models. It remains to be determined if these PK/PD relationships can be reproduced in additional animal models, including human, without inducing toxicity. Nonetheless, these initial studies in mice demonstrate that a more selective, more tolerated analogue of MTM has potential for clinical success in treating ETS fusion-dependent tumors.

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Akron, Dept. of Biomedical Engineering, 2008.
"August, 2008." Title from electronic thesis title page (viewed 12/9/2009) Advisor, Stephanie T. Lopina; Committee members, Amy Milsted, Daniel B. Sheffer, Daniel Ely; Department Chair, Daniel B. Sheffer; Dean of the College, George K. Haritos; Dean of the Graduate School, George R. Newkome. Includes bibliographical references.

Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) are a promising class of drugs for treating genetically-defined diseases. Therapeutic siRNAs enable specific modulation of gene expression, but require chemical architecture that facilitates efficient in vivodelivery. siRNAs are informational drugs, therefore specificity for a target gene is defined by nucleotide sequence. Thus, developing a chemical scaffold that efficiently delivers siRNA to a particular tissue provides an opportunity to target any disease-associated gene in that tissue. The goal of this project was to develop a chemical scaffold that supports efficient siRNA delivery to the brain for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, specifically Huntington’s disease (HD). HD is an autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disorder that affects 3 out of every 100,000 people worldwide. This disorder is caused by an expansion of CAG repeats in the huntingtin gene that results in significant atrophy in the striatum and cortex of the brain. Silencing of the huntingtin gene is considered a viable treatment option for HD. This project: 1) identified a hyper-functional sequence for siRNA targeting the huntingtin gene, 2) developed a fully chemically modified architecture for the siRNA sequence, and 3) identified a new structure for siRNA central nervous system (CNS) delivery—Divalent-siRNA (Di-siRNA). Di-siRNAs, which are composed of two fully chemically-stabilized, phosphorothioate-containing siRNAs connected by a linker, support potent and sustained gene modulation in the CNS of mice and non-human primates. In mice, Di-siRNAs induced potent silencing of huntingtin mRNA and protein throughout the brain one month after a single intracerebroventricular injection. Silencing persisted for at least six months, with the degree of gene silencing correlating to guide strand tissue accumulation levels. In Cynomolgus macaques, a bolus injection exhibited significant distribution and robust silencing throughout the brain and spinal cord without detectable toxicity. This new siRNA scaffold opens the CNS for RNAi-based gene modulation, creating a path towards developing treatments for genetically-defined neurological disorders.

The goal of this project is to develop the strategies necessary to synthesize the rubromycin class of natural products. Synthesis of fully functionalized isocoumarin and naphthoquinone moieties of rubromycin and related compounds are reported. The isocoumarin is formed by a modified condensation reaction of diethyl bromomalonate with a substituted phthalaldehydic acid. The naphthoquinone system is assembled from readily available 2-bromo-5,7,8-trimethoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone that is oxygenated in a copper-catalyzed, addition-elimination reaction with methanol to yield the intermediate 2,5,7,8-tetramethoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone, which is also easily converted to the natural products mompain and 2,7-dimethoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone. A model for the spiroketal core of the rubromycins is also discussed. Multiple coupling strategies of the isocoumarin and naphthoquinone fragments are also discussed. This thesis represents the founding work for this project in the Behar group.

This work presents research toward the total synthesis of the promising antibiotic lactonamycin and related polyketides specifically, a scalable, inexpensive, and universal process to access this family of natural products. Lactonamycin exhibits a wide range of promising biological activity. Most notable among these is the potent activity displayed against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus. Lactonamycin and each of the aforementioned structurally related polyketide natural products serve as good targets for synthetic efforts, particularly lactonamycin. Further impetus for total synthesis is provided by the interesting structural features of these related polyketides and the synthetic challenges associated with these features. The structure of lactonamycin contains several unique connectivities including a novel hexacyclic ring structure distinguished by a densely oxygenated DEF-ring system with three contiguous quaternary stereogenic centers. An approach to lactonamycin and its related polyketides has been developed, in particular two methodologies: (1) the tandem conjugate addition-Dieckmann condensation and (2) a quinone nitrile-oxide cycloaddition. These methods have allowed a unified approach to this class of biologically active natural products. The synthesis of the ABCD-ring system of lactonamycin has been accomplished in eleven steps by utilizing a novel tandem cyanide conjugate addition/Dieckmann condensation as a key step. This powerful annulation reaction was developed in a model system prior to application to the synthesis of the ABCD-rings of lactonamycin. Flexibility was observed in the nucleophile used to initiate the cyclization, holding promise for an application to the related polyketides tetracenomycin C, elloramycin, saintopin, saintopin E. This methodology has also allowed for a formal synthesis of tetracenomycin A2. Model studies on the highly oxygenated DEF-ring system were conducted. A high yielding, regioselective dipolar cycloaddition of a hydroxymethyl-substituted naphthoquinone with an appropriately substituted nitrile oxide was developed and implemented in the full ABCD-ring system of lactonamycin, providing rapid entry to an isoxazole intermediate possessing virtually all of the atoms necessary to construct the skeleton of lactonmycin. Diastereoselective installation of a final tertiary hydroxyl remained after [3+2] cycloaddition. Several methods geared toward solving this challenging synthetic problem are presented to better understand how it may be overcome. This dissertation describes a plan and progress toward lactonamycin that has allowed for the synthesis of a unique substrate where these methodologies may be utilized to complete the first total synthesis of lactonamycin.

Emerging contaminants (EC) are unregulated substances that have entered the environment for as long as they have been produced through human activities. Within the ECs family, pharmaceuticals and personal-care products (PPCPs) is a class of the most common pollutants employed in everyday urban activities. Current regulatory approaches are inadequate to address these contaminants and the presence of such chemicals in the aquatic environment and their potential deleterious effects has received an increasing attention from the public and scientific community. Influent and effluent wastewater from Daspoort Waste Water Treatment Works (WWTW), which treats wastewater from the central Pretoria area, were sampled and analysed from January to December 2015 for pharmaceuticals and personal care products by gas chromatography time of flight mass spectrometry (GC/TOF-MS). Thirteen pharmaceuticals were selected for focused study in wastewater which include; (acetaminophen, bisphenol A, carbamazepine, diclofenac, 17α-estradiol, 17β-estradiol, estriol, famciclovir, fenoprofen, ibuprofen, primidone, progesterone and testosterone) based on the criteria of their prescription volumes in both private and public health sector in South Africa. The development of a sensitive and reliable analytical method for the simultaneous determination of PPCPs in aquatic samples was carried out; using a combined solid-phase extraction (SPE) isolation and clean-up, followed by derivatization prior to GC/TOFMS determination. A seven points concentration levels linear calibration curve with correlation coefficient (R2) ranged from 0.9988 to 0.9999 was obtained. The limits of detection (LOD) and the limit of quantification (LOQ) ranged from 0.01-0.27 μg L-1 and 0.03-0.91 μg L-1 respectively for target PPCPs. Repeatability studies gave % RSD within 3.41 – 11.72 % for peak area. The % RSD values for reproducibility studies were 2.88 – 9.91% for peak area over the three concentrations (ibuprofen: 0.4, 2 and 8 μg L-1) evaluated during 5 days. These results indicated that the proposed method has excellent precision as evidenced by very stable peak area for the analytes. The recovery testing carried out, exhibited recoveries ranging from at least 82-115% and 81-115 % in tap water and Milli-Q water respectively, with % RSD less than 12%, showing that the overall PPCPs determination method including the extraction procedure was a repeatable method.. The method was applied to target PPCPs from Daspoort influent and effluent wastewater in Pretoria (South Africa). Natural hormones and antiviral drug were not detected in all the samples analysed by this method. Bisphenol A, acetaminophen, carbamazepine, ibuprofen and diclofenac were detected at low concentrations, ranging from 0.052-135.42 μg L-1 in wastewater. The level of bisphenol A, primidone, carbamazepine, ibuprofen and diclofenac in effluent wastewater were found to be lower in comparison to the influent. Several other non-target compounds, such as benzophenone, caffeine, methocarbamol, efavirenz, atrazine, dioxaphetyl butyrate, nevirapine, androsta-1,4-diene-3,17-dione, cis-tramadol, batyl alcohol, paredrine, 7-acetyl-6-ethyl-1,1,4,4-tetramethyltetralin, propylparaben, eugenol, cholesterol, stigmasterol, guaifenesin, benzyl benzoate, 4-tert-octylphenol, diethyltoluamide, dicyclomine, terbuthylazine, spiroxamine, bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, bumetrizole , were also detected in the wastewater sample using the developed method.
Chemistry
M. Sc. (Chemistry)

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI)
Resveratrol has been shown to inhibit cell growth and induce apoptosis, as well as augment chemotherapeutics and irradiation in multiple cancer types. However, it is unknown if resveratrol is beneficial for treating drug-resistant cancer cells. To study the effects of resveratrol in triple negative breast cancer cells that are resistant to the common cancer drug, paclitaxel, a novel paclitaxel-resistant cell line was generated from the MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell line. The resulting cell line, MDA-MB-231/PacR, exhibited a 12-fold increased resistance to paclitaxel but remained sensitive to resveratrol treatment. Resveratrol treatment reduced cell proliferation and colony formation and increased senescence and apoptosis in both the parental MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-231/PacR cell lines. Importantly, resveratrol treatment augments the effects of paclitaxel in both cell lines. The expression of the drug efflux transporter gene, MDR1, and the main metabolizing enzyme of paclitaxel gene, CYP2C8, was increased in the resistant cells. Moreover, pharmacological inhibition of the protein products of these genes, P-glycoprotein and CYP2C8, decreased paclitaxel resistance in the resistant but not in the parental cells, which suggests that the increase of these proteins are important contributors to the resistance of these cells. In conclusion, these studies imply that resveratrol, both alone and in combination with paclitaxel, may be useful in the treatment of paclitaxel-sensitive and paclitaxel-resistant triple negative breast cancers.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI)
Fatty acid synthase (FASN) is over-expressed in many cancers, and novel inhibitors that target FASN may find use in the treatment of cancers. It has been shown that orlistat, an FDA approved drug for weight loss, inhibits the thioesterase (TE) of FASN, but can be hydrolyzed by TE. To understand the mechanisms of TE action and for designing better FASN inhibitors, I examined the mechanism of orlistat hydrolysis by TE using molecular dynamics simulations. I found that the hexyl tail of orlistat undergoes a conformational transition, destabilizing a hydrogen bond that forms between orlistat and the active site histidine. A water molecule can then hydrogen bond with histidine and become activated to hydrolyze orlistat. These findings suggest that rational design of inhibitors that block hexyl tail transition may lead to a more potent TE inhibitor. To search for novel inhibitors of TE, I performed virtual DOCK screening of FDA approved drugs followed by a fluorogenic assay using recombinant TE protein and found that proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) can competitively inhibit TE. PPIs, which are used for the treatment of gastroesophageal reflux and peptic ulcers, work to decrease gastric acid production by binding irreversibly with gastric hydrogen potassium ATPase in the stomach. Recently, PPIs have been reported to reduce drug resistance in cancer cells when used in combination with chemotherapeutics, although the mechanism of resistance reduction is unknown. Further investigation showed that PPIs are able to decrease FASN activity and cancer cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner. These findings provide new evidence that FDA approved PPIs may synergistically suppress cancer cells by inhibiting TE of FASN and suggests that the use of PPIs in combinational therapies for the treatment of many types of cancer, including pancreatic cancer, warrants further investigation.